Xr-Ee-Es 2009 007

MODELING AND SIMULATION OF A HYBRID
WIND-DIESEL MICROGRID
VINCENT FRIEDEL
Master of Science Thesis in Electric Power Systems
at the School of Electrical Engineering
Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden, June 2009
In collaboration with the Georgia Institute of Technology

XR-EE-ES 2009:007
Abstract
Some communities in remote locations with high wind velocities and
an unreliable utility supply, will typically install small diesel powered
generators and wind generators to form a microgrid. Over the past
few years, microgrid projects have been developed in many parts of the
world, and commercial solutions have started to appear. Such systems
face specic design issues, especially when the wind penetration is high
enough to aect the operation of the diesel plant.
The dynamic behavior of a medium penetration hybrid microgrid is
investigated. It consists of a diesel generator set, a wind-generator and
several loads. The diesel engine drives a 62.5 kVA synchronous generator
with excitation control. The xed-speed wind turbine drives a 60 kW
cage rotor induction generator. The microgrid can be connected to the
utility grid but can also run as an isolated system. The total load of the
microgrid is about 100 kVA which varies during the day, and consists of
static and dynamic loads, including an induction motor.
The excitation controller and speed controller for the diesels synchronous
generator are designed, as well as the power control of the wind turbine,
and the controller for capacitor banks and dump load. The system is
modeled and simulated using PSCAD.
The study evaluates how the power generation is shared between the
diesel generator set and the wind generator, the voltage regulation dur-
ing load connections, and discusses the need of battery energy storage,
the system ride- through-fault capability and frequency control, partic-
ularly at times when the utility is disconnected and the microgrid is run
as an independent isolated power system. The results of several case
studies are presented.
Keywords: Power Systems, Hybrid microgrid, Wind-Diesel
system, PSCAD modeling
Acknowledgment
I wish to thank Prof. R. G. Harley for hosting my Masters Thesis work in his lab,
for his guidance and availability at every steps of this project, and for reviewing
and commenting on my nal report.
I am also thankful to all the members of the Power Electronics Lab at Georgia
Tech for welcoming and helping me, especially Yi Du who assisted my rst steps
with PSCAD.
I would like to thank Katherine Elkington from the Royal Institute of Technol-
ogy for her comments and for reviewing my report.
I am grateful for the opportunity I have been given to do this Masters Project
in two countries, between Sweden and the United States, and I wish to thank
Mehrdad Ghandhari, my examiner, as well as the Royal Institute of Technology in
Stockholm, Sweden, and the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, USA.
List of Symbols
Diesel generator set
V
b
Rated RMS Line-to-Neutral Voltage V
I
b
Rated RMS Line Current A
b
Base Electrical Frequency rad/s
H Inertia s
T
a
Armature Time constant s
X
d
D-axis synchronous reactance p.u.
X
d
D-axis transient reactance p.u.
T
do
D-axis transient open-circuit time constant s
X
d
D-axis subtransient reactance p.u.
T
do
D-axis subtransient short-circuit time constant s
X
q
Q-axis synchronous reactance p.u.
X
q
Q-axis subtransient reactance p.u.
T
qo
Q-axis subtransient open-circuit time constant s
T
E
Exciter time constant s
K
E
Exciter constant related to self-excited eld -
S
E
Exciter Saturation Function -
K
A
Voltage Regulator gain -
T
A
Voltage Regulator amplier time constant s
V
RMIN
Voltage Regulator limiter p.u.
V
RMAX
Voltage Regulator limiter p.u.
K
F
Voltage Regulator stabilizing circuit gain -
T
Fi
Voltage Regulator stabilizing circuit time constant s
1
Dead Time of the diesels speed governor s
K Actuator Gain of the diesels speed governor p.u.
2
Actuator time constant diesels speed governor s
K
d
Droop gain diesels speed governor p.u.
Lines parameters
r Line resistance p.u.
g Line shunt conductance p.u.
l Line inductance p.u.
c Line shunt capacitance p.u.
R Cable resistance /km
X Cable inductance /km
Loads parameters
P
L
Power load p.u.
Q
L
Reactive power load p.u.
U
L
Voltage magnitude p.u.
T
WaterPump
Water pump torque p.u.
im
Water pump speed p.u.
s
r
Induction machine rated slip p.u.
r
Induction machine eciency at rated load p.u.
Wind turbine parameters
J
Rotor
Rotor moment of inertia kgm
2
J
Blades
Blade moment of inertia kgm
2
J
Generator
Generator moment of inertia kgm
2
n Gearbox ratio -
P
w
Wind Turbine output power p.u.
Air density kg/m
3
U Wind speed m/s
A Swept area m
2
C
p
Power coecient p.u.
Tip-speed ratio -
Blade pitch angle. deg.
p
Motor angular position deg.
J Inertia of the blade and the motor s
B coecient of viscous friction of the pitch mechanism -
K spring constant of the pitch mechanism -
k slope of the torque/voltage curve of the pitching system -
v(t) voltage applied to the pitching motor terminals p.u.
m slope of the torque/speed curve of the pitching motor -
Q
p
pitching moment on the pitching system s
Dump loads parameters
P
Dump
Active dump load p.u.
P
Wind
Active wind power p.u.
P
DieselMIN
Minimum diesel load p.u.
P
Load
Active load demand p.u.
Utility grid connection parameters
V
HV
Voltage on the high side of the transformer p.u.
S
SC
Short-circuit power of the utility p.u.
Z
HV
Equivalent impedance on the high voltage side p.u.
V
LV
Voltage on the low side of the transformer p.u.
Z
LV
Equivalent impedance on the low voltage side p.u.
R
TR
Resistance on the low voltage side of the transformer p.u.
X
TR
Inductance on the low voltage side of the transformer p.u.
Contents
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Purpose of the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Literature review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Introduction to PSCAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 Modeling of the system 5
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Description of the Microgrid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Diesel Generator Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.1 Synchronous generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2.2 Excitation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3 Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.4 Voltage and Frequency droop control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.1 Static Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4.2 Dynamic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.5 Soft-Starter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.1 Building of the soft-starter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.2 Operating modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.6 Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6.1 Design choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6.2 Components of the wind turbine model . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.6.3 Estimation of the wind turbine inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.6.4 Aerodynamics of the wind turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6.5 Power control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.6 Wind model, gusts and turbulences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.7 Dump Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7.1 Need for a dump load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7.2 Dump load control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.8 Capacitor banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.9 Grid Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3 Simulations and Results 41
3.1 Case study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Diesel Generator Set Alone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.1 Step connection of the static loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2.2 Starting of the induction motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3 Wind turbine and Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.1 Wind Turbine Connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.2 Step connections of loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.3.3 Wind Speed steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.4 High wind with stall or pitch controlled turbines . . . . . . . 50
3.3.5 Utility disconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Wind Turbine and Diesel Generator Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.1 Wind turbine connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.2 Step connection of loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.4.3 Wind speed steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.5 Wind turbine, Diesel Generator Set and Utility . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.5.1 Utility connection and disconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.5.2 Step connection of loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6 Three-phase faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.6.1 At the diesel generator set terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.6.2 At the wind turbine terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.6.3 At the loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4 Conclusion and Future Developments 71
4.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
A PSCAD Models 73
B Particle Swarm Optimization 77
C Wind Turbine Aerodynamical Model 83
C.1 WTPerf input le example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
C.2 Polynomial regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
C.3 Fortran Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
D Capacitor Bank controller 91
Bibliography 95
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
In some remote locations, or in locations of a weak utility grid, distributed gen-
eration oers a higher reliability, by providing on-site generation from many small
energy sources. Typical distributed generation (DG) sources range from a few kilo-
watts to a few megawatts. The disadvantage of DG sources is usually their higher
costs.
Typical DG sources include hydro power, combustion engines, small wind turbines
and photovoltaic systems.
Many hybrid wind-diesel systems are in operation around the world [1], [2]. These
systems oer dierent penetration levels, with a large choice of technical solutions.
This study models a medium penetration hybrid microgrid which includes renew-
able penetration of about 50 % of the load. The wind power allows a reduction of
the diesel generator rating. Systems both with and without battery energy storage
are commercially available. Dierent options are studied to ensure that the power
quality requirements are matched, including design options in the wind turbine
power controller, the installation of capacitor banks to correct the power factor, or
dump load to ensure the power balance in the system.
1.2 Purpose of the project
This project has been carried out under the supervision of Prof. R. G. Harley, in
the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Tech-
nology, in Atlanta, USA.
The dynamic behavior of the medium penetration hybrid system in Figure 1.1 is
studied. The microgrid consists of a diesel generator set, a wind generator and sev-
eral loads. The excitation controller for the synchronous generator of the diesel, as
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1. Hybrid wind-diesel Microgrid
well as the power control of the wind turbine, are designed. The system is modeled
and simulated using PSCAD.
The study investigates how the power generation is shared between the diesel gen-
erator set and the wind generator, the voltage regulation during load connections,
and discusses the need of battery energy storage, the system ride- through-fault ca-
pability and frequency control, particularly at times when the utility is disconnected
and the microgrid is run as an independent isolated power system.
1.3 Literature review
This microgrid project deals with many aspects of power systems, including electric
machines, excitation systems, diesel engine, wind turbines, soft-starters and grid
integration, and more particularly the specic aspects of isolated hybrid micro sys-
tems. Manufacturers data often omit some parameters, which are then estimated
based on typical values. The following books and papers have served as reference
during this project.
Microgrids : Much work on isolated systems has already been reported, but it
is often case oriented, and it is dicult to import methods from one project to
another. However, a review of studies related to isolated systems with Wind
Power appears in Isolated Systems with Wind Power from the Ris National
Laboratory [2]. The most reliable systems are simple concepts, though there
is currently a tendency to include energy storage and power electronics. More
and more systems take advantage of the surplus energy using some sort of
storage such as water pumping, heating and cooling. The EU project Micro-
grids [17] proposes a benchmark low-voltage network, and discusses control
and safety methods in these systems.
2
1.4. INTRODUCTION TO PSCAD
Power systems : Andersons [3] and Kundurs [4] books have been used as
reference books in the modeling of the synchronous generator, its exciter and
speed governor. Both provided typical parameters values and design rules.
Furthermore, KTH compendiums [5], [15] and [16] gave the basis for electrical
machines and power systems analysis.
Wind power : Wind-diesel systems [26] and Wind Energy Explained [19]
present wind turbine design and a review of hybrid systems design issues.
Some of the main issues are the dump load for the surplus energy in the sys-
tem (because of a required minimum load of the diesel or a surplus of wind
energy), the need of energy storage, the possibility to start and stop the diesel
generator (continuous operation implies simplicity and reliability while inter-
mittent operation enables fuel savings) and the need to supply reactive power
when the diesel engine is stopped, since wind turbines frequently use induction
generators.
1.4 Introduction to PSCAD
PSCAD/EMTDC is an industry standard software for studying the transient be-
havior of electrical networks. EMTDC performs the electromagnetic transients cal-
culations while PSCAD provides the graphical interface.
PSCAD/EMTDC oers a large database of built-in components, and allows the
user to dene his own models, either using other built-in components or coding a
component in Fortran.
Both methods are used during this study. Some components, like the electrical
generators, are taken from the software library, while others, like the governors or
the wind turbine aerodynamical model, are user-dened.
3
Chapter 2
Modeling of the system
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Description of the Microgrid
This project investigates the dynamic behavior of a medium penetration hybrid
system or microgrid consisting of a diesel generator set, a wind generator and several
loads as shown in Figure 1.1. The diesel engine drives a 62.5 kVA synchronous
generator with excitation control. The wind turbine drives a 60 kW cage rotor
induction generator. The microgrid can be connected to the utility grid but can
also run as an isolated system. The total load of the microgrid is about 100 kVA
which varies during the day, and consists of dierent kinds of loads, including an
induction motor.
2.1.2 Methodology
Each component of the microgrid is modeled and tested independently in PSCAD.
The rst component to be modeled is the diesel generator set. This rst modeling,
and the rst simulations with the diesel generator set connected to an innite bus
are used as an introduction to PSCAD. Then, the loads and the lines are modeled
by themselves while rst connected to the innite bus, and then to the diesel gen-
erator set in order to check if the voltage requirements are fullled. A wind turbine
aerodynamical model is then designed based on the blade performance in order to
get closer to real small turbine performances.
Finally, the whole microgrid is assembled. A series of case studies are carried out,
including the dierent operation modes of the system, i.e. diesel generator set only,
wind turbine and diesel generator set, wind turbine and utility grid, and nally
wind turbine, diesel generator set and utility grid. The results of these simulations
are presented in Chapter 3.
5
CHAPTER 2. MODELING OF THE SYSTEM
2.2 Diesel Generator Set
The modeling of the diesel generator set is the rst step of the microgrid modeling.
The purpose of this section is to introduce the diesel generator set and describe the
modeling of each of its components.
