Vehicle Steering

Sebastien Feve & Alexandre Huret
Ecole Nationale dIngenieurs de Metz

Degree Project:
VEHICLE STEERING STUDY
A
B
G
D
C
V
A
V
C
V
B
V
D
I

Supervised by Dr. Harvey Lipkin
Associate professor at Georgia Institute of Technology
February 2
nd
June 25
th
Ecole Nationale dIngnieurs de Metz
CONTENTS
I THANKS..................................................................................................... 1
II INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 2
III NOTATION.............................................................................................. 3
IV SIMPLE PLANAR STUDIES, WITHOUT SLIDING......................................... 5
IV.A Hypothesis ............................................................................................................. 5
IV.B Do wheel axes have to intersect?........................................................................... 5
IV.C Three wheeler........................................................................................................ 9
IV.C.1 Figure....................................................................................................................................... 9
IV.C.2 Kinematic study ........................................................................................................................ 9
IV.C.3 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 10
IV.D Four wheeled articulated chassis........................................................................ 10
IV.D.1 Figure..................................................................................................................................... 10
IV.D.2 Kinematic study ...................................................................................................................... 11
IV.D.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 11
IV.E Four wheeled vehicle, two steering wheels ......................................................... 12
IV.E.1 Figure..................................................................................................................................... 12
IV.E.2 Kinematic study....................................................................................................................... 12
IV.E.2.a Parallel steering wheels ..................................................................................................... 12
IV.E.2.b Non parallel steering wheels.............................................................................................. 13
IV.E.3 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 13
IV.F Four wheeled vehicle with four steering wheel .................................................. 14
IV.F.1 Figure..................................................................................................................................... 14
IV.F.2 Kinematic study....................................................................................................................... 14
IV.F.2.a Parallel steering wheels ..................................................................................................... 14
IV.F.2.b Non parallel steering wheels.............................................................................................. 15
IV.F.3 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 15
V PLANAR STUDIES, WITH SLIPPING...........................................................17
V.A Motion................................................................................................................... 17
V.A.1 Hypothesis................................................................................................................................ 17
V.A.2 Figure ...................................................................................................................................... 18
V.A.3 Forces analysis......................................................................................................................... 18
V.A.3.a Forces from ground to wheels A and B: A
r
and B
r
............................................................. 18
V.A.3.b Gravity action: P
r
.............................................................................................................. 19
V.A.4 Forces equations

G G
M Forces .............................................................................. 19
V.A.5 Momentum equations

G G
...................................................................................... 20
V.A.6 Sliding...................................................................................................................................... 21
V.A.6.a Friction coefficient: f .......................................................................................................... 21
V.A.6.b Different cases of sliding for the motion equations .............................................................. 22
V.A.7 Proposal for inertia momentum calculation ............................................................................. 22
VI WORKING MODEL 3D...........................................................................24
VI.A Introduction to WM3D....................................................................................... 24
VI.A.1 What is Working Model 3D?................................................................................................... 24
VI.A.2 Operating Concept .................................................................................................................. 24
VI.B Introduction to our project using WM3D.......................................................... 25
VI.C Limits of the software ......................................................................................... 25
VI.D Four-wheeled vehicle modeling .......................................................................... 28
VI.D.1 The vehicle ............................................................................................................................. 28
VI.D.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 30
VI.E Four-wheeled suspended vehicle modeling ........................................................ 31
VI.E.1 The vehicle.............................................................................................................................. 31
VI.E.2 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 33
VI.F Conclusion about WM3D.................................................................................... 34
VI.F.1 As users of the software: ......................................................................................................... 34
VI.F.2 As engineers: .......................................................................................................................... 34
VII APPENDIXES.........................................................................................35
VII.A Useful formulas .................................................................................................. 35
VII.A.1 Rigid body velocities............................................................................................................... 35
VII.A.2 Velocity vectors composition.................................................................................................. 35
VII.A.3 Rotation vectors composition ................................................................................................. 35
VII.A.4 Acceleration vectors composition........................................................................................... 35
VII.A.5 Vector differenciation............................................................................................................ 36
VII.A.6 Inertia matrix ........................................................................................................................ 36
VII.A.7 Kinetic momentum................................................................................................................. 36
VII.A.8 Dynamic momentum.............................................................................................................. 36
VII.A.9 Acceleration........................................................................................................................... 36
VII.A.10 Other.................................................................................................................................... 36
VII.B Note about acceleration and torseur. ................................................................ 37
VII.B.1 Material and local velocities .................................................................................................. 37
VII.B.2 Material and local accelerations ............................................................................................ 37
VII.B.3 Torseur dynamique de lipkin ................................................................................................. 38
VII.C Patents research................................................................................................. 39
VII.C.1 Patent #1 ............................................................................................................................... 39
VII.C.2 Patent #2 ............................................................................................................................... 41
VII.C.3 Patent #3 ............................................................................................................................... 42
VII.C.4 Patent #4 ............................................................................................................................... 43
VII.C.5 Patent #5 ............................................................................................................................... 45
VII.C.6 Patent #6 ............................................................................................................................... 47
VII.C.7 Patent #7 ............................................................................................................................... 48
VII.C.8 Patent #8 ............................................................................................................................... 49
VIII REFERENCES.................................................................................51
Sebastien FEVE - Alexandre HURET Degree Project
- 1 -
I THANKS
The team is anxious to express its gratitude to those who made this project
possible:
Dr. Harvey LIPKIN
Associate Professor
B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D., Mechanical Engineering
University of Florida
And
Namik CIBLACK
B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D., Mechanical Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Patrice BLANCHET
B.Sc., Ph.D., Mechanical Engineering
John ALEXIOU
B.Sc., Mechanical Engineering
- 2 -
II INTRODUCTION
The Vehicle Steering Study is the project undertaken for Georgia Tech
by Sebastien Feve and Alexandre Huret, two senior students from Ecole
Nationale dIngenieurs de Metz (ENIM), a French Grande Ecole. These
two visiting scholars have to validate their degree project, under the
supervision of Dr. Harvey Lipkin, a George W. Woodruff School of
Mechanical Engineering Associate Professor, from February to July 1998.
Our study is about:
- Research of the Instant Rotation Center for wheeled vehicles.
- Analysis of the trajectory for wheeled vehicles.
- Computer simulations of wheeled vehicles motion.
The following report concerns the degree project period activities. It is
divided into three parts. First of all, we studied the references that we found
about the behavior of wheeled vehicle, to understand the problems and to
know the possible existing studies. Then, we made our mechanical analysis
of the problem (from simple through more complex studies) using equations
of dynamics. Finally we made computer simulations to compare computer
results with theoretical results, and to model more complex problems.
- 3 -
III NOTATION
y
0
O x
0
V