The diesel generator set has to be controlled to maintain the frequency and voltage
of the system while the microgrid is running in islanded mode. In this mode, it is
also the only reactive power supplying component, as the wind turbine, modeled
with a squirrel-cage induction generator, always consumes reactive power.
Figure 2.1. Principal components and controls of a diesel generator set.
A diesel generator set comprises a diesel combustion engine driving a synchronous
electrical generator and are often used when a general power grid is not available,
as a primary or auxiliary power supply [6, 19]. The model of the diesel generator set
in PSCAD thus comprises a 62.5 kVA synchronous generator, an excitation system,
and a diesel engine plus governor. The diesel engine and the synchronous generator
rotate at the same mechanical speed, i.e. 1800 rpm, and no gearbox is used.
2.2.1 Synchronous generator
PSCAD Model
Synchronous machines are common in Power Systems. They are used to convert
the mechanical energy supplied by the prime mover into electrical power. Their
electrical frequency is proportional to the mechanical speed and is obtained by:
e
=
p
2
m
(2.1)
where p is the number of poles,
e
and
m
respectively the generators electrical
and mechanical speeds.
The dynamic model of the synchronous generator is designed using the built-in
synchronous generator in PSCAD. As usual, the mathematical description of the
6
2.2. DIESEL GENERATOR SET
Table 2.1. Dynamic parameters for the Marathon make synchronous generator.
Parameters Value Unit Description
V
b
277.1 V Rated RMS Line-to-Neutral Voltage
I
b
75.2 A Rated RMS Line Current
b
377 rad/s Base Electrical Frequency
H 0.09 s Inertia
T
a
0.01 s Armature Time constant
X
d
1.875 p.u. d-axis synchronous reactance
X
d
0.132 p.u. d-axis transient reactance
T
do
0.68 s d-axis transient open-circuit time constant
X
d
0.11 p.u. d-axis subtransient reactance
T
do
0.0096 s d-axis subtransient short-circuit time constant
X
q
1.875 p.u. q-axis synchronous reactance
X
q
0.228 p.u. q-axis subtransient reactance
T
qo
0.0658 s q-axis subtransient open-circuit time constant
generator is based on Parks transformation [3], thus projecting the variables on the
direct axis of the eld winding, on the quadrature axis and the neutral axis. Among
other dynamic calculations, the model determines the torque and uses the dynamic
equation:
=
T
m
T
e
D
J
(2.2)
where T
m
is the mechanical torque, T
e
is the electrical torque, D is the damping of
the generator, is the shaft speed and J the inertia.
The modeling is based on a Marathon 62.5 kVA, 4 pole machine. Its mechani-
cal speed is 1800 rpm at 60 Hz and its parameters are shown in Table 2.1. It is
more convenient to normalize all the parameters, and that is done as described in
[3], and explained below. Note that the rated power and voltage of the synchronous
generator are chosen as the base values for the whole microgrid.
S
1
b
= Generator rated per-phase VA = 20.8 kVA (2.3)
U
LN
b
= Generator rated line-to neutral RMS terminal voltage = 277.1 V (2.4)
I
b
=
S
1
b
U
LN
b
= 75.2 A (2.5)
Z
b
=
U
LN
b
I
b
= 3.69 (2.6)
Some of the generators parameters have not been provided by the manufacturer:
X
q
, T
do
, X
q
and T
qo
. These parameters are therefore estimated according to [7]:
7
X
q
X
d
(2.7)
as the generator is modeled as a round rotor generator,
T
do
=
X
d
T
d
T
d
X
d
T
do
(2.8)
X
q
= 2X
2
X
d
(2.9)
where X
2
is the negative sequence reactance, and X
2
= 0.169 p.u., and
T
q
T
d
(2.10)
T
qo
=
X
q
X
q
T
q
(2.11)
The inertia in seconds H is derived from the given inertia J in kgm
2
according to
Equation 2.12
H =
1
2
J
2
RVA
(2.12)
where is the shaft speed in rad/s and RVA the synchronous generator rated rating
in VA.
2.2.2 Excitation system
The generator excitation system consists of an exciter and a voltage regulator, shown
in Figure 2.2. A comprehensive description of such systems is provided in [3] and [4].
The purpose of this part of the modeling is to simulate a typical manufacturers
exciter. Though simple excitations systems may be implemented in the PSCAD
system, the IEEE provides standardized mathematical models which are designed
to represent specic commercial systems. These systems, intended for use in com-
puter simulations, are described by Kundur in [4] and have been updated by the
IEEE in [8].
The exciter used with the chosen Marathon generator is a rotating and brushless
system. It is modeled as the AC5A transfer function presented in Figure 2.2. The
transfer function can be divided in two parts: the exciter itself and the voltage
regulator. The automatic voltage regulator (AVR) contains a stabilizing feedback
loop. The description of each symbol and typical values given by the IEEE are
shown in Table 2.2.
As the manufacturers parameters are not available, most of these typical values
from Table 2.2 are used. However the stabilizing feedback loop is optimized, as
described by Kundur [4]. Note that according to [9], a critical selection of these
8
Figure 2.2. Transfer function of the AC5A excitation system model [8].
Table 2.2. Excitation system model parameters.
Symbol Typical Value Description
T
E
0.8 Exciter time constant
K
E
1.0 Exciter constant related to self-excited eld
S
E
- Exciter Saturation Function
S
E
(E
FD1
) 0.86 -
E
FD1
5.6 -
S
E
(E
FD2
) 0.5 -
E
FD2
4.4 -
K
A
400 Regulator gain
T
A
0.2 Regulator amplier time constant
V
RMIN
-7.3 -
V
RMAX
7.3 -
K
F
0.03 Regulator stabilizing circuit gain
T
F1
, T
F2
, T
F3
1.0, 0, 0 Regulator stabilizing circuit time constant
parameters is not necessary, and that stability can be maintained over a signicant
range even when using the typical parameter values. However, the exciter has to
be optimized to provide an acceptable steady-state error.
The optimized system, consisting of the synchronous generator set and its exci-
tation system, is tested by applying a step increase in the voltage reference V
REF
.
The stabilizing components K
F
, T
F1
, T
F2
and T
F3
are optimized using the Particle
Swarm Optimization algorithm, which is described in Appendix B. The simulation
is computed by PSCAD, and the PSO algorithm is implemented in MATLAB. The
cost function C
F
of this PSO is a linear function of the overshoot (OS), the settling
time (ST) at a 2% band and the integral of the dierence between the reference and
terminal voltages (Ar), as dened in Equation 2.13 and Figure 2.3.
9
Figure 2.3. Overshoot, settling time and area of voltage response.
C
F
= a OS +b ST +C Ar (2.13)
0 1 2 3 4 5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
Time (s)
T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
p
u
)
Figure 2.4. Response of the 10 particles at the sixth iteration of the PSO algorithm.
Each particle has four elements: K
F
, T
F1
, T
F2
, T
F3
. The initial values of the
elements and thus the positions of these particles in the solution space have a strong
inuence on the rapidity of convergence and on the ability to nd the optimal
solution. Nevertheless, these positions are chosen randomly within given limits.
Table 2.3 shows the initial range and nal optimal value of each element when all
the particles have converged to the same solution. The disturbance is a step change
from 0.9 to 1.0 p.u. in the reference voltage. Figure 2.4 shows the response to the
reference voltage V
ref
step change at the sixth iteration of the algorithm, when the
response is assumed satisfactory. The nal parameters in Table 2.3 are selected.
10
Table 2.3. Initial range and nal position of the particles.
Symbol Initial Range Final Value
K
F
[0;0.1] 0.0683
T
F1
[0.5;1.5] 1.1413
T
F2
[0;1.0] 0.4645
T
F3
[0;0.5] 0.0037
2.2.3 Diesel Engine
Internal Combustion Engine Model
The diesel engine is used to provide power to the generator and control the speed
of its shaft by means of a governor. An Internal Combustion Engine is available in
PSCAD Library. It takes the shaft speed and the fuel intake as inputs, and supplies
a mechanical torque T
m
as output. This built-in model is customizable, and the
parameters of Table 2.4 are entered. The diesel engine rating is sized about 25
percent larger than the electrical generator in order to support overload. It rotates
at the same speed as the synchronous generator, and thus no gearbox is needed.
The PSCAD model also allows to study the eect of misred cylinders, but this
option is not used in this study.
Table 2.4. Input parameters of the Internal Combustion Engine.
Parameter Value Unit
Engine rating 80 MW
Machine rating 62.5 MVA
Engine speed rating 1800 rpm
Number of cylinders 6 -
Number of engine cycles Four stroke -
Misred cylinders No -
PSCAD generates the output mechanical torque from an input cylinder torque/angle
curve. Many diesel engines operate on a four-stroke cycle, and the typical torque-
angle characteristic curve is presented in a shape as seen in Figure 2.5, [10]. This
curve data is entered into the PSCAD model. The four events during this cycle are
the intake, compression, power and exhaust strokes. During intake and exhaust,
the torque production is negligible compared to the compression and power strokes.
During compression, the torque is negative to increase the gas pressure, and the
explosion occurs during the power stroke. It corresponds to the highest peak in
Figure 2.5.
Each cylinder oers the same torque-angle characteristic, with an angle dierence
between cylinders depending on the number of cylinders. Finally, the total diesel
11
400 200 0 200 400
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
Angle (deg.)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
p
.
u
.
)
Figure 2.5. Produced torque of one cylinder in a cycle.
engine torque is equal to the sum of these individual torques. Because of the sharp-
ness of the power stroke, the resultant torque of a four-cylinder engine contains
signicant ripples. These ripples are somewhat smoothed by the engine inertia, but
are still large enough to cause vibrations. A ywheel may be added in order to in-
crease the smoothing, or an engine with more cylinders oering a smoother torque
may be used. In this study, a six-cylinder engine is chosen.
The torsional eect on the shaft is neglected, as the system is small and mechanically
sti. A rigid body diesel generator set is therefore assumed and the inertia of the
engine is added to the synchronous generators inertia. A typical inertia of a 75 kW
diesel engine is about 1 kgm
2
, which gives H 0.24 s. Adding a ywheel, a typical
inertia for the whole diesel engine and generator set is about 0.5 s [11].
Speed Controller
The diesel engine speed is controlled by its fuel intake which in turn is regulated
by a governor as shown in Figure 2.6. In this microgrid, the speed controller of the
diesel generator set is responsible for the system frequency whenever the microgrid
is run isolated from the main grid.
Typical diesel governors are described in [11] and [12]. The dead time represents
the time required for each cylinder to receive the fuel, since not all the cylinders
are in that position at the same time. The actuator, which produces the fuel ow,
is also represented by a time constant
2
. A limiter is added, as the fuel intake
can not be negative, and also has a maximum value. The mechanical torque T
m
is
transmitted to the synchronous generator. The typical values used in the modeling
12
Figure 2.6. Governor model in PSCAD.
are shown in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5. Typical governor data [11], and Proportional controller gain.
Parameter Value Unit Description
0.02 s Dead Time
K 1.0 p.u. Actuator Gain
2
0.05 s Actuator time constant
K
d
50.0 p.u. Droop gain
2.2.4 Voltage and Frequency droop control
The diesel engine is responsible for the systems frequency and voltage control. The
main task of these controllers is to take care of the active and reactive power sharing
between the sources, using only the local information (voltage and frequency).
This is done using an active power versus frequency droop, and a reactive power
versus voltage droop [13, 14], as illustrated in Figure 2.7. Using this solution,
the micro-source only uses the local information to adjust its power production.
This facilitates the expansion of the microgrid, since each micro-source controls its
production based on the local voltage and frequency. The power setpoint of each
individual source can be set independently, and each micro-source has the ability
to autonomously adjust its output following a disturbance.
In Figure 2.7, the frequency versus active power and voltage versus reactive power
droops are illustrated. The power setpoints P
0
and Q
0
determine the power gener-
ation at nominal frequency f
0
and voltage V
0
, when the microgrid is connected to
the utility grid.
13
Figure 2.7. Frequency vs active power and voltage vs reactive power droops.
Proportional-integral (PI) or proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controllers are
typically used in governors of diesel generator sets. However, these controllers do
not allow a speed droop, and a proportional (P) controller is used. The frequency is
allowed to change as a function of the active power demand. When the active power
demand increases, the diesel generator set speed decreases slightly and reaches a
new steady-state. When the active power demand decreases, less kinetic energy is
extracted from the generator, which accelerates.
In this microgrid, the gain of the governor is designed to allow a 4 % frequency
droop, as shown in Figure 2.7. This droop is responsible for the active power
sharing between the active power sources, which are the wind turbine, the diesel
generator set and the utility grid.
If the voltage regulator of the diesel generator set does not allow a voltage droop,
then there might be reactive power circulating between the utility grid and the
diesel generator set at times when both are connected to the microgrid. This re-
active power ow would be caused by the dierence between the reference voltage
of the synchronous generators exciter and the actual terminal voltage set by the
utility grid.