x
y
G
G: mass center
m: mass
: sliding angle
: rolling angle, shows the rotation along X axis
: pitching angle, shows the rotation along Y axis
: yawing (or heading) angle, shows the rotation along Z axis
: steering angle, shows the turning of steering wheels
) 2 / 1 (
A
r
: force applied to point A from solid 1 to solid 2
A
M
r
: momentum at point A
) 1 / 2 (
r
: angular velocity of solid 2 compared to solid 1
) 0 / 2 ( A
V
r
:velocity of point A belonging to solid 2, in frame R0
) 0 / 1 ( A
r
:acceleration of point A belonging to solid 1, in frame R0
In the frame R0 (Ox
0
y
0
z
0
), coordinates of point A are:
0
:
R
A
A
A
z
y
x
A
,
_

- 4 -
In the frame R0 (Ox
0
y
0
z
0
), components of A
r
are:
0 R
Az
Ay
Ax
A
,
_
r
In the frame R0 (Ox
0
y
0
z
0
), components of
) 0 / 2 ( A
V
r
are:
0 ) 0 / 2 (
) 0 / 2 (
R
Az
Ay
Ax
A
V
V
V
V
,
_
r
In R0 (Ox
0
y
0
z
0
), components of
) 0 / 2 ( A
M
r
are:
0 ) 0 / 2 (
) 0 / 2 (
R
Az
Ay
Ax
A
M
M
M
M
,
_
r
In R0 (Ox
0
y
0
z
0
), components of
) 0 / 2 (
r
are:
0 ) 0 / 2 (
) 0 / 2 (
R
z
y
x
,
_

r
Note: all components are instantaneous values (instantaneous velocity,
instantaneous angular velocity...)
From the kinematics point of view, velocities of point A in R0 (Oxyz) can be
noted as:
0 R
A
A
V

;
'
r
r
From the mechanics point of view, forces and momentum applied to point A
in R0 (Oxyz) can be noted as:
0 R A
M
A
'
r
r
Dynamic effects applied to point A in R0 (Oxyz) are:
0 R
A
A
A
m
'

r
r
where
A
r
is the total acceleration of point A. See note on page 37.
If x, y and z are the coordinates of point P in R0 (Ox
0
y
0
z
0
):
x& is the velocity of point P in R0 ) (
t
x
x
&
x& & is the acceleration of point P in R0 ) (
2
2
t
x
x
& &
- 5 -
IV SIMPLE PLANAR STUDIES, WITHO UT SLIDING
IV.A Hypothesis
Perfect Road Grip (PRG).
Planar study.
Even and horizontal surface.
Vehicles are rigid bodies.
Contacts between wheels and surface are point contacts.
All wheels have the same radius.
All links are perfect (no friction in wheel pivots).
Le vhicule volue sur une surface parfaitement plane et horizontale.
IV.B Do wheel axes have to intersect?
A demonstration follows that wheel axes have to intersect to follow the
hypothesis.
Lets consider a four wheeled vehicle. The wheel axis are (O
i
y
i
).
- 6 -
General figure:
y
0
O x
0
G
1
y
y
4
O
4
x
y
3
O
3
y
2
y
1
O
2
O
1
V
1
V
3
V
4
V
2
Wheel figure:
V
i
O
i
x
i
y
i
z
i
z
0
z
i
P
i
i
- 7 -
Notation:
R=(Gxyz)
0
:
R
z
y
x
G O
,
_
r
i i
P O r
unit vector
i
i i
V
V v
1

Demonstration:
i i i R G
i i i i R R G
i i i R O R i O
i i i i O i P
v r GO z V
P O GO V
P O V V
P O V V
i i
i i
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+
&
r
&
r
r r r r
r r r
r r r
0 ) 0 / (
) 0 / ( ) 0 / ( ) 0 / (
) 0 / ( ) 0 / ( ) / (
) 0 / ( ) 0 / ( ) 0 / (
0
From hypothesis at points P
i
( 0
) 0 / (
r r
i P
i
V ) follows:
0 0 0 0 ) 0 / (
0 ) 0 / (
1 1
) (
1
z v r z GO z z V
v r GO z V
i i i R G
i i i R G
r
&
&
r
&
r
&
r
&
r
&
r
&
r
+
+

Considering: ) , , (
0 0
y x O GO
i
r r

i
GO
0
z
r
( )
i i
GO z GO z
0 0
r r
) , , (
0 0 ) 0 / (
y x O V
R G
r r
r

) 0 / ( R G
V
r
0
z
r
no slipping
i i
y z V
0
Then:
i
i
i R G
y r GO V z +
&
&
r
r
&
) 0 / ( 0
1
) 0 / ( 0
1
R G
V z GI
r
r
&

) , , (
0 0
y x O GI
r r
, GI
) 0 / ( R G
V
r
and GI is indpendant from i.
- 8 -
Equation reduces to:
i
i
i
y r GO GI +
&
&
Moreover, I O GO GI
i i
+ with
i
i
i
y r I O
&
&
, so all
i
y intersect at I.
Conclusion: wheel axis must intersect at a point if there is no slipping. This
point, I, is the Instant Rotation Center (IRC) in the vehicle movement
relative to the surface (R/R
0
).
Figure:
0 and 0 < > & &
i
y
0
O x
0
y
x
y
3
O
3
y
2
O
2
y
1
O
1
V
1
V
3
y
4
O
4
V
4
V
2
I
G
Thanks to this demonstration, following studies will be graphical.
- 9 -
IV.C Three wheeler
IV.C.1 Figure
A
B
C
G
Displacement
IV.C.2 Kinematic study
A
B
C
V
A
V
C
V
B
G
V
G
I
Because of the no slip hypothesis, each velocity is perpendicular to the
wheel axis.
- 10 -
IV.C.3 Conclusion
In this case, wheel A and B have the same rotation axis. The IRC is situated
at the intersection of A (or B) and C wheel axes.
Note: V
A
V
B
V
C
, so the three wheels have to be independent to rotate at
different velocities. This means that if the three wheeler is a rear wheel
drive, a differential is needed between the rear wheels. If there are three
driving wheels, a second differential is required between front and rear.
IV.D Four wheeled articulated chassis
IV.D.1 Figure
A
B
G
C
D
R
Displacement
- 11 -
IV.D.2 Kinematic study
A
B
G
I
V
A
V
B
C
D
V
D
V
C
R
IV.D.3 Conclusion
In this case, wheels A - B and C - D have the same rotation axis. The IRC is
situated at the intersection of A (or B) and C (or D) wheel axes.
Note: V
A
V
B
V
C
V
D
, so the four wheels have to be independent to be able
to rotate at different velocities. This means that if the vehicle is a rear wheel
drive, a differential is needed between rear wheels. If it is a four wheel drive,
two more differentials are required.
- 12 -
IV.E Four wheeled vehicle, two steering wheels
IV.E.1 Figure
A
B
G
Displacement
D
C
IV.E.2 Kinematic study
IV.E.2.a Parallel steering wheels
A
B
G
D
C
V
A
V
C
V
B
V
D
I
2
I
1
If steering wheels remain parallel during steering, there is no axes

intersection point, this is incompatible with the no slipping hypothesis (see
section IV.A). In this case, at least one velocity vector must have a different
- 13 -
direction, that implies at least one wheel slips to allow the vehicle to move.
A solution consists in using a different steering angle for each steering
wheel. The angle between steering wheels is called Ackermann angle.
IV.E.2.b Non parallel steering wheels
A
B
G
D
C
V
A
V
C
V
B
V
D
I

With a correct differential steering angle, the IRC exists and can be found
the same way as previously.
IV.E.3 Conclusion
The IRC is situated at the intersection of A (or B) and C (or D) wheel axes.
Because of the perfect grip, the differential steering angle must be such that
the three wheel axes intersect in a same point (the IRC).
Note: V
A
V
B
V
C
V
D
, so the 4 wheels have to be independent to be able to
rotate at different velocities. This means that if the vehicle is a rear wheel
drive, a differential is needed between rear wheels. If it has four wheel drive,
two more differentials are required.
- 14 -
IV.F Four wheeled vehicle with four steer ing wheel
IV.F.1 Figure
G
D
C
A
B
Displacement
IV.F.2 Kinematic study
IV.F.2.a Parallel steering wheels
A
B
V
A
V
B
D
C
V
C
V
D
I
2
I
1
G
If the steering wheels remain parallel during steering, there is no axes
intersection point. This is incompatible with the no slipping hypothesis (see
section IV.A). In this case, at least two velocity vectors must have a different
direction. That implies at least two wheels slip to allow the vehicle to move.
- 15 -
A solution consists in using a different steering angle for each steering
wheel. The angle between steering wheels is called Ackermann angle.
IV.F.2.b Non parallel steering wheels
B
V
B
C
V
C
I
G
A
D
V
D
V
A
With a correct differential steering angle, the IRC exists and can be found.
IV.F.3 Conclusion
Compared to previous case, this kind of steering permits an IRC anywhere in
the plane, and not only on a fixed axis (non-steering wheels axis). Again, the
differential steering angle must be correct.
B
V
B
C
V
C
I
G
A D
V
D
V
A
A
B
G
D
C
V
A
V
C
V
B
V
D
I
A
B
G
D
C
V
A
V
C
I
V
B
V
D
- 16 -
Here follow some particular cases:
D
C
V
C
V
D
G
A
B
V
B
V
A
V
G
A
B
G
D
V
A
I
C
V
C
V
B
V
D
- 17 -
V PLANAR STUDIES, WITH SLIPPING
V.A Motion
Four-wheeled vehicle with two steering wheels.
V.A.1 Hypothesis
Slipping coefficient between wheels and surface is supposed constant,
whatever the sliding speed.
Planar study.
Even and horizontal surface.
Vehicles are rigid bodies.
Contacts between wheels and surface are point contacts.
All wheels have the same radius.
All links are perfect (no friction in wheel pivots).
Wheel inertia is neglected.
Aerodynamics is neglected.
No driving or braking torque is applied on the wheels.
The four wheels are independent (independent angular velocities).
We consider an average sliding angle
R
for both rear wheels and an
average sliding angle
F
for both front wheels. Then the model becomes a
two wheeled vehicle.
- 18 -
V.A.2 Figure
y
A
B
F
I
R
G
V
G
V
A
V
B
x
T
A
T
B
a
b
V.A.3 Forces analysis
V.A.3.a Forces from ground to wheels A and B: A
r
and B
r
Wheels rotate freely (no braking or driving torque): resultant force from the
ground to the wheel is included in a vertical plan running through the wheel
axis.
We can write:
z T
A A A +
z T
B B B +
with z
b a
b
g M A
z