A voltage vs reactive power droop is implemented as follows [13]: the voltage refer-
ence is set to be a function of the reactive power output from the diesel generator,
within an acceptable percentage (in this study 2 %) around 1.0 p.u.
14
2.3. LINES
2.3 Lines
In a power system, electric energy is transmitted from power plants to consumers
via lines, cables and transformers [16]. A classical single-phase model of a symmet-
rical three-phase line is shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8. Model of a line with distributed quantities.
This power line model has a resistance r and an inductance l, corresponding respec-
tively to the resistivity of the conductor and the magnetic ux surrounding the line.
The shunt parameters (shunt conductance g and shunt capacitance c) represent the
leakage currents in the insulation and the electric eld between the lines. These
quantities are distributed along the line.
Figure 2.9. Lumped parameters of a medium line model.
For short and medium length lines, this distribution along the line can however be
neglected, and it is possible to calculate the total resistance and inductance of the
line as lumped parameters. The -equivalent model of a medium line with lumped
parameters is shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.10. Lumped parameters of a short line model.
In a microgrid, the lines are usually tens to hundreds of meters, and thus the short
line model shown in Figure 2.10 is used, neglecting the shunt capacitance, as shown
in [18].
15
In this study, the wind turbine is assumed to be 500 m far from the substation,
the diesel generator set connected through a 20 m cable, and the loads are 250 m
from the substation. The voltage level throughout the microgrid is 480 V.
Typical impedance values of overhead, twisted, Al. cables are shown in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6. Impedance data for low-voltage cables [18]
Cable type R (/km) X (/km)
Twisted cable, 450 mm
2
, Al 0.642 0.100
2
, Al 0.255 0.096
2
, Al 0.208 0.096
Note that cables oering lower resistance may be more expensive, but they may
limit losses and voltage drop. Here, 4120 mm
2
cables are chosen, and the cable
parameters are:
Table 2.7. Impedance of the systems cables.
Cable Length (m) R (p.u.) X (p.u.)
Wind Turbine to Substation 500 0.0346 0.013
Diesel Generator Set to Substation 20 0.0014 0.00052
Substation to loads 250 0.0173 0.0065
16
2.4. LOADS
2.4 Loads
The microgrid in Figure 1.1 includes three dierent kinds of loads: lighting or
heating, computers and a water pump. These loads are represented respectively
by a constant impedance characteristic, a constant power characteristic, and an
induction motor. Each type of load amounts to about 33 kVA, and may vary during
the day. The total maximum load is thus 100 kVA. The load modeling is further
detailed in this section and is divided between static (lighting/heating, computers)
and dynamic loads (induction machine).
2.4.1 Static Loads
A description of static load models is given in Chapter 3 of [15]. A general repre-
sentation of static loads, taking the frequency dependency into account is given.
P
L
= P
ZIP
+P
L0
_
2
k=1
k
p
k
_
U
L
U
L0
_
m
p
k
(1 +D
p
k
f)
_
(2.14)
Q
L
= Q
ZIP
+Q
L0
_
2
k=1
k
q
k
_
U
L
U
L0
_
m
q
k
(1 +D
q
k
f)
_
(2.15)
Simpler models are also widely used, as the exponential and the so-called ZIP mod-
els, composed of constant impedance (Z), constant current (I) and constant power
(P). The exponential models for active and reactive loads are expressed as:
P
L
= P
EXP
= P
L0
_
U
L
U
L0
_
mp
and Q
L
= Q
EXP
= Q
L0
_
U
L
U
L0
_
mq
(2.16)
The exponents mp and mq are the parameters of this model, and can be set as
follows:
mp = mq = 0 : constant power characteristic
mp = mq = 1 : constant current characteristic
mp = mq = 2 : constant impedance characteristic
The static loads of the microgrid are represented using the exponential model of
Equations 2.16. Both the constant power and the constant impedance are repre-
sented with a 0.9 power factor. Note that other loads such as a dump load may be
added, when the wind power exceeds the load demand.
Among the loads in the system, the computers are likely to have the tightest volt-
age variation tolerance. The Information Technology Industry Council (ITIC) gives
voltage sag tolerance of typical computers in the ITIC Curve shown in Figure 2.11.
The voltage of the microgrid will thus have to obey these clearing times, which are
summarized in Table 2.8, and this table will be taken as reference especially when
the microgrid is islanded.
17
Figure 2.11. ITIC curve.
Table 2.8. Voltage tolerance for computers.
Voltage Sag Duration (s)
V < 0.7 0.02
0.7 < V < 0.8 0.5
0.8 < V < 0.95 10
1.1 < V < 1.2 0.5
1.2 < V < 1.4 0.03
1.4 < V 0.01
2.4.2 Dynamic Load
The dynamic load is a 34 kW induction motor, which drives a water pump. A
squirrel-cage rotor model is used, and its parameters are entered in PSCAD using
the so-called EMTP Type 40 format, in which the parameters are entered based on
the steady state torque-slip curve, as shown in Table 2.9. The water pump impeller
is a square-law device and its torque T
Waterpump
is proportional to the square of its
speed
im
, such that
T
Waterpump
= C
2
im
(2.17)
where the parameter C is tuned so that the motor reaches full torque at rated slip.
The motor rated slip is s
r
= 0.233 p.u., and its eciency at full load is
r
= 0.92.
18
2.4. LOADS
Thus, C can be calculated as follows:
C =
1
(1 s
r
)
2

1
r
=
1
(1 0.0233)
2

1
0.92
= 1.14 (2.18)
Table 2.9. Induction machine parameters.
Parameter Unit Description
Rated Power kW 34
Rated RMS Voltage V 277
Rated speed rpm 1758
Eciency % 92
Power Factor - 0.82
Locked Rotor current p.u. 6.887
Starting Torque p.u. 2.5043
Break down Torque p.u. 2.9217
19
2.5 Soft-Starter
2.5.1 Building of the soft-starter
Although the use of power electronics is preferably avoided because of their cost
or harmonics they introduce, soft-starters may be used to reduce the voltage drop
along the supply feeder during induction machines starting. In the present system,
soft-starters may be required to start the water pump, or during the connection of
the wind turbine [28]. These applications are discussed later in this report.
A soft-starter is implemented by 6 thyristors installed in an anti-parallel cong-
uration, as shown in Figure 2.12. Its control circuit is shown in Figure 2.13. A
snubber RC-circuit limits the rate of change of the voltage across each thyristor.
Figure 2.12. Model of a soft-starter in PSCAD.
Here a simple current limiting soft-starter is modeled. The ring angles are con-
trolled in order to limit the voltage drop. In Figure 2.12, Ea2 refers to the voltage of
phase a and its zero-crossings are taken as reference to calculate the angle at which
the forward thyristor in phase a is triggered. The reverse and forward thyristors
triggerings have a phase dierence of 180 degrees, and forward thyristor triggerings
are separated by 120 degrees.
Figure 2.14 shows the control signals determining the ring angle for Ia, governing
the forward thyristor on phase a. Dierent control methods may be implemented
to limit the starting current. Here the ring angle is simply decreased linearly with
20
2.5. SOFT-STARTER
Figure 2.13. Control circuit of the soft-starter.
time, and the slope of this decrease is tuned to minimize the voltage drop at the
motor terminals.
Figure 2.14. Control signal of the soft-starter.
2.5.2 Operating modes
Depending on the ring angle, four operating modes may take place [28]:
Open circuit. When the ring angle is greater than 150 degrees, the thyristors
will not conduct when they are triggered, and thus the soft-starter appears as
an open-circuit.
If the ring angle is decreased, the soft-starter enters a mode where either two
or none of the thyristors are conducting.
21
If the ring angle is further decreased, it increases the conduction interval,
and either 3 or 2 thyristors are conducting.
If the conduction interval is extended further (i.e. the ring angle is de-
creased), the soft-starter will not change the voltage and will transmit all the
energy.
These operating modes are illustrated in Figure 2.15, showing the current Ia in the
forward thyristor in phase a.
16.075 16.08 16.085 16.09 16.095
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Time (s)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
p
u
)
(a) Firing angle: 150 degrees
18.485 18.49 18.495 18.5 18.505 18.51
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
Time (s)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
p
u
)
(b) Firing angle: 135 degrees
23.94 23.95 23.96 23.97 23.98
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
Time (s)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
p
u
)
(c) Firing angle: 90 degrees
31.45 31.46 31.47 31.48
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
Time (s)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
p
u
)
(d) Firing angle: 0 degree
Figure 2.15. Current waveform in phase a for dierent ring angles.
22
2.6. WIND TURBINE
2.6 Wind Turbine
2.6.1 Design choices
The wind turbine chosen in the microgrid of Figure 1.1 is a 60 kW xed-speed
turbine driving a cage-rotor induction generator. In this section, dierent aspects
of wind turbines are discussed.
Induction generator
The electrical generator converts mechanical power into electrical power. Dierent
kinds of generators may be used for wind turbines. Some small turbines use DC
generators, but the most common types are synchronous and induction generators.
Induction generators have usually a simple construction, and are relatively cheaper.
They also simplify the connection and disconnection from the grid. Dierent types
of induction generators are used, such as a cage rotor type, a wound rotor with
variable rotor resistance type, or a doubly fed slip ring type.
However, when induction generators are used in small or isolated electrical networks,
special measures must be taken in order to supply reactive power or maintain the
voltage stability.
Figure 2.16. EW50 50 kW wind turbine [23]
Operating scheme
Wind turbines with induction generators may operate at a nearly constant rotor
speed or at variable speed. In both cases, below rated wind speed, the goal is to
maximize the energy production, while power has to be limited above rated speed.
However, variable speed turbines require the use of power electronics, which in-
creases the cost, and may introduce harmonics in the system. In this study, a
23
constant speed turbine is chosen. Both a stall-regulated and a pitch-controlled tur-
bines are modeled.
The blades of a stall-regulated wind turbine are designed to intrinsically regulate
the wind power production. They are optimized so that their eciency drops at
higher wind speeds.
In the case of a pitch-controlled turbine, the blade angle can be controlled. Be-
low rated wind speed, the blade angle is kept constant and aims to maximize the
power production. Once rated wind speed is reached, this blade angle is increased
in order to limit the aerodynamical torque.
Both a stall-regulated and a pitch-controlled model are simulated in PSCAD, and
these are discussed later in the report.
Starting of wind turbines
There are mainly two methods to start a xed-speed wind turbine. The rst one is
to run its generator as a motor until rated speed is reached, and then it switches to
generator mode. The second one is to release the brakes and let the aerodynamical
force accelerate the rotor, until its speed approaches the rated speed, and then
connect the generator to the grid. Connection methods have been described in [27].
2.6.2 Components of the wind turbine model
In PSCAD, the wind turbine model consists of an electrical machine, a wind source
and a turbine aerodynamical model. In this study, the electrical generator is a cage
rotor induction machine. The aerodynamical model takes the blades performance
into account, and if pitch-control is used, another block is used to model the blade
pitch control. The gearbox is not represented in PSCAD, and all the parameters
have either to be transferred to the high-speed side or to be calculated in the per-
unit system.
The induction generators modeling is based on manufacturers data, like the water
pump induction machine described in Section 2.4.2. Its parameters are detailed in
Table 2.10, and its torque speed curve is shown in Figure 2.17.
The wind turbine used in the microgrid is a 60 kW turbine. Since the goal here is
to build a realistic model, the goal is to approach the data given by manufacturers.
Two turbines giving a good amount of information have been found. The rst one
is a WES 80 kW turbine [22]. It is a 2-blade, variable-speed turbine with a rotor
diameter of 18m, and its output power is regulated both by a power electronic con-
verter and pitch angle. The second one is a EW 50 kW [23], 3 blade, stall-regulated
turbine with a rotor diameter of 15 m. Both oer similar per-unit power curves,
24
2.6. WIND TURBINE
0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3600
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
Speed (rpm)
T
o
r
q
u
e

(
p
u
)
Figure 2.17. Torque-Speed Curve of the induction machine.
with a cut-in speed (at which the wind turbine starts to generate power) of about
4 m/s, rated wind speed (when it reaches its rated power) of 13 m/s and cut-out
speed (at which it is disconnected from the system) of 25 m/s. Both turbines use a
gearbox, oering ratios from 20 to 28. The development of the wind turbine aero-
dynamical model is detailed in Section 2.6.4.
The pitch controller which regulates the wind turbines power and the wind source
are explained in Section 2.6.5 and Section 2.6.6.
Table 2.10. Wind turbine induction generator parameters.
Parameter Unit Description
Rated Power kW 60
Rated RMS Voltage V 277
Rated speed rpm 1758
Power Factor - 0.88
Locked Rotor current p.u. 6.6783
Starting Torque p.u. 2.4
Break down Torque p.u. 2.6
Inertia kgm
2
0.52
2.6.3 Estimation of the wind turbine inertia
The inertia time constant has a strong impact on the transients of wind turbines.