+

z
b a
a
g M B
z

+

T
A and
T
B are included in plan (Ox
0
y
0
).
- 19 -
0 R
Az
Ay
Ax
A
,
_
r
and
0 R
Bz
By
Bx
B
,
_
r
Moreover:
) ( tg
Ay
Ax
et ) ( + tg
By
Bx
Particular cases: when 0 have we , ) integer (
2
+ Ay k k
0 have we , ) integer (
2
+ + By k k

V.A.3.b Gravity action: P
r
This vertical force takes place at the center of mass G:
0
z g M P
r
,
_
g M
P 0
0
r
V.A.4 Forces equations

G G
M Forces
Equations are written in frame R0.
G
M G B A + +
'
+

+
+
+ +
+ +
b a
a
g M B
b a
b
g M A g M Bz Az
y M By Ay
x M Bx Ax
z z
et verifie 0
0
0
& &
& &
'
+
+
) (
1
) (
1

By Ay
M
y
Bx Ax
M
x
& &
& &
- 20 -
V.A.5 Momentum equations

G G

Equations are written in frame R0.
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
_
Bz
By
Bx
b
b
Az
Ay
Ax
a
a
B GB A GA
G
0
) sin(
) cos(
0
) sin(
) cos(
,
_
+ +

+

) sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos(

) cos( ) cos(
) sin( ) sin(

Bx b By b Ax a Ay a
Bz b Az a
Bz b Az a
G
using
b a
a
g M B
b a
b
g M A
z z
+

+
and , we obtain:
,
_
) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) (
0
0
Bx b Ax a Ay a By b
G
( )
,
_
,
_
1
1
1
]
1
& &
& &
& &
& &
& &
&
C
D
E
C D E
D B F
E F A
I
t
I
G
G
0
0
At the end:
'

G G

) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) (
0
0

Bx b Ax a Ay a By b C
D
E
& &
& &
& &
) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) ( + Bx b Ax a Ay a By b C & &
- 21 -
V.A.6 Sliding
V.A.6.a Friction coefficient: f
The friction coefficient between the wheel and surface depends on a lot of
parameters, but we will consider that this coefficient, f, is constant
regardless of the sliding speed.
Figure:
B
F
V
B
T
B
) sin(
B
V
This figure represents a wheel. ) sin(
B
V is the sliding speed, and
T
B is
opposed to this speed (when the wheel slides).
Friction coefficient is defined as:
Bz
B
f
T
Effort
Sliding
speed
Note: when there is no sliding, the effort can take any value between its
maximum and minimum values limited by f.
- 22 -
V.A.6.b Different cases of sliding for the motion equat ions
There are four cases:
only the front wheel (B) slips:
z T
z T
B f B
A f A

<
only the rear wheel (A) slips:
z T
z T
B f B
A f A
<

both wheels slip:
z T
z T
B f B
A f A

no slipping:
z T
z T
B f B
A f A
<
<
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
and By Bx B Ay Ax A
T T
+ +
V.A.7 Proposal for inertia momentum calculation
This gives a simple means to approach the calculation of the term C in the
vehicle inertia matrix.
Inertia matrix:
1
1
1
]
1
C D E
D B F
E F A
I
Lets consider a vehicle is composed of two plates (number one for the
vehicle chassis, number two for the motor).
G
1
and G
2
are the plates center of mass, M
1
and M
2
are their mass.
- 23 -
x
z
G
1
G
2
Front
Rear
G
1
G
2
G
x
y
a b
w
We know that ( ) ( )
2
2 1 2
2
1 1 1
a x M C x a M C C
G G
+ + +
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
2
2 2 1
1
2
12
12
G
x b a w
M
C
b a w
M
C
+ +
+ +
2
1
b a
x
G
+
calculation of
2 G
x :
2 1
2 2 1 1
M M
x M x M
x
G G
G
+
+
with a x
G
and
2
1
b a
x
G
+
then
( )
2
1 2 1
2
2
M
M
b a
M M a
x
G
+
+
( )
2
1 2
2
2
2
M
M b a M a
x
G

- 24 -
VI WORKING MODEL 3D
VI.A Introduction to WM3D
(courtesy of Working Model 3D users manual)
VI.A.1 What is Working Model 3D?
Knowledge Revolutions Working Model 3D is a three-dimensional
dynamics simulation program for desktop computers running the Windows
operating system. Working Model 3D combines advanced motion simulation
technology with sophisticated, easy-to-use editing capabilities and serves as
a complete, professional tool for engineering simulation.
The dynamics simulation engine provides a translation of real world
Newtonian mechanics to desktop computers, while the simple yet powerful
graphical user interface makes it easy to experiment with various scenarios
and situations.
VI.A.2 Operating Concept
The operating concept of Working Model 3D is simple. Define a set
of rigid bodies and constraints (e.g., motors, springs, and joints). With a
click of the mouse, Working Model 3D uses its powerful simulation engine
to put your model in motion.
Working Model 3Ds versatile properties window allow you to fine-tune
simulation with its multi-purpose panels that provide access to mass
properties, geometry, constraint characteristics, and attachment conditions.
You can create meters to plot the data that is taken during a simulation.
- 25 -
VI.B Introduction to our project using WM3D
First of all, we want to model a four-wheeled vehicle with front
steering on a plan ground to simulate the cornering of a car, and to find the
Instant Rotation Center of the vehicle, as a function of the different
parameters of the car.
For the simulation, we made the following hypothesis:
- same hypothesis described in chapter VI.A
- low speed (2 m/s)
- low steering angle (< 10 degrees)
Moreover, we want to improve the simulations using a rear steering
vehicle, a four-wheeled steering vehicle, on a plan ground and on a 3D
ground.
VI.C Limits of the software
To model a four-wheeled vehicle, we need to model wheels that roll
on the ground. The problem with WM3D is that it doesnt create a perfect
circular wheel, i.e. it creates a wheel with facets (from 3 to 200 facets).
Here, we can see the same wheel using facets from WM3D:
3-facet wheel 4-facet wheel 8-facet wheel 32-facet wheel 200-facet wheel
Its easy to understand what happens when such a wheel rolls on the
ground. In fact the wheel doesnt roll but it rebounds on the ground because
of their facets. That means the contact between the ground and the wheel is
broken. While the facets of the wheel impact on the ground, the wheel loses
- 26 -
energy. So the wheel doesnt preserve its initial velocity. That is a real
problem for our vehicle.
Here is the results for the running of a wheel:
Parameters : wheel = 32 facets
radius = 0.2 m
coefficient of restitution = 0
coefficient of friction = 1
Initial velocity = 2m/s
To obtain the following results, we optimize all the parameters of Working
Model 3D :
- the accuracy of the simulation.
- the coefficient of restitution.
- the coefficient of friction.
- the number of facets.
The others parameters dont change the results significantly.
vel oci t y of t he wheel
-0. 5
0
0. 5
1
1. 5
2
2. 5
0 100 200 300 400 500
time ( s)
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)
- 27 -
These results needed a 2 hours simulation for 460 seconds of running. For a
200 facet-wheel, its about 10 hours of simulation for quite similar results.
The more you increase the number of facets of the wheel, the more Working
Model runs for a longer timeand you obtain the same results: the wheel
still rebounds and losses energy.
angul ar vel oci ty of the wheel
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 100 200 300 400 500
ti me (s)
a
n
g
u
l
a
r

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
d
e
g
/
s
)
- 28 -
VI.D Four-wheeled vehicle modeling
We can not obtain some interesting results in modeling a 4-wheeled
rigid vehicle. Because of the wheels rebounds, there is no continuous
contact, so there is no significant effort applied on the wheels, and no
significant continuous angular velocity of the car when it turns.
After few seconds of running, the car stops (the velocity equals to
zero). The kinematic energy of the car has been lost in the impacts of the
wheels against the ground.
VI.D.1 The vehicle
- 29 -
Here is the results for the simulation :
Parameters : wheels = 32 facets
radius = 0.2 m
Initial velocity of the vehicle = 2m/s
tr aject or y of t he vehi cl e
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0
axe X ( m)
a
x
e

Y

(
m
)
linear velocity of the vehicle
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 5 10 15 20
time ( s)
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)
- 30 -
VI.D.2 Conclusion
Working Model 3D is not able to simulate the motion of a wheeled
rigid vehicle.
So, we model a new vehicle with suspension to keep the contact between the
wheels and the ground.
angular velocity of the vehicle
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 5 10 15 20
time (s)
a
n
g
u
l
a
r

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
d
e
g
/
s
)
- 31 -
VI.E Four-wheeled suspended vehicle modeling
To reduce the rebounds of the car, due to the rebounds of the wheels,
we made a four-wheeled suspended vehicle. Therefore, the wheels of the car
are going to keep contact on the ground.
VI.E.1 The vehicle
Here is the results for the simulation of the suspended vehicle :
Parameters : wheels = 32 facets
radius = 0.2 m
nitial velocity of the vehicle = 2m/s
- 32 -
linear velocity of the vehicle
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time (s)
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
m
/
s
)
trajectory of the vehicle
-4.5
-4
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
axe X (m)
a
x
e

Y

(
m
)
- 33 -
As we can see, these results are not different than the results for a 4-wheeled
rigid vehicle. We can see that the suspensions of the car create an oscillation
of the results, but they dont improve them.
VI.E.2 Conclusion
The suspended vehicle doesnt solve the problem. However the
vehicle is suspended, the wheels still rebound on the ground, because of
their facets. The vehicle still stops by itself after few seconds of simulation,
all the results are wrong.
The vehicle still loses energy in the impacts. The values of the linear
velocity and of the angular velocity are wrong. The trajectory is wrong.
angular velocity of the vehicle
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
time (s)
a
n
g
u
l
a
r

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

(
d
e
g
/
s
)
- 34 -
VI.F Conclusion about WM3D
VI.F.1 As users of the software:
Working Model 3D is not able to simulate the motion of a wheeled
vehicle. The main problem comes from the modeling of the wheel.
We tried to import a circular wheel modeling (without facets) from a CAD
software (TriSpectives), but Working Model opened it as a 50-facet wheel
by default.
Working Model 3D doesnt offer the possibility to use elastic
materials, to model the tires, i.e. to obtain a continuous contact on the
ground.
VI.F.2 As engineers:
We learned that the software didnt provide realistic results. We
learned that it is important to estimate the answers before computer
simulations.
We learned to refuse the results from the computer. Some engineers
think that a computer can solve everything for themselves but they are
wrong. If you are not able to understand the problem by yourself, computers
will not give you the right solution.
- 35 -
VII APPENDIXES
VII.A Useful formulas
For rigid bodies.
VII.A.1 Rigid body velocities
B A V V
A B
r r r r
+
) 0 / 2 ( ) 0 / 2 ( ) 0 / 2 (
VII.A.2 Velocity vectors composition
) 1 / 0 ( ) 0 / 2 ( ) 1 / 2 ( P P P
V V V
r r r
+
with
) 2 / 1 ( ) 1 / 2 ( P P
V V
r r