However, this parameter is typically not reported by manufacturers, and an estima-
tion is necessary. Examples of inertia time constants are [29, 30] 3.5 s for a 150 kW
turbine, 4.64 s and 5.19 s respectively for a GE 1.5 MW and a GE 3.6 MW turbine.
25
In this study the induction generator inertia is known, and a simplied model of
the rotor is analyzed in order to estimate the mass distribution along the blades
and calculate the inertia. Note that the gearbox does not appear in PSCAD, and
all values have either to be transferred to the high-speed side or to be directly cal-
culated in the per-unit system.
The WES80 inertia will serve as model, since the manufacturer provides a fair
amount of informations. This turbine has 2 blades. The gear ratio is 20, the gener-
ator rotates at 1800 rpm, and the blades rotate at 90 rpm. The total rotor diameter
is 18 m, and each blade is 7.8 m long. The rotor without the blades has a diameter
of 2.4 m. Each blade weighs 86 kg, and the total rotor weighs is about 900 kg.
This rotor is illustrated in Figure 2.18.
Figure 2.18. Rotor model
The generators inertia is known, equal to 0.52 kgm
2
and its rotor weighs about
100 kg [24]. The generator rotor is considered as the only part of this system ro-
tating at 1800 rpm. So the group consisting of the blades and the rotor hub weighs
900 100 = 800 kg and is rotating at 90 rpm.
The rotor is approximated by a homogeneous cylinder with a 2.4 m diameter. Ac-
cording to the previous estimations, it weighs 800 (2 86) = 628 kg and its inertia
is calculated as
J
cyl
=
1
2
M R
2
=
1
2
628 1.2
2
= 452 kg m
2
(2.19)
26
2.6. WIND TURBINE
Mass distribution and inertia of the blades
The blade chord varies from 500 mm at the tip to 625 mm near the center of
inertia. A much simplied model of the blade is used, considering that the chord
varies linearly (Figure 2.19) and the weight is uniform along the blades. In that
case, the blade density is calculated as
Surface
=
86 2
7.8 (0.625 + 0.5)
= 19.6 kg/m
2
(2.20)
Figure 2.19. Blade model.
Then, the weight w of a section at a distance r from the bottom of the blade and
of length r is estimated as
w(r, r) =
Surface
r Chord(r) = 19.6 r
_
0.625
r
7.8
0.125
_
(2.21)
Finally, the inertia of each blade is expressed as
J
1Blade
=
_
7.8
0
(r, r) (r + 1.2)
2
(2.22)
J
1Blade
= 19.6
_
0.016
4
r
4
+
0.5865
3
r
3
+
1.4779
2
r
2
+ 0.9r
_
7.8
0
(2.23)
J
1Blade
= 2547 kg m
2
J
2Blades
= 2 J
1Blade
= 5094 kg m
2
(2.24)
Calculation of the total wind turbine inertia
To summarize, there are three components in this simplied system. Two of them
are rotating at 90 rpm and their inertia is J
Rotor
= 452 kgm
2
and J
Blades
=
5094 kgm
2
respectively. The induction generator is rotating at 1800 rpm and
its inertia is J
Generator
= 0.52 kgm
2
. Seen from the high speed side, the equivalent
moment of inertia of this system is
J
total
=
J
Rotor
+J
Blades
n
2
+J
Generator
(2.25)
where n is the gearbox ratio.
27
J
total
=
452 + 5094
20
2
+ 0.52 = 14.38 kg m
2
(2.26)
Finally, the inertia time constant of the whole system is
H =
1
2
J
total
2
RVA
=
1
2
14.38
_
18002
60
_
2
80000
= 3.19 s (2.27)
where RVA is the rated power of the turbine, and is the shaft speed.
The value 3.2 s will be used in the study.
2.6.4 Aerodynamics of the wind turbine
PSCAD built-in model
Figure 2.20. Power Curves: PSCAD model (squares) and actual turbine
The prebuilt wind governor in PSCAD oers two models, one suitable for horizontal-
axis turbines with two blades (called MOD 5), and the other one for horizontal-axis
turbines with three blades (MOD 2), based on two papers in IEEE Transactions on
Power Apparatus and Systems. Some parameters can be set: the generator rated
power, the machine angular speed, rotor radius, air density, gear box eciency and
the gear ratio.
The rst test is to plot the power curve (Figure 2.20) of the PSCAD model in order
to validate the aerodynamic model, before studying the dynamics of the system and
optimizing the pitch-controller.
User-dened aerodynamical model
Since the power curve of the PSCAD model does not match the selected model, a
second aerodynamical model is developed. This work is based on Chapter 3 of [19].
The output power from a wind turbine is given by Equation 2.28.
28
2.6. WIND TURBINE
P
w
=
1
2
U
3
AC
p
(, ) (2.28)
where P
w
is the output power in kW, is the air density in kg/m
3
, U the wind
speed in m/s, A the swept area in m
2
, C
p
the power coecient in p.u., the blade
pitch angle in degrees, and the tip-speed ratio dened as
=
R
U
(2.29)
where is the rotor rotational speed, U is the wind speed and R is the rotor radius.
The National Renewable Energy Laboratory website [25] provides dierent codes
helping to predict rotor performances and the C
p
values are found from WTPerf.
This software simulates the blades performance based on many input parameters
like the number of blades, rotor radius, hub height, blade chord and twist distribu-
tions. An example of a WTPerf input le is shown in Annex C.1.
The goal is to approach an actual turbines performance. This is done by tuning
the blade chord and twist and testing the blades performance thanks to WTPerf.
The optimal chord distribution is given by the equation [20]
C(r) =
1
n

8
9 C
L
2R
1
opt
_
2
opt
(
r
R
)
2
+
4
9
(2.30)
where C
L
is the lift coecient in p.u., R the rotor radius in m,
opt
the design
tip-speed ratio and n the number of blades.
For small tip-speed ratios, a large number of blades is usually recommended (8
to 24 blades for a tip-speed ratio equal to 1). For ratios larger than 4, 1 to 3 blades
are recommended.
The optimal twist angle distribution can also be determined as (see [19])
= arctan
_
2
3
r
R
_
(2.31)
For example, the parameters in Table 2.11 are obtained for a 3-blade turbine, with
a 7.5 m rotor radius, and a tip-speed ratio equal to 6.5.
The optimal distributions given by Equation 2.30 and Equation 2.31 are approx-
imated by linear segments to be entered as input in WTPerf. The software then
calculates the power coecients for dierent tip-speed ratios. Figure 2.21 shows
C
p
(, ) curves for dierent blade pitch angles. Note that the highest eciencies
are obtained with the smallest angles in Figure 2.21.
29
Table 2.11. Optimal chord and twist angles.
r/R Twist Angle (deg.) Chord (m)
0.1 45.73 3.23
0.2 27.15 2.06
0.3 18.87 1.46
0.4 14.38 1.12
0.5 11.59 0.91
0.6 9.70 0.76
0.7 8.34 0.65
0.8 7.31 0.57
0.9 6.50 0.51
1.0 5.86 0.46
Figure 2.21. Curves of power coecient Cp(, ) versus tip-speed ratio, computed
with WTPerf
WTPerf provides a table of discrete values of C
p
for dierent values of the wind
speed and the blade angle. However, an approximating function is required to build
the model in PSCAD. A two-dimensional polynomial regression (approximation)
is computed (see the MATLAB code in Appendix C.2) as seen in Figure 2.22 and
nally the power coecient as a function of the tip-speed ratio and the pitch
angle is obtained and used to build the aerodynamical model in PSCAD.
Final model
This aerodynamic model of the wind turbine is based on the same principles as the
prebuilt model in PSCAD. It calculates the output torque and power transmitted
to the electrical generator based on the wind speed U
wind
, the shaft speed and
the blade angle .
30
2.6. WIND TURBINE
Figure 2.22. Polynomial regression of the power coecient function, computed with
MATLAB
First, the tip-speed ratio is calculated based on the rotor radius R, the shaft
angular velocity and the wind speed U
wind
:
=
R
U
wind
(2.32)
Then the Power coecient is estimated based on the polynomial approximation
P(, ) previously explained:
C
p
= P(, ) (2.33)
The wind power in the swept area is
P
Wind
=
1
2
AU
3
(2.34)
The wind mechanical power generated by the wind turbine is calculated as
P
m
= C
p
P
Wind
(2.35)
Finally, the mechanical torque transmitted to the induction generator is
T
m
=
P
m
(2.36)
Two models are built: a stall-regulated turbine, taking the Power curve of EW50
as reference (see Figure 2.23), and a pitch controlled turbine, taking the WES80
power curve as reference (see Figure 2.24).
31
Figure 2.23. Power curve of the stall regulated turbine, model (squares) and refer-
ence
Figure 2.24. Power curve of the pitch controlled turbine, model (squares) and
reference
2.6.5 Power control
Stall control
In the case of a stall regulated turbine, the blades are designed to reduce their own
eciency in high winds. The blades have a xed pitch, and no power controller is
required.
Pitch control
The pitch controller is of paramount importance in a pitch-controlled constant-speed
wind turbine. The design of the pitch actuator is based on the proposed system
in [19], which gives the transfer function of a simple pitch mechanism driven by an
AC motor. It includes moments from spring and viscous frictions. The dierential
equation for this system is
32
2.6. WIND TURBINE
J

p
+B

p
+K
p
= kv(t) +m

p
+Q
p
(2.37)
where
p
is the angular position of the motor in degrees, J is the inertia of the
blade and the motor in seconds, B is the coecient of viscous friction, K is the
spring constant, k is the slope of the torque/voltage curve for the motor mechanism
system, v(t) is the voltage applied to the motor terminals in p.u., m is the slope
of the torque/speed curve and Q
p
is a pitching moment due to aerodynamic forces
that disturb the system.
The dierential equation leads to the following transfer function:
p
s =
1
Js
2
+ (B m)s +K
(K
p,ref
(s) +Q
p
(s)) (2.38)
Reference [19] gives typical values for the parameters. J =
1
16
s, B m =
1
4
and
K = 1.
One of the main limitations of such pitch controlled turbines is the fact that the
pitch mechanism is very slow. A rate limiter has thus been added, limiting the
blade angle rate change to 5 deg/s as in [31]. Finally, the blade angle itself is
limited between 1 and 25 degrees to replicate the models performance.
Figure 2.25. Pitch mechanism and pitch controller in PSCAD.
Typical pitch controllers are of the PI or PID type. Both are evaluated and op-
timized using Particle Swarm Optimization, and a PID is nally selected as it
increases the systems responsiveness, and its stability, especially in higher winds.
Using Particle Swarm Optimization, the power output response to a wind speed
step is optimized. The optimized parameters are the PID parameters: the propor-
tional gain K
p
, the integral time constant T
i
and the derivative time constant T
d
.
Starting ranges and nal values are shown in Table 2.12. Figure 2.26 shows the
response to a wind speed step after the tenth iteration of the algorithm. In that
case, the rst overshoot remains high in any case, as a result of the slow response
of the pitch mechanism.
33
Figure 2.26. Response of the particles to a wind speed step.
Table 2.12. PID parameters optimized with PSO.
Parameter Initial range Final values
K
p
[0 ; 60] 13.0382
T
i
[0 ; 1.0] 0.0536
T
d
[0 ; 1.0] 0.6132
Because of the rate change limiter, the rst overshoot is not avoidable, even once it
has been optimized. Such a typical pitch actuator does not provide a fast enough
response to smooth the wind turbine output power, and as a result the pitch-
controlled turbine is very sensitive to gusts.
2.6.6 Wind model, gusts and turbulences
The variations of the wind speed over time are divided into four categories: inter-
annual, annual, diurnal and short-term. Inter-annual variations requires a long-term
study. Annual and diurnal are useful for steady-state studies, as well as to design
the wind turbine. In this study, the variations of wind direction and yaw control
will not be studied. However, it will focus on short-term wind speed variations, i.e.
variations shorter than 10 minutes. These variations include gusts and turbulences.
Turbulences refer to short-term variations from less than 1 second to 10 minutes.
The turbulence can be studied as a stochastic phenomenon. As seen in [19], by
convention in wind engineering, a mean wind speed U as well as a standard deviation
U
are determined over periods of 10 minutes. The turbulence intensity TI is given
by:
TI =

U
U
(2.39)
where U is the mean wind speed in meters per second and the standard deviation
U
is calculated as
34
2.6. WIND TURBINE
U
=
1
N
s
1

i=1
N
s
(u
i
U)
2
(2.40)
where N
s
is the number of taken measures and u
i
is the instantaneous wind speed
at the ith measure, in m/s.
The standard deviation
U
is usually between 0.1 and 0.4. The highest turbu-
lences occur at lowest wind speeds. As an example, if the mean wind speed is 10.4
meters per second, then the standard deviation is about 1.63 meter per second.