VII.A.3 Rotation vectors composition
) 1 / 0 ( ) 0 / 2 ( ) 1 / 2 (
+
r r r
VII.A.4 Acceleration vectors composition
1 / ) 0 / 1 ( ) 0 / 1 ( 1 / 0 /
2
R P P R P R P
V
r r r r r
+ +
0 / R P
r
: absolute acceleration
1 / R P
r
: relative acceleration
) 0 / 1 ( P
r
:driving acceleration
1 / ) 0 / 1 (
2
R P
V
r r
: Coriolis acceleration
- 36 -
VII.A.5 Vector differenciation
U
t
U
t
U
R R
r r
r r
+
1
]
1
1
]
1
) 0 / 1 (
1 0
VII.A.6 Inertia matrix
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
C D E
D B F
E F A
I I I
I I I
I I I
I
zz zy zx
yz yy yx
xz xy xx
A,B,C: inertia momentums
D,E,F: inertia products
VII.A.7 Kinetic momentum

r
r
I
VII.A.8 Dynamic momentum
0 R
t
1
]
1
r
r
VII.A.9 Acceleration
{ { 3 2 1
l
on accelerati
Coriolis
on accelerati
local
on accelerati
total
G G G
V +
VII.A.10 Other
0
) 0 / 2 (
) 0 / 2 (
0
) 2 / 3 (
) 2 / 3 (
0
) 0 / 3 (
) 0 / 3 (
R
A
P R
A
P R
A
P
V V V
'
'
'
r
r
r
r
r
r
- 37 -
VII.B Note about acceleration and torseur.
(Courtesy of Dr Harvey Lipkin)
VII.B.1 Material and local velocities
The material velocity expressed at A is related to of the material velocity
expressed at B on the rigid body by:
1
]
1
1
]
1
r
r
v
r
K
K
r
r
B
A
A
V B A
velocity material
V
V ) (
The local velocity expressed at P is related to of the material velocity

expressed at B on the rigid body by:
1
]
1
1
]
1
r
r
v
r
K
K
r
r
B
P
P
V B P
velocity material
V
V ) (
Subtracting the velocities shows that the velocity convective terms vanish:
0
r
r
r r r
P A V V
P A
since 0
r r
P A for coincident A and P at this instant
So, material and local velocities are numerically equal at coincident points.
NB: At the next instant, the two points become distinct, and so do their
respective velocities. As a result, the material and local accelerations have
different properties.
VII.B.2 Material and local accelerations
The material acceleration is:
1
]
1
+ +
1
]
1
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
B A B A
V
dt
d
B A
A A
) (

- 38 -
The local acceleration is:
1
]
1
+ +
1
]
1
r
r
r
r
r r
r
r
r
B P V
V
dt
d
B B P
P P
NB: In contrast to linear velocities, for coincident A and P the linear

acceleration convective terms are generally not zero :
A A B
B P A
V V P A V B A
B P B A V B A
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
K K K
r
r r
r
r r
r
r r
+ + +
+

0 ) (
) ( ) (
VII.B.3 Torseur dynamique
{ }
1
]
1
+
+
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
1
]
1
+
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
+
1
]
1
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
'
r r
r r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
I I
V m
M
F
I
V m
V I
m
M
F
V
I
V
I M
F
V I V I F
M
F
G
l
G
t
G
G
G
G
l
G
t
G
G
G G
l
t
G
G
G G G
l
G G G
G
t
G
G
m
m
m
m
m
m
.
) (
0
0
0
0
0

.

.
NB:
[ ]
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1
1
1
1
]
1

Bz
By
Bx
Ax Ay
Ax Az
Ay Az
Bx Ay By Ax
Bz Ay Bx Az
By Az Bz Ay
Bz Az k
By Ay j
Bx Ax i
B A B A
.
0
0
0
.
r r r
NB: in the frame of our study, we obtain the same results using material
acceleration or local acceleration.
l
G
r
is the local acceleration
G
V
r
. is the convectuve acceleration
G
l
G
V
r r
. + is our acceleration
G
r
Skew symmetric
Aij=-Aji
- 39 -
VII.C Patents research
VII.C.1 Patent #1
Title : System for integrated driving stability control
Inventor(s) : Eckert, Alfred, Bodenheim, DEX.
Lammen, Benno, Fl+E,uml o+EE rsheim, DEX.
Wanke, Peter, Frankfurt, DEX.
Worsdorfer, Karl-Friedrick, Bodenheim, DEX.
Geiger, Thomas, Freigericht/Neuses, DEX.
Graber, Johannes, Eschborn, DEX.
Drumm, Stefan, Saulheim, DEX.
Patent Type PT: Utility
Appl Serial No. AP: 8 482896
Assignee AS : ITT Automotive Europe GmbH
Frankfurt
DEX
Abstract : Apparatus for improving the driving behavior of a vehicle is
provided. The vehicle has front and rear axles, each having a
plurality of wheels. Each wheel has a brake. Sensors are
provided for measuring the rotational speed of each wheel, the
vehicle yaw rate and the vehicle lateral acceleration. An anti-
lock braking system provides first preset pressure values for
controlling each brake, to prevent the wheels from locking
during braking. A traction slip control system provides second
preset pressure values for controlling each brake, to prevent the
wheels from slipping during acceleration. A brake effort
proportioning system provides third preset pressure values for
distributing braking pressure between the wheels of the front
axle and the wheels of the rear axle. A yawing moment
controller provides fourth preset pressure values used to control
each brake during cornering, to avoid application to the vehicle
of an unbalanced moment which would cause the vehicle to
understeer or oversteer. The antilock braking system, traction
slip control system, brake effort proportioning means and
- 40 -
yawing moment control system all operate independently of one
another. A prioritizing mechanism applies criteria to determine
a desired brake pressure that is applied to each wheel, based on
the outputs of the antilock braking, traction slip control, brake
effort proportioning, and yawing moment control systems.
References:
Patent Number : 5694321
Patent Date : 1997/12/02
U.S. Class. : 364/426.037
Other US Class. : 364/426029
364/426028
180/197.
303/140.
303/186.
303/189.
International Class. : Series 6 B60T 8/00, B60K 28/16, G01P 3/44
- 41 -
VII.C.2 Patent #2
Title :
Driving stability controller with coefficient of friction
dependent limitation of the reference yaw rate
Inventor(s) : Graber, Johannes, Eschborn, DEX.
Frankfurt
DEX
Abstract : The present invention pertains to a control circuit for controlling
the yawing moment of a vehicle. It is desirable in some special
cases to limit the control behavior of this control circuit. The
current estimation of the coefficient of friction is used for this
purpose according to the present invention; this estimation leads
to the determination of a maximum coefficient of friction, which
is used to determine a maximum allowable yaw acceleration.
The additional torque used to control the vehicle stability is
influenced based on the yaw rate.
References :
U.S. Class. : 364/426.016
International Class. : Series 6 B60T 8/58
- 42 -
VII.C.3 Patent #3
Title :
Method of obtaining the yawing velocity and/or transverse
velocity of a vehicle
Inventor(s) : Cao, Chi-Thuan, Korntal-M nchingen, DEX.
Bertram, Thorsten, D sseldorf, DEX.
Appl Serial No. AP: 906292
Assignee AS : Robert Bosch GmbH
Stuttgart
DEX
Abstract : A method for obtaining the yawing velocity and the transverse
velocity v y of a vehicle so that these values can be employed,
for example, in regulating the vehicle system, with the values
being determined with the aid of simple sensors. Measured
values are obtained for the transverse acceleration a
y
and the
steering angles of the two axles, and the yawing velocity and the
vehicles transverse velocity v
y
are estimated therefrom in a state
estimator.
References :
U.S. Class. : 364/424.05
180/142.
International Class. : Series 5 B62D 6/00
- 43 -
VII.C.4 Patent #4
Title :
Adaptive steering control using vehicle slip angle and
steering rate
Inventor(s) : Crocker, Jonathan Andrew, Dearborn, MI.
Assignee AS : Ford Global Technologies, Inc.
Dearborn
MI
Abstract : A method and apparatus are provided for improving vehicle
steering in unfamiliar safety critical situations by controlling
power steering assist in response to the slip angle of the vehicle
and the steering rate of the vehicle. When a vehicle is in a slide
or a slide is imminent, the steering wheel should be turned in the
direction of the slide to stabilize the vehicle and take the vehicle
out of the slide or possibility of a slide. Accordingly, a positive
supplemental steering assist is provided for the steering system
if the driver is turning the steering wheel in the direction to
correct the slide. If, on the other hand, the driver is turning the
steering wheel in the direction which will increase the slide, a
negative supplemental assist is provided for the steering system.
That is, a feedback is provided to the driver in the form of
increased steering assist if the steering wheel is being turned in
the proper direction and a decreased steering assist if the
steering wheel is being turned in the improper direction. In this
way, the driver of a motor vehicle is advised of the proper
steering action to take in the event of an actual or imminent
vehicle slide by the resistance the driver feels in
turning the steering wheel.
References :
- 44 -
U.S. Class. : 364/424.051
180/422
180/446
International Class. : Series 6 B62D 5/00
- 45 -
VII.C.5 Patent #5
Title :
Testing apparatus of steering system
Inventor(s) : Sagiyama, Tatsuya, Okazaki, JPX.
Baba, Fumihiko, Nagoya, JPX.
Saito, Kaname, Okazaki, JPX.
Matsushima, Takashi, Sayama, JPX.
Iizuka, Hitoshi, Sayama, JPX.
Assignee AS : Toyota Jidosha Kabushiki Kaisha
Aichi-ken
JPX
Abstract : A testing apparatus of a steering system is provided to correctly
detect load in a direction in which steering reaction force acts,
the load being applied to the steering system. A tie rod
connected to a rack of the steering system is connected to a
steering-angle vibrating unit via a torque lever, relay links and a
drive link. A front link of the drive link and a link disposed