The probability density function is best described by a Gaussian probability den-
sity function. PSCAD oers a wind model, with gusts and noise. As shown in
Figure 2.28, two of these models are connected in series, in order to introduce gusts
of dierent magnitudes and frequencies. The curve in Figure 2.27 is obtained.
Figure 2.27. Wind turbulences.
Figure 2.28. Wind Model in PSCAD.
35
2.7 Dump Load
2.7.1 Need for a dump load
The need for dump load arises with the presence of a wind turbine. It is needed
only if:
There is no connection to the grid to export the excess power generated in
the microgrid.
There is no pitch control or power electronic control to limit the wind turbine
power production.
When the produced wind power exceeds the power demand in the microgrid, a
dump load needs to be connected to ensure the power balance in the system at any
time. Another way may be to control the wind power generation by pitching the
blades, but this is not available in the case of a stall-regulated turbine. Thus, all
the available wind power is typically generated and has to be consumed.
2.7.2 Dump load control
The role of the dump loads is to consume the excess power at times when wind
power exceeds the load demand. A second role may also be to ensure that the
diesel engine is running at a sucient load level, to optimize its fuel consumption.
Note that the diesel generator set cannot be stopped since it regulates the voltage
and frequency in the microgrid.
The maximum amount of dump load that may be required in this microgrid corre-
sponds to the time when the wind turbine is running at full capacity, and no load
is connected. Under such conditions, the required dump load is
P
DumpMAX
= P
WindMAX
+P
DieselMIN
(2.41)
where P
DieselMIN
is the minimum load of the diesel generator set.
When delivering its maximum output power, the stall-regulated wind turbine sup-
plies about 1.12 p.u. of active power. If the diesel minimum load is 0.1 p.u., then
there is a need for a dump load of at least 1.22 p.u., i.e. 76 kW. This dump load may
include air or water heating [33], an induction motor [34] or water desalinization
[35]. For example if the water pump is coupled to a reservoir, its control may work
as follows: the water pump would be started if the water level becomes low, or when
there is excess energy to consume, unless the reservoir is full.
In this study the dump load is modeled as six 0.25 p.u. xed impedance loads
with a 0.9 power factor. The output power from the wind P
Wind
and the power
36
2.8. CAPACITOR BANKS
demand P
Load
are measured, and a minimum diesel load P
DieselMIN
is set. The
required dump load is calculated as
P
Dump
= P
Wind
+P
DieselMIN
P
Load
(2.42)
If P
Dump
[0.25 i; 0.25 (i + 1)[, then i loads are connected.
2.8 Capacitor banks
Capacitor banks may be connected to keep the power factor of the diesel and util-
ity within an acceptable range. These banks supply reactive power to the system,
which is necessary especially in the Wind/Diesel mode, where the diesel generator
set supplies some reactive power, but the wind turbine uses an induction machine
which uses reactive power.
The capacitor banks are modeled as three 0.1 p.u. reactive power capacitors, which
are controlled using two integer variables: b and c.
The rst variable b represents the number of capacitor banks that are connected,
and varies as a function of the diesel generator sets power factor. A hysteresis
controller is implemented, in order to avoid the fast connection and disconnection
of the capacitor banks. When the power factor goes below pf
Low
, an additional
capacitor bank is connected, and when it reaches pf
High
power factor, one capacitor
bank is disconnected.
Figure 2.29. Hysteresis control for the capacitor banks connection
The second variable c disconnects some of the capacitor banks depending on the
reactive power delivered by the diesel generator set. This variable ensures that
there will not be reactive power owing back to the synchronous generator. The
FORTRAN Code implementing this controller is given in Appendix D.
37
2.9 Grid Integration
The utility is usually modeled as a voltage source connected to the microgrid through
an impedance and a transformer. The impedance is calculated based on the short-
circuit power level of the grid at the point of connection. The stronger the grid, the
higher the short-circuit power level.
Figure 2.30. Equivalent circuit for the utility
At the point of connection, the voltage level in the utility grid is V
HV
and the short-
circuit power level is S
SC
at the utility grid in Figure 2.30. The equivalent utility
system impedance Z
HV
referred to as the high voltage side of the transformer can
thus be calculated as
Z
HV
=
V
2
HV
S
SC
(2.43)
On the low voltage side of the transformer, this gives the following equivalent
impedance.
Z
LV
=
V
2
LV
V
2
HV
Z
HV
(2.44)
The
X
R
ratio of the system is also usually provided by the utility, and thus the
resistance and inductance are deduced as follows:
= arctan
X
R
(2.45)
R
LV
= Z
LV
cos (2.46)
X
LV
= Z
LV
sin (2.47)
Depending of how remote the microgrid is, the grid connection can be weak at the
connection point, and the short-circuit power will then be lower. Dierent short-
circuit impedances are listed in Table 2.13, corresponding to dierent short-circuit
power level, with
X
R
= 3, at V
LV
= 480 V. The base power is 62.5 kVA and the base
voltage is 480 V.
38
2.9. GRID INTEGRATION
Table 2.13. Short-circuit impedance value at dierent grid capacities.
Short-Circuit Power (kVA) Resistance (p.u.) Inductance (p.u.)
20,000 0.0010 0.0030
10,000 0.0020 0.0059
5,000 0.0039 0.0118
1,000 0.0197 0.0592
500 0.0395 0.1185
Typical transformer data are given in [32], and the ohmic impedances on the low
voltage side are determined as
R
TR
=
%R
100
_
(V
LV
)
2
RVA
_
(2.48)
X
TR
=
%X
100
_
(V
LV
)
2
RVA
_
(2.49)
where RVA is the transformer volt ampere rating. With a 4160-480Y, 500 kVA
transformer, with R = 2% and X = 6% [32], the impedances R
TR
and X
TR
are
0.0025 p.u. and 0.0075 p.u. respectively.
39
Chapter 3
Simulations and Results
3.1 Case study
This microgrid oers four modes of operation, which have been simulated indepen-
dently using the previously detailed model. Both normal operations and faulted
conditions are simulated.
Diesel generator set running alone. When the wind speed is too low, or
when the wind turbine is under maintenance and the microgrid is isolated from
the utility grid, the diesel generator set is the only generator available and is
not able to supply the maximum power demanded by the microgrid. However
usual diesel generator sets can be over loaded with 25% for long periods of
time. In this scenario the connection of each load is simulated, especially the
starting of the induction motor, with and without a soft-starter.
Utility grid and Wind turbine. When the utility grid is available, the
diesel generator may be stopped in order to save fuel. In that case, the
frequency and voltage are set by the utility grid. The case without wind
power is not studied. The scenarios to be evaluated are the wind turbine
connection and the connection of loads.
Diesel generator set and Wind turbine. When the wind speed is su-
cient, the wind turbine is connected to the system, which runs in Wind-diesel
mode. The wind turbine reduces the diesel load, but also provides the lacking
power at times when the power demand exceeds that of the diesel generator
set. In that case, the wind turbine connection is simulated, as well as the
connection of the loads. The dump load and capacitor banks controls are also
studied.
Utility grid, Diesel generator set and Wind turbine. This last case is
not economically ecient, but may be useful if a critical load is connected, and
the connection to the utility is not reliable. If a fault occurs at the utility grid
in the previous case (Utility + Wind), then the grid connection is interrupted
41
CHAPTER 3. SIMULATIONS AND RESULTS
and the diesel generator is started. Then, if the utility connection comes back,
these three systems (Utility, Wind and Diesel) have to run together and oer
a stable system. This case is one reason why the diesel generator set voltage
regulator needs to allow a voltage droop.
Short-circuit faults. Three-phase short-circuit faults are simulated, at dif-
ferent locations in the microgrid, at the loads, at the diesel generator set ter-
minal and at the wind turbine terminal respectively. These faults are cleared
after 150 ms, and the systems voltage and frequency recovery patterns are
evaluated.
Note that the results earlier than the dashed line in the simulation represent the
initialization transients in PSCAD and should be ignored. In the initial state at
t = 0 s, the components of the system are not synchronized, and this causes large
transients during the initialization, in the rst seconds after the simulation starts.
42
3.2. DIESEL GENERATOR SET ALONE
3.2 Diesel Generator Set Alone
When the utility grid is disconnected and the wind turbine is not running, then the
diesel generator set supplies all the load demand. In this operating mode, there is
no need for dump load or capacitor banks. However, the diesel generator set has
not been sized to supply the maximum load demand, and it can only supply 2/3 of
the maximum load. In this study, load step changes are simulated. In reality, the
load changes would be smoother.
3.2.1 Step connection of the static loads
Figure 3.1. Active and Reactive power during load connection.
First, all the static loads are disconnected. A 0.5 p.u. constant impedance (lighting)
is connected at t = 6.0 s and disconnected at t = 21.0 s. The 0.5 p.u. constant
power (computers) is connected and disconnected respectively at t = 11.0 s and
t = 16.0 s. The active and reactive powers are shown in Figure 3.1.
According to the frequency droop control, the frequency is supposed to be 1.02 p.u.
at no load, and 0.985 p.u. at full active load. At no-load, the frequency is thus
expected to be 61.2 Hz, and to drop to 61.20.035 60 = 59.1 Hz at full active load.
The actual frequency droop response of the diesels governor is shown in Figure 3.2.
After a rst transient during the initialization of the PSCAD simulation, the sys-
tem reaches an initial steady-state. At no-load, the systems frequency is 61.2 Hz,
and it drops to 59.3 Hz when both loads are connected, which amounts to 0.9 p.u.
43
Figure 3.2. Voltage and Frequency at the substation.
active load. The voltage variations do not exceed the computer tolerance, and the
steady-state voltage at the loads is kept within 5 % around the nominal value.
3.2.2 Starting of the induction motor
The starting of an induction motor is supposed to be the heaviest load the microgrid
will be subject to. In this microgrid, a relatively large motor amounting to half of
the diesel generator rating is simulated. It drives a water pump as explained in
Section 2.4.2. The induction motor with his shaft load is started directly on-line at
t = 16.0 s and disconnected at t = 35.0 s, and the large transients measured at the
substation in Figure 1.1 are shown in Figure 3.3.
The impact of a direct on-line start is severe on the microgrids voltage. This volt-
age drop does not match the computer voltages requirement, and the induction
motor therefore has to be started by another method. The soft-starter explained in
Section 2.5 is added and its starting impact on the systems voltage and frequency
is shown in Figure 3.4.
Once the induction motor has reached its rated speed, the soft-starter is bypassed
(here at t = 30.0 s). The speed and current of the induction motor during direct
starting and soft-starting are shown respectively in Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6. The
peak current of 4 p.u. at t = 24 s in Figure 3.6 depends on the ramp time of the
44
Figure 3.3. Voltage and frequency at direct online starting of the induction motor.
Figure 3.4. Soft-starting of the induction motor.
thyristor trigger angles in the soft-starter. A slower ramp time will yield a lower
peak value.
45
Figure 3.5. Induction motor speed during direct- (above) and soft- (below) starting.
46
Figure 3.6. Induction motor current during direct- (above) and soft- (below) start-
ing.
47
3.3 Wind turbine and Utility
In this section, the wind turbine is connected to the utility grid. The diesel generator
set is not running.
3.3.1 Wind Turbine Connection
During its starting process, the wind turbine is accelerated by the wind until the
induction motor approaches its rated speed. The connection occurs once the in-
duction motor approaches its rated speed. When the microgrid is connected to the
utility grid, the main criteria during the connection of the wind turbine is the grid
code. The voltage maximal drop during the connection is typically required to be
less than 4% [27]. This voltage change depends mostly on the grids short circuit
capacity. If the microgrid is connected to a weak utility grid, then a soft-starter
may be required for the induction generator. In this mode, the grid codes have to
be studied further, depending on the national regulations.
3.3.2 Step connections of loads
Figure 3.7. Active and Reactive power produced by the wind and the utility, con-
sumed by the load.
The mean wind speed is kept constant (though it includes gusts and turbulences),
and each load is connected respectively at t = 6 s (constant power), t = 11 s (con-
stant impedance) and t = 16 s (soft-starting of the induction motor), as shown in
Figure 3.7. In this mode, the power balance is ensured by the utility grid, which
48
3.3. WIND TURBINE AND UTILITY
Figure 3.8. Voltage and Frequency during loads connection.
provides the dierence between wind generation and load demand. The wind tur-
bine supplies active power to the micro grid, and consumes reactive power, which
implies that the wind turbine reactive power is negative in Figure 3.7. At no-load,
all the wind power is transmitted to the utility grid. At t = 6 s, the constant power
load is connected, amounting to about 0.5 p.u., the wind power is consumed by the
load, and the utility grid starts to supply the dierence between active and reactive
power. Only one capacitor bank is connected since the reactive power level is low.