parallel to the torque lever are provided in a swingable manner.
Both ends of each of the relay links are respectively connected
to the torque lever and the link disposed parallel to the torque
lever, and the torque lever is swingable with respect to the link
in a direction in which road-surface reaction force acts.
Transducers are provided at intermediate portions of the relay
links, respectively. A vertically-vibrating unit connected via the
torque lever to the rack.
References :
Patent Date : 19971223
- 46 -
U.S. Class. : 73/11.08
73/1107
73/669
73/816
International Class. : Series 6 G01M 17/06
- 47 -
VII.C.6 Patent #6
Title :
Method for determining an additional yawing moment
based on side slip angle velocity
Inventor(s) : Eckert, Alfred, Bodenheim, DEX.
Frankfurt
DEX
Abstract : A method for improving the driving behavior of an automotive
vehicle is provided. The vehicle has a plurality of wheels, each
wheel having a brake. The vehicle includes a plurality of sensors
for generating signals representing the vehicle velocity, the
vehicle steering angle and the measured yaw rate of the vehicle.
A desired yaw rate is determined based on the vehicle velocity
and the vehicle steering angle. A yaw rate adjustment value is
calculated based on the desired yaw rate and the measured yaw
rate. A velocity of the sideslip angle is determined based on the
vehicle velocity and the measured yaw rate. A value
representing a yawing moment adjustment is determined based
on the vehicle velocity value of the sideslip angle. The yawing
moment adjustment value is applied to control the yaw rate of
the vehicle.
References :
U.S. Class. : 364/426.028
180/197
303/140
International Class. : Series 6 B60T 8/00, G01P 3/44
- 48 -
VII.C.7 Patent #7
Title :
Road vehicle cornering assistance mechanism
Inventor(s) : Brown, Jack L., 89 Highland View, Irvine, CA, 92715
Abstract : A mechanism for improving the cornering capability of a road
vehicle apportions torques applied to wheels differentially
between the right and left wheels as a function of the vehicle
speed, steering angle and lateral acceleration. Instantaneous
differential torques are computed using these and other variable
parameters which are continuously monitored, as well as some
constant parameters including the characteristics of the vehicle
and its tires. The differential torques may be applied by
modulating brake force separately for each wheel or through
differential clutch arrangements. Applications to rear-driven
wheels only, all four wheels, and even single-side wheels are
disclosed. The latter is designed to achieve the stagger effect on
circular race tracks.
References :
U.S. Class. : 364/424.05
International Class. : Series 5 B60T 8/00
- 49 -
VII.C.8 Patent #8
Title :
Method for controlling a vehicle with two or more
independently steered wheels
Inventor(s) : Reister, David B., Oak Ridge, TN
Unseren, Michael A., Knoxville, TN
Appl Serial No. AP: 8 110 693
Assignee AS : Martin Marietta Energy systems, Inc
Oak Ridge
TN
Abstract : A method (10) for independently controlling each steerable
drive wheels (W HD i L) of a vehicle with two or more such
wheels. An instantaneous center of rotation (ICR) an da
tangential velocity target are inputs to a wheel target system
which sends the velocity target and a steering angle target for
each drive wheel to a pseudovelocity target system. The
pseudovelocity target system determines a pseudovelocity
target, which is compared to a current pseudovelocity to
determine a pseudovelocity error. The steering angle targets and
the steering angles are inputs to a steering angle control system
which outputs to the steering angle encoders, which measure the
steering angles. The pseudovelocity error, the rate of change of
the pseudovelocity error, and the wheel slip between each pair
of drive wheels are used to calculate intermediate control
variables which, along with the steering angle targets are used to
calculate the torque to be applied at each wheel. The current
distance traveled for each wheel is then calculated. The current
wheel velocities and steering angle targets are used to calculate
the cumulative and instantaneous wheel slip, and the current
pseudovelocity.
- 50 -
References :
U.S. Class. : 364/424.05
180/197
International Class. : Series 6 B60K 28/16, B60T 8/58
- 51 -
VIII REFERENCES
[1] M. BAUSSET, Mcanique des Systmes de Solides, MASSON d., Paris,
F, 1990, 336 p.; 24 cm.
[2] J.C. BNE, J. MOREL, M. BOUCHER, Mcanique Gnral,Cours et
Applications, DUNOD d., Paris, F, 1994, 506 p.; 25 cm.
[3] P. AGATI, Y. BREMONT, G. DELVILLE, Mcanique du Solide
(Applications Industrielles), DUNOD d., Paris, F, 1996, 269 p.; 25 cm.
[4] GIECK, Formulaire Technique, edition francaise, 1990.
[5] J.R. ELLIS, Vehicle Dynamics, Business Books, London, GB, 1969, 242
p.; 23 cm.
[6] J.R. ELLIS, Vehicle Handling Dynamics, Mechanical Engineering
Publications, London, GB, 1994, 199 p.; 22 cm.
[7] H.B. PACEJKA, The Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and on Railway
Tracks, Proceedings of IUTAM, The Netherlands, August 1975, pp 5-85.
[8] H.P. WILLUMEIT, The Dynamics of Vehicles on Roads and on Railway
Tracks, Proceedings of 6
th
IAVSD, Berlin, D, September 1979, pp 1-12, 51-
64, 223-232, 316-322, 379-407.
[9] J.C. ALEXANDER, J.H. MADDOCKS, On the Maneuvering of
Vehicles, SIAM, J. Appl. Math., vol. 48, n 1, February 1988, pp 38-51.
- 52 -
[10] A. HEMAMI, A Control Scheme of Low Speed Automated Vehicles
with Double Steering, Proceeding of 33
rd
IEEE Conference Decision and
Control, part 3 (of 4), Lake Buena Vista, FL, USA, 1994, pp 2452-2454.
[11] A. GRZYB, Podstawy Teoretyczne Jednej z Metod Badan Statecznosci
I Kierowalnosci Samochodow, journal Archiwum Budowy Maszyn, vol. 30,
n 1-2, 1983, pp 139-153.
[12] Appendix A, Vehicle Equations of Motions, Suspensions and Steering
Technology, SP-1136, Society of Automotive Engineers, USA, 1996, pp
107-108.

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Sebastien Feve & Alexandre Huret

Ecole Nationale dIngenieurs de Metz

Sebastien FEVE - Alexandre HURET Degree Project

If steering wheels remain parallel during steering, there is no axes

) sin( ) cos( ) sin( ) cos(

Sebastien FEVE - Alexandre HURET Degree Project

The local velocity expressed at P is related to of the material velocity

Sebastien FEVE - Alexandre HURET Degree Project

NB: In contrast to linear velocities, for coincident A and P the linear

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