At t = 11 s, the constant impedance amounting to 0.5 p.u. is connected. Since the
wind power is constant, the utility grid power increases and one additional capacitor
bank is connected to correct the power factor. At t = 16 s, the induction motor
is started using its soft-starter. During its acceleration, it consumes rst more re-
active power, and one capacitor bank is thus connected (at t = 18.0 s). Once it
has reached its rated speed, this capacitor bank is disconnected (at t = 29 s). The
connection of a capacitor bank supplies reactive power to the system. This in turn
decreases the utility reactive power supply. When a capacitor bank is disconnected,
the utility reactive power supply increases. When there is excess active power in
the microgrid (when the wind power exceeds the demand), it may be sold to the
utility.
The voltage and frequency are regulated by the utility, and the voltage level at
the load is kept within [0.95; 1.05] at steady-state, as shown in Figure 3.8. Note
that between 16.0 s and 30.0 s the induction motor is starting, which corresponds
49
to a transient.
3.3.3 Wind Speed steps
Figure 3.9. Active and Reactive power produced by the wind and the utility, con-
sumed by the load.
In this simulation, the load is constant, and steps in the wind speed are investigated.
At t = 0 s, the mean wind speed is 6 m/s, and it is increased step by step to 8 m/s,
10 m/s, 12 m/s, 14 m/s and 16 m/s respectively at t = 5.0 s, t = 10.0 s, t = 15.0 s,
t = 20.0 s and t = 25.0 s. The active and reactive power supplied by the wind
turbine and the utility grid and consumed by the load is shown in Figure 3.9.
At each wind speed step, the power supplied by the utility grid is reduced. The
capacitor banks are connected at t = 1.0 s and t = 10.5 s, in order to correct the
power factor in the micro-grid. The frequency and voltage are set by the utility
grid (Figure 3.10), and the wind speed steps do not cause signicant transients. As
shown in Figure 3.10, the voltage at the substation is increased at t = 10.5 s. The
frequency is constant.
3.3.4 High wind with stall or pitch controlled turbines
In this simulation, the pitch controlled and the stall regulated wind turbines are
compared. The mean wind speed is initially 14.5 m/s, and a wind speed step occurs
at t = 10.0 s from 14.5 m/s to 16.5 m/s. As shown in Figure 3.11, in the case of
the pitch controlled turbine, the pitch mechanism is continuously acting. Because
of the limited speed of response of the pitch actuator, the regulation is very slow,
50
Figure 3.10. Voltage and frequency at the substation during wind speed steps.
Figure 3.11. Active power from the wind, utility and load consumption (above) and
blade angle (below) with the pitch-controlled model.
51
Figure 3.12. Active power from the wind, utility and load consumption with the
stall-regulated model.
and the output power is nally not smoother than with stall-regulation, where the
blade angle is kept constant (Figure 3.12). As a result, the stall-regulated model is
chosen for this system.
3.3.5 Utility disconnection
If the connection to the grid is lost in this Wind-Utility mode, the diesel generator
set needs to be started, which typically takes a few seconds. During that time,
the systems frequency and voltage are not controlled, and the system collapses as
shown in Figure 3.13. In this simulation, the micro grid is running with the wind
turbine, the utility grid and 1.0 p.u. load. At t = 10.0 s, the connection to the
utility grid is lost, and the systems voltage and frequency collapse.
This problem may be solved by adding short-term energy storage to the system,
such as ywheels or battery storage, in order to maintain the frequency and the
voltage while the diesel engine is started.
52
Figure 3.13. Voltage and Frequency when the grid connection is lost at t = 10 s.
53
3.4 Wind Turbine and Diesel Generator Set
3.4.1 Wind turbine connection
In order to illustrate the impact of the wind turbine connection on the grids voltage
and to investigate if a soft-starter is needed, the stall-regulated turbine is connected
directly to the grid, and Figure 3.14 and Figure 3.15 show how the active, reactive
power, voltage and frequency of the diesel generator and wind turbine behave.
Figure 3.14. Active and reactive power, direct connection of the stall-regulated
wind turbine to the grid, with a 5.5 m/s mean wind speed.
Grid codes dier from country to country and often from site to site, but a usual
limit is a voltage drop of 4 % during the connection process [27]. These grid codes
may be studied in future work. However, in this section the microgrid is isolated
from the utility grid, and the goal is to check if the direct connection of the wind
generator, without a soft-starter, could match the computers voltage tolerance.
The connection is supposed to occur at low wind speeds, and in this simulation
the mean wind speed is 5.5 m/s. Gusts and turbulences are unavoidable, and have
been included, so the wind speed is actually varying between 5 and 6 m/s. The
turbine is connected at t = 10.0 s and disconnected at t = 20.0 s. The voltage and
frequency impact of the connection are shown in Figure 3.15. The disconnection has
an impact on the systems voltage, but does not violate the voltage sag standards.
The connections impact is heavier, because the voltage drops under 0.8 p.u. for a
period of 0.2 s, but still matches the computers voltage requirements.
54
3.4. WIND TURBINE AND DIESEL GENERATOR SET
Figure 3.15. Voltage and frequency, direct connection of the stall-regulated wind
turbine, with a 5.5 m/s mean wind speed.
Figure 3.16. Active and reactive power, direct connection of the pitch-controlled
wind turbine, with a 7.5 m/s mean wind speed.
55
Figure 3.17. Voltage and frequency, direct connection of the pitch-controlled wind
turbine, with a 7.5 m/s mean wind speed.
A common concept when the wind turbine is equipped with a pitch mechanism
(active-stall or pitch controlled turbines) is to limit the power output from the wind
during the connection process, in order to limit the impact on the microgrids volt-
age, even in higher wind speeds. This is shown in Figure 3.16 and Figure 3.17.
When the turbine is equipped with a pitch mechanism, the blade angle is controlled
to limit the wind power during the connection process. Once the turbine has been
connected to the grid, the turbine comes back to its normal operation mode, maxi-
mizing its production until it reaches its rated power. In Figure 3.16 and 3.17, the
pitch-controlled wind turbine is connected at t = 10.0 s and switched to maximum
power production at t = 15.0 s. Note that the wind speed in this simulation is higher
than in the case with the stall regulated turbine. It is disconnected at t = 25.0 s,
and even with a higher wind, the voltage sag standards are not violated.
The impact of the wind turbines connection is almost the same with the stall-
regulated or the pitch-controlled model, since the connection takes place when the
induction generator speed is close to synchronous speed.
3.4.2 Step connection of loads
This section investigates the power sharing between the diesel and the wind gener-
ator at dierent load levels, while the micro grid is isolated from the utility grid.
56
The capacitor banks and the dump load controllers behavior are studied as well.
Figure 3.18. Active power and Dump load.
The mean wind speed is kept constant, though gusts and turbulences are included
which cause wind power variations. The active and reactive power of the diesel
generator set, the wind generator and the dump load are shown in Figure 3.18 and
Figure 3.19 respectively, with the capacitor banks connecting at various times. The
system is connected at no-load at t = 0.0 s and the dump loads are connected and
consume the excess power from the wind. One capacitor bank is connected initially,
in order to correct the power factor from the diesel generator set. At t = 6.0 s, the
constant power load is connected, and as a result the dump load is disconnected. An
additional capacitor bank is connected at t = 6.0 s and quickly disconnected, which
proves that the capacitor controller still needs to be improved to avoid chattering
on and o (Figure 3.19). At t = 11.0 s, the constant impedance load is connected,
and the diesel generator set increases its generation. The diesel generator provides
the dierence between the wind power and the demand from the loads, and also
supplies the reactive power since it is the only generator able to produce reactive
power. At t = 16.0 s, the induction motor starts using its soft-starter. An addi-
tional capacitor bank is connected during the starting, and disconnected once the
rated speed is reached. The capacitor banks are connected in order to correct the
power factor, as shown in Figure 3.19.
As shown in Figure 3.20, the substation voltage is kept within the 5 % limits around
1.0 p.u. at steady-state, and within the computers requirement during transients.
57
Figure 3.19. Reactive power and capacitor banks connection, c1 c2 and c3 are the
capacitor breaker control variables, taking two values: open (1) or closed (0).
Figure 3.20. Voltage and Frequency during loads connection.
58
The frequency shown in Figure 3.20 obeys the 3.5 % frequency droop, setting the
systems frequency at 59.1 Hz when the diesel generator is supplying 1.0 p.u. active
load.
3.4.3 Wind speed steps
This section studies the power sharing between the diesel generator and the wind
generator and the dump load behavior while the stall-regulated turbine is subject
to wind speed step changes. The wind speed is initially at 6 m/s, the diesel supplies
most of the load (Figure 3.21) and sets the substation frequency to about 59.5 Hz
(Figure 3.22).
Figure 3.21. Active power production and consumption, dump load connection.
When a wind speed step occurs at t = 5.0 s, the wind turbine increases its pro-
duction, and the diesel generator set speed is increased, and its power generation is
decreased. So the frequency progressively increases, as shown in Figure 3.22. This
happens at every wind speed, at t = 10.0 s and t = 15.0 s. At t = 20.0 s, a dump
load is connected in order to ensure a minimum load of the diesel generator. At
t = 25.0 s, after the wind speed increases from 14 to 16 m/s, the wind power exceeds
the demand and the dump load is increased in order to consume this excess power.
The frequency set by the diesel generator is about 61 Hz.
Figure 3.23 shows the wind speed variation which takes gusts and turbulences into
account.
59
Figure 3.22. Substation voltage and frequency during during wind speed steps.
Figure 3.23. Wind speed during the simulation of wind speed step changes.
60
3.5. WIND TURBINE, DIESEL GENERATOR SET AND UTILITY
3.5 Wind turbine, Diesel Generator Set and Utility
3.5.1 Utility connection and disconnection
This section investigates the eect of suddenly disconnecting the utility grid and
reconnecting it without correctly synchronizing it to the diesel generator set. The
system in Figure 1.1 is started with the diesel generator set, the wind turbine and
the utility grid and all loads connected. The utility grid is suddenly disconnected
at t = 20.0 s and reconnected at t = 30.0 s. The power supplied by the utility grid,
the diesel generator set and the wind turbine are shown in Figure 3.24. The voltage
and frequency at the substation and at the loads are shown in Figure 3.25.
Figure 3.24. Active and reactive power produced by the wind and the utility,
consumed by the load.
When the system is running connected to the utility grid, before t = 10.0 s, the
frequency and the voltage are set by the utility grid, equal to about 1.0 p.u. and
60.0 Hz. When the disconnection occurs, the diesel generator increases its power
production (Figure 3.24). The voltage at the loads drops under 0.95 p.u. for about
1 s but still satises the computers voltage tolerance requirement. The frequency
after the disconnection of the utility is set by the diesels governor, and drops to
about 59.4 Hz, which corresponds to the frequency droop.
Automatic re-closure of the connection to the utility grid is commonly used, and
this causes out-of-synchronism connection at t = 30.0 s to the substation voltage
maintained by the diesel generator. When the reconnection occurs at t = 30.0 s, the
61
Figure 3.25. Voltage and Frequency during utility connection (t = 20 s) and dis-
connection (t = 30 s).
transients are much heavier than at the disconnection. The voltage drops to about
0.85 p.u., which does not violate the voltage sag standards. However, the sudden
reconnection of the utility causes severe transients in Figure 3.24. In this simulation
the voltage sag seems acceptable for the micro-grid, however the large power ows
shown in Figure 3.24 may damage the generation and distribution equipment.
3.5.2 Step connection of loads
This simulation investigates the behavior of the diesel generator voltage and its
governor when the diesel and the wind turbine are both connected to the utility
grid. As stated in Section 2.2.4, there are two sources of reactive power in this case,
and it has to be checked that the substation voltage level set by the utility grid is
accepted by the diesel voltage regulator.
In this simulation, each load is connected one after another. The mean wind speed
is kept constant. The active power and the reactive power in the system are shown
in Figure 3.26.
At t = 5.0 s, the xed power load is connected, at t = 10.0 s the constant impedance
is connected, and at t = 16.0 s, the induction motor is started, with the soft-starter.
The substation frequency and voltage are regulated by the utility grid, and the
diesel generators active and reactive power are expected to be constant, according
62
3.5. WIND TURBINE, DIESEL GENERATOR SET AND UTILITY
Figure 3.26. Active and reactive power produced by the wind and the utility,
consumed by the load.
Figure 3.27. Voltage and frequency during loads connection.
to the voltage and frequency droop controls. In Figure 3.26, it is shown that the
63
active power from the diesel generator set is constant at the connection of the loads,
while the reactive power varies. This is explained by the voltage drops at t = 5.0 s,
t = 10.0 s and the induction motor starting (Figure 3.27), which implies a variation
of the diesel generators reactive power, while the frequency is constantly kept equal
to 60 Hz.
Note that the values of the frequency and voltage droop slopes control the diesel
power production when connected to the utility grid. When the microgrid is con-
nected to the utility grid modeled as an innite bus, the voltage and the frequency
at the substation bus are almost constant, and correspond to specic points on the
frequency vs active power and voltage vs reactive power droop curves.
64
3.6. THREE-PHASE FAULTS
3.6 Three-phase faults
This section investigates if the voltage and frequency recover after specic short-
circuit faults, and if the voltage sag standards are violated. The simulations may
underline the need for a faster synchronous generators exciter.
Three short-circuit faults are simulated in this section. These faults are located
at dierent locations in the system, and are cleared by opening circuit breakers
and thus disconnecting the faulted line as well as a component of the system. One
short-circuit fault is simulated while the system is connected to the utility grid, and
the other ones are simulated in islanded mode. In these last two cases, the diesel
generator sets regulator response is of interest.
In all the faults of Section 3.6, the induction motor soft-starter is not reinserted.
3.6.1 At the diesel generator set terminal
In this section a fault is simulated at the diesel generator set connection as shown in
Figure 3.28. If a short-circuit occurs at the diesel generator set terminal while the
microgrid is running isolated from the grid, then there is no frequency or voltage
control in the system, and as a result the voltage and frequency collapse. Hence the
short-circuit is simulated at the diesel generators terminal, but with the microgrid
connected to the utility grid.
Figure 3.28. Network where the fault occurs at t = 10.0 s.
The fault occurs at t = 10.0 s and is cleared after 150 ms by opening circuit breakers
CB3 and CB4 and thus disconnecting the faulted line and the diesel generator from
the substation. The voltage at the substation and at the load recovers after 250 ms
(Figure 3.29). The voltage drops under 0.5 p.u. for about 150 ms which respects the
1547 IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power
65
Figure 3.29. Voltage and frequency response to a 3-phase short-circuit at the diesel
terminal, clearing time = 0.15 s.
Figure 3.30. Induction motor speed response to a 3-phase short-circuit at t = 10.0 s
at the diesel terminal, clearing time = 0.15 s.
Systems [36]. However, the computers may be disconnected because CB7 may trip
due to under voltage protection. The impact of this fault on the induction motor
and the wind turbine speeds is shown respectively in Figure 3.30 and Figure 3.32.
Figure 3.31 shows the current in the induction motor. In that case, the peak current
when the fault is cleared is far smaller than during the direct starting. However, the
soft-starter may be controlled to limit this current in the case of a fault, in order to
improve the systems recovery.
66
Figure 3.31. Induction motor current response to a 3-phase short-circuit at
t = 10.0 s at the diesel terminal, clearing time = 0.15 s.
Figure 3.32. Wind Turbine speed response to a 3-phase short-circuit at t = 10.0 s
at the diesel terminal, clearing time = 0.15 s.
3.6.2 At the wind turbine terminal
In this section a fault is simulated at the wind turbine connection. The system is
simulated isolated from the utility grid, as shown in Figure 3.33.
A 3-phase short-circuit fault occurs at t = 10.0 s at the wind turbine connection,
near the substation. It is cleared after 150 ms by opening CB1 and CB2 and isolating
the turbine from the system. As shown in Figure 3.34, the voltage at the substation
and at the load connection recovers after 500 ms. The frequency recovers too, but
since the wind turbine has been disconnected from the system, the diesel governor
reduces its frequency according to the frequency droop control so that the frequency
after the fault is cleared drops to about 59 Hz.
67
Figure 3.34. Voltage and frequency response to a 3-phase short-circuit at t = 10.0 s
at the wind turbine terminal, clearing time = 0.15 s.
3.6.3 At the loads
In this section, the system is running isolated from the grid, and a short-circuit
fault occurs at the load connection point as shown in Figure 3.35.
The fault occurs at t = 10.0 s. It is cleared after 150 ms by tripping CB7 and
disconnecting the faulted load, i.e. the constant power load in this case. Figure 3.36
shows the voltage at the substation bus and the load bus and frequency at the
68
substation. Both voltages recover after 750 ms, and as in the previous case, the
voltage sag duration exceeds the ITIC curves tolerance. Since the fault is cleared
by disconnecting the constant power load, the post-fault load is lower than the
pre-fault load and the substation bus frequency after the fault is clear increases
slightly.
Figure 3.36. Voltage and frequency response to a 3-phase short-circuit at the load
connection, clearing time = 0.15 s.
69
3.6.4 Conclusion
All the faults simulated in this chapter violate the voltage sag standards dened by
the ITIC curve shown in Section 2.4, stating that the load voltage should not drop
under 0.5 p.u. for more than 20 ms. Since the simulated faults are cleared after
150 ms, this requirement is not fullled.
Dierent solutions may be used to improve the systems response. Some com-
munities may simply want to add a wind turbine to their existing diesel generator
set, and replacing the diesel generator or only its exciter would imply extra costs.
However, the voltage recovery is mainly limited by the diesel generator sets exciter,
and replacing this component may allow to get a stronger and faster voltage con-
trol. The induction motors soft-starter may also be controlled in order to limit its
in-rush current after the fault, in order to reduce its load demand while the system
is recovering from the fault.
70
Chapter 4
Conclusion and Future Developments
4.1 Conclusion
The main purpose of this project is to create a model of a wind-diesel hybrid mi-
crogrid using PSCAD/EMTDC.
The diesel generator set is modeled from manufacturers and typical values, and
its speed and voltage controllers are dened to allow a frequency and a voltage
droop, which facilitates the expansion of the grid and the self-synchronization of
additional AC sources.
The wind turbine is modeled with a cage rotor induction generator and a blade
aerodynamical model is built to approach typical turbines performance. Both a
pitch-controlled xed-speed turbine and a stall regulated xed-speed turbine are
modeled, and the stall-regulated turbine is nally chosen, as it is more commonly
used by the manufacturers, may oer a longer lifetime, and does not oer larger
power variations during gusts.
The diesel generator sets voltage regulator and the wind turbine pitch-control are
optimized using Particle Swarm Optimization, however these controllers responses
are limited respectively by the synchronous generator exciter and the pitch mecha-
nism.
The induction motor load rating amounts to half of the diesel generator set, and its
starting requires a soft-starter to limit the voltage dip, so that the voltage is kept
within the computers voltage tolerance. A dump load aiming to consume the ex-
cess energy is added to the system. A controller for connecting the capacitor banks
is proposed, which aims to avoid the continuous connection and disconnection of
capacitor banks.
71
CHAPTER 4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
4.2 Future Work
Dierent aspects of a microgrid have not been studied in this work, or would require
improvements.
First, the capacitor banks may be deteriorated because of the harmonics introduced
when a soft-starter is used. It has to be checked that their current and power do not
exceed their tolerance. The capacitor banks controller may be further improved,
in order to avoid chattering on and o as in Figure 3.19 at t = 6.0 s. This may
be done by using more capacitor banks of a smaller rating, or by allowing larger
variations of the power coecient. The capacitor banks controller may also have
to be stopped when a fault occurs in the system. If this is not the case, the system
may become oscillatory and take a few more seconds to recover.
The possibility to shut-down the diesel engine when the microgrid is running as
an island requires an additional component to supply reactive power as well as to
maintain and control the frequency and the voltage in the system. This can be done
by equipping the wind turbine with another electrical machine, or adding some sort
of energy storage in the system.
The grid codes require more attention, depending on the local regulation. In this
work only an introduction to the issue of grid integration has been given, and de-
pending on the utility grid strength, some additional equipment might be required.
The induction motor soft-starter may be developed further, in order to limit its
stator current when a fault occurs in the system. The induction motor may also be
controlled as a dump load, starting water pumping in two cases: if the water level
in the water tank is low, or if there is excess energy in the microgrid.
An economical study of this system may also be carried out, in order to optimize
the steady-state load of the diesel generator set, minimize its consumption, and
optimize the use of deferrable loads such as the water pump.
72
Appendix A
PSCAD Models
All the models shown in this section are taken from the le:
\PSCAD Files\FinalMicrogrid\090406_Microgrid.psc
Figure A.1. Model for the diesel generator set.
73
APPENDIX A. PSCAD MODELS
Figure A.2. Model for the wind turbine.
74
Figure A.3. Model for the induction motor, with soft-starter.
75
APPENDIX A. PSCAD MODELS
Figure A.4. Complete Microgrid.
76
Appendix B
Particle Swarm Optimization
The algorithm
Particle swarm optimization is a stochastic optimization algorithm developed by
Dr. Eberhart and Dr. Kennedy in 1995 [37].
The system is initialized with a population of random solutions. The particles
search for optima by traveling through the problem space. Each particle keeps
track of its best solution achieved so far, saving its best cost function value as well
as its position at that solution. The particle velocity is also inuenced by the global
optimum achieved so far.
At each iteration, the cost function at each particles position is calculated and
global and local best solutions are updated. Then, each particles acceleration is
calculated, driving the particles towards their local and global best. Their velocity
is randomly weighted, and an inertia can also be added, in order to tune the velocity
at which this algorithm converges.
One of the main advantages of Particle Swarm Optimization is its ability to work
well in a variety of applications, requiring slight parameters changes.
The algorithm is detailed in Figure B.1. Dierent parameters can be personal-
ized, as a, b and c in the calculation of the cost function, which give more or less
weight to specic criteria. The inertia J appearing when updating the particles
velocity and position can be tuned as well, and its result is a quicker or slower
convergence of the algorithm.
77
APPENDIX B. PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION
Figure B.1. PSO algorithm.
MATLAB implementation
This section provides the MATLAB code implementing the particle swarm opti-
mization algorithm.
The rst code initiates the particle position and velocity.
clear all
% Initialize particle position and velocity
78
% Position limits:
Kf=0; Tf1=0; Tf2=0; Tf3=0;
Limits = [Kf,0,0.1
Tf1,0.5,1.5
Tf2,0,1.0
Tf3,0,0.5];
Npart = 10;
% Definition of particle position and velocity
for i = 1:Npart
for j = 1:4
X(i,j) = Limits(j,2) + (Limits(j,3)-Limits(j,2)) * rand();
V(i,j) = 0;
end
end
X
V
% Initialization of global and local best results
Gbest = inf;
for i = 1:Npart
Lbest(i) = inf;
end
Then the simulations are run under PSCAD, and the voltage response using each
particle is saved as a MATLAB Matrix. The following code calculates the cost
function of each result.
% Read the data file
Z6 = [F1;F2;F3;F4;F5;F6;F7;F8;F9;F10];
OStot=[];
STtot=[];
CFtot=[];
Artot=[];
for a=1:size(Z6,1)/2
Resp_sig = Z6(2*a,:);
plot(Z6(2*a-1,:),Resp_sig)
hold on
% Calculation of the cost function
% Overshoot
OS = max(Resp_sig)-1.0; % in p.u.
79
APPENDIX B. PARTICLE SWARM OPTIMIZATION
% Settling Time
step = 250; % micro second
L = 2.0/(step*10^-6);
K = length(Resp_sig);
ST=3.0;
while K >= L
if abs(Resp_sig(K)-1.0)>0.02
ST = K*step*10^-6 - 2.0;
K = 0;
else
K=K-1;
end
end
% Area
Ar = 0;
Ar = sum(abs(1.0-Resp_sig(L:length(Resp_sig))));
% Cost Function
CF = Ar/2000 + OS + 0.1*ST;
Artot = [Artot;Ar];
OStot = [OStot;OS];
STtot = [STtot;ST];
CFtot = [CFtot;CF];
end
Artot
OStot
STtot
CFtot
Finally, the local and global bests are calculated and the particles new position and
velocity are updated using the following code.
% Update the local bests and their cost
for i = 1:Npart
if CFtot(i) < Lbest(i)
Lbest(i) = CFtot(i);
for j = 1:4
Xlbest(i,j) = X(i,j);
end
end
end
80
% Update of the global best and its cost
[min_CF, min_CF_index] = min(CFtot);
if min_CF < Gbest
Gbest = min_CF;
for j=1:4
Xgbest(1,j) = X(min_CF_index,j);
end
end
% Update of the particle velocity and position
for i = 1:Npart
for j = 1:4
V(i,j) = 0.2*V(i,j) + rand()*(Xlbest(i,j)-X(i,j))
+ rand()*(Xgbest(j)-X(i,j));
X(i,j) = X(i,j) + V(i,j);
end
end
Lbest
Gbest
X
V
81
Appendix C
Wind Turbine Aerodynamical Model
C.1 WTPerf input le example
The C
p
(, ) curves used to build the aerodynamical model of the wind turbine have
been obtained with WTPerf [25], a software available on the National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL) website. Here is an example of an input le.
WT Perf Input File
Approximated 60kW turbine.
Compatible with WT Perf v3.00f
Input Conguration -
True Echo: Echo input parameters to <rootname>.ech?
False DimenInp: Turbine parameters are dimensional?
True Metric: Turbine parameters are Metric (MKS vs FPS)?
Model Conguration -
16 NumSect: Number of circumferential sectors.
5000 MaxIter: Max number of iterations for induction factor.
1.0e-6 ATol: Error tolerance for induction iteration.
1.0e-6 SWTol: Error tolerance for skewed-wake iteration.
Algorithm Conguration
False TipLoss: Use the Prandtl tip-loss model?
False HubLoss: Use the Prandtl hub-loss model?
True Swirl: Include Swirl eects?
True SkewWake: Apply skewed-wake correction?
True AdvBrake: Use the advanced brake-state model?
True IndProp: Use PROP-PC instead of PROPX induction algorithm?
False AIDrag: Use the drag term in the axial induction calculation?
False TIDrag: Use the drag term in the tangential induction calculation?
Turbine Data
2 NumBlade: Number of blades.
12 RotorRad: Rotor radius [length].
83
APPENDIX C. WIND TURBINE AERODYNAMICAL MODEL
0.2 HubRad: Hub radius [length or div by radius].
3.5 PreCone: Precone angle, positive downwind [deg].
7.0 Tilt: Shaft tilt [deg].
0.0 Yaw: Yaw error [deg].
3.0 HubHt: Hub height [length or div by radius].
10 NumSeg: Number of blade segments (entire rotor radius).
RElm Twist Chord AFle PrntElem
0.202 5.000 0.0521 1 False
0.282 4.500 0.0504 1 False
0.362 4.000 0.0496 1 False
0.442 3.600 0.0488 1 False
0.521 3.000 0.0479 1 False
0.601 2.500 0.0471 1 False
0.681 1.800 0.0454 1 False
0.761 1.100 0.0446 1 False
0.841 0.500 0.0433 1 False
0.920 0.000 0.0417 1 False
Aerodynamic Data -
1.225 Rho: Air density [mass/volume].
0.00001464 KinVisc: Kinematic air viscosity
0.143 ShearExp: Wind shear exponent (1/7 law = 0.143).
False UseCm: Are Cm data included in the airfoil tables?
1 NumAF: Number of airfoil les.
D:/WTA/UnsteadyAeroExp/s809cln.dat AFFile: List of NumAF airfoil les.
I/O Settings
False TabDel: Make output tab-delimited (xed-width otherwise).
True KFact: Output dimensional parameters in K (e.g., kN instead on N)
True WriteBED: Write out blade element data to <rootname>.bed?
False InputTSR: Input speeds as TSRs?
mps SpdUnits: Wind-speed units (mps, fps, mph).
Combined-Case Analysis -
0 NumCases: Number of cases to run. Enter zero for parametric analysis.
WS or TSR RotSpd Pitch Remove following block of lines if NumCases is zero.
Parametric Analysis (Ignored if NumCases > 0 ) -
3 ParRow: Row parameter (1-rpm, 2-pitch, 3-tsr/speed).
2 ParCol: Column parameter (1-rpm, 2-pitch, 3-tsr/speed).
1 ParTab: Table parameter (1-rpm, 2-pitch, 3-tsr/speed).
True OutPwr: Request output of rotor power?
True OutCp: Request output of Cp?
True OutTrq: Request output of shaft torque?
True OutFlp: Request output of ap bending moment?
True OutThr: Request output of rotor thrust?
1, 25, 1 PitSt, PitEnd, PitDel: First, last, delta blade pitch (deg).
10, 120, 10 OmgSt, OmgEnd, OmgDel: First, last, delta rotor speed (rpm).
84
C.2. POLYNOMIAL REGRESSION
1, 25, 1 SpdSt, SpdEnd, SpdDel: First, last, delta speeds.
C.2 Polynomial regression
MATLAB Code for the C
p
(, ) curves.
Cp{1} = Cp10; Cp{2} = Cp20; Cp{3} = Cp30; Cp{4} = Cp40; Cp{5} = Cp50;
Cp{6} = Cp60; Cp{7} = Cp70; Cp{8} = Cp80; Cp{9} = Cp90;
Cp{10} = Cp100; Cp{11} = Cp110; Cp{12} = Cp120;
for j =2:4:18
for i =2:12
% Based on i rpm
RPM = 10*i;
Radius = 9;
RotSpeed = RPM/60*2*pi;
Wspeed = 1:1:25;
lambda{i} = RotSpeed*Radius./Wspeed;
plot(lambda{i},Cp{i}(:,j));
xlabel(Speed Ratio)
ylabel(Power coefficient)
hold on
end
end
MATLAB Code for the C
p
(, ) matrix. WTPerf gives a table of C
p
as a function
of the wind speed, the rotor angular speed and the blade angle. This code calculates
the value of C
p
as a function of only and .
% loop on the pitch, to put the pitch as a variable
CpLPitch = [];
for m = 1:25
% Cp as a function of lambda, and fixed pitch
X=[];
for i = 1:12
X=[X,[lambda{i};Cp{i}(:,m+1)]];
end
% Reordering of the X matrix
for i = 1:length(X)
for j = 1:length(X)
85
if ((X(1,i)>X(1,j))&(i<j))
A=X(:,j);
X(:,j)=X(:,i);
X(:,i)=A;
end
end
end
if m==1
CpLPitch = [CpLPitch,X];
% To keep the value of tip-speed ratio in the first column
else
CpLPitch = [CpLPitch,X(2,:)];
end
end
k=1;
while CpLPitch(k,1)<25
k=k+1;
end
Cp2 = CpLPitch(1:k-1,:);
The last code computes a 2-dimensional polynomial regression of the C
p
matrix.
This is necessary to get a function of C
p
(, ), in order to be able to calculate C
p
in real time during the simulation.
% Define X, Y and and Z=f(X,Y)
Lbd = Cp2(:,1);
Pitch = 1:15;
Z = Cp2(:,2:16);
PP = polyfitweighted2(Pitch,Lbd,Z,8,ones(size(Z)));
Y1 = 1:1:25; % Lambda
X1 = 1:1:15; % Pitch Angle
Z1 = polyval2(PP,X1,Y1);
%Test de validit
for i = 1:1:25
plot(Y1,Z1(:,i),green);
ylabel(Power Coeffictient)
86
C.3. FORTRAN MODEL
xlabel(Tip-speed ratio)
hold on
end
The function polytweighted2 nds the least-square t of 2D data. It returns
the polynomial coecients corresponding to this regression. The polynom has then
been deduced thanks to the following Maxima Code. PP contains the polynomial
coecients determined earlier.
>> Vdm1: vandermonde_matrix([B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B,B]);
Vdm2: vandermonde_matrix([L,L,L,L,L,L,L,L,L]);
PP: matrix([0.12016,-0.037022,-0.32388,0.018859,0.083221,0.19029,
-5.38E-05,-0.056799,0.011277,-0.051902,-0.00079141,0.012275,
0.0028153,-0.003754,0.0080341,0.00011393,-0.0011029,-0.0012416,
0.00068157,9.65E-05,-0.00070144,-6.74E-06,4.80E-05,0.00010644,
2.81E-06,-5.91E-05,1.76E-05,3.35E-05,1.85E-07,-9.98E-07,-3.57E-06,
-1.71E-06,1.74E-06,1.44E-06,-1.16E-06,-8.04E-07,-1.95E-09,
7.83E-09,4.25E-08,3.64E-08,-9.04E-09,-2.92E-08,-8.80E-09,2.08E-08,
7.26E-09]);
Vdm3: Vdm1*transpose(Vdm2);
M: matrix([]);
for m: 1 step 1 thru 9 do
for j: 0 step 1 while j < m do
(i: m-j,
M: addcol(M,[Vdm3[j+1,i]]))$
M;
Poly: M.transpose(PP);
C.3 Fortran Model
Finally, the aerodynamical model, calculating the Output torque and power from
based on the wind speed U
wind
, the shaft speed and the blade angle , has been
implemented in the following way.
First, the tip-speed ratio is calculated based on the rotor radius R, the shaft angular
velocity and the wind speed U
wind
.
! Estimation of the Power and Torque of a stall-regulated Wind turbine
! Vincent Friedel
#LOCAL REAL GR
#LOCAL REAL R
#LOCAL REAL B
87
#LOCAL REAL Cp
#LOCAL REAL ro
#LOCAL REAL A
#LOCAL REAL Rva
#LOCAL REAL Pwind
#LOCAL REAL L
GR = 1
R = 7.8
A = 3.1415*R*R-3.1415*0.3*0.3
ro = 1.225
B = $Beta
L = $w*R/GR/$Vw
Cp = 7.8399999999999998E-10*L*L*L*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+3.1500000000000001E-9*B*L*L*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-1.1899999999999999E-7*L*L*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+1.05E-10*B*B*L*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-2.8000000000000002E-7*B*L*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+6.9E-6*L*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-6.24E-9*B*B*B*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+1.99E-7*B*B*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+8.3299999999999999E-6*B*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-2.0115000000000001E-4*L*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-4.9399999999999999E-9*B*B*B*B*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+6.1200000000000003E-7*B*B*B*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-1.56E-5*B*B*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-6.8300000000000007E-5*B*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+0.0032038*L*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+1.46E-8*B*B*B*B*B*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-5.5700000000000002E-7*B*B*B*B*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-4.6800000000000001E-6*B*B*B*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+3.1069000000000002E-4*B*B*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-6.8002000000000004E-4*B*L*L*L
Cp = Cp-0.028168*L*L*L
Cp = Cp+2.2399999999999999E-8*B*B*B*B*B*B*L*L
Cp = Cp-1.7600000000000001E-6*B*B*B*B*B*L*L
Cp = Cp+4.71E-5*B*B*B*B*L*L
Cp = Cp-4.1723999999999998E-4*B*B*B*L*L
Cp = Cp-8.1831999999999998E-4*B*B*L*L
Cp = Cp+0.0094042*B*L*L
Cp = Cp+0.12725*L*L
Cp = Cp-4.2700000000000004E-9*B*B*B*B*B*B*B*L
Cp = Cp+2.53E-7*B*B*B*B*B*B*L
Cp = Cp-4.5299999999999998E-6*B*B*B*B*B*L
Cp = Cp+3.3399999999999999E-5*B*B*B*B*L
88
C.3. FORTRAN MODEL
Cp = Cp-8.8020000000000004E-4*B*B*B*L
Cp = Cp+0.01873*B*B*L
Cp = Cp-0.093053*B*L
Cp = Cp-0.14378*L
Cp = Cp-5.4299999999999997E-9*B*B*B*B*B*B*B*B
Cp = Cp+5.9400000000000005E-7*B*B*B*B*B*B*B
Cp = Cp-2.6699999999999998E-5*B*B*B*B*B*B
Cp = Cp+6.3929999999999998E-4*B*B*B*B*B
Cp = Cp-0.0087986*B*B*B*B
Cp = Cp+0.070764*B*B*B
Cp = Cp-0.32241*B*B
Cp = Cp+0.72553*B
Cp = Cp-0.42726
Pwind = (3.1415*R*R-3.1415*0.3*0.3)/2*ro*$Vw*$Vw*$Vw/50000
$Pm = Pwind*Cp
$Tm = $Pm/$w*7.5
$Vw1 = $Vw
$w1 = $w
$Cp1 = Cp
$L1 = L
$Beta1 = B
89
Appendix D
Capacitor Bank controller
Below is shown the FORTRAN code for the capacitor banks controller.
! Capacitor banks connection control
! Vincent Friedel
#LOCAL REAL Pload
#LOCAL REAL Qload
#LOCAL REAL powfac
#LOCAL REAL b
#LOCAL REAL c
Pload = $Pld + $Pw
Qload = $Qld + $Qw
powfac = Pload / sqrt(Pload*Pload + Qload*Qload)
b = $C1i
if (b >= 3) then
if (powfac > 0.97) then
b = b - 1
end if
else if (b == 2) then
if (powfac < 0.7) then
b = b + 1
else if (powfac >= 0.975) then
b = b - 1
end if
b = b + 1
else if (powfac >= 0.98) then
b = b-1
91
APPENDIX D. CAPACITOR BANK CONTROLLER
end if
b = b + 1
end if
end if
if (b >= 3) then
$C1 = 0
$C2 = 0
$C3 = 0
$C1 = 1
$C2 = 0
$C3 = 0
else if (b ==1) then
$C1 = 1
$C2 = 1
$C3 = 0
$C1 = 1
$C2 = 1
$C3 = 1
end if
if (time < 0.5) then
$C1 = 1
$C2 = 1
$C3 = 1
b = 0
c = 0
end if
! Algorithm to switch on a number c of cap banks
c = $Bi
if (c == 0) then
if (Qload > 0.2) then
c = c + 1
end if
else if (c == 1) then
c = c + 1
else if (Qload < 0.01) then
c = c - 1
92
end if
c = c + 1
else if (Qload < 0.05) then
c = c - 1
end if
if (Qload < 0.09) then
c = c - 1
end if
end if
if (c == 0) then
$C1 = 1
$C2 = 1
$C3 = 1
$C1 = 1
$C2 = 1
$C1 = 1
end if
$A = b
$C = c
$B = powfac
93
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MODELING AND SIMULATION OF A HYBRID

In collaboration with the Georgia Institute of Technology

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