218

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India

Indian Oil and Gas Potential

P.K. BHOWMICK* and RAVI MISRA

KDMIPE, Dehra Dun The total sedimentary cover in India up to 200m isobath, spans 1.79 million km2. This increases by an additional areal extent of 1.35 million km2 if one considers the area beyond 200m isobath in the offshore. Thus, the total area of sedimentary basins accounts for 3.14 million km2. Twentysix sedimentary basins have so far been identified based on geologic and tectonic considerations. Out of the total sedimentary area only 0.626 million km2 (20%) area is moderately to well explored, and around 1.13 million (36%) km2 remains poorly explored to unexplored (source: DGH). Balance part is under different stages of initial exploration. As per records by Directorate General of Hydrocarbons, (2005-06) exploration & exploitation of oil & gas in India is being carried out by more than 20 companies in public and private domains. ONGC tops these with approx 54% of the total PEL area. In India, hydrocarbons occur across a large temporal range of geological setup from Cambrian (Rajasthan basin) to Cenozoic (Cambay, Assam, Mumbai offshore), however, a majority of oil and gas occurrence, and their exploitation has been from Cenozoic sediments, both on land and in offshore. The Mesozoic, in India, was either inadequately deposited or found at such depths that are difficult for production. Therefore, they have been lesser contributors to hydrocarbon, till date. The Gondwana sequences are now being targetted in some of the basins like Krishna-Godawari

Unexplored 15% mod to well explored 20%

exploration initiated 44% poorly explored 21%

Fig. 2: Exploration status of the total sedimentary basin areas (3.14 km2) Assam area but most other basins are still to contribute significantly. Out of 26 identified basins, only seven petroliferous basins have been put on commercial production. These are Mumbai offshore, Cambay, Assam-Arakan including the Tripura-Cachar area, Cauvery, Krishna-Godavari, Mahanadi and Rajasthan basins. The remaining basins are in different stages of exploration. New exploration models and concepts are being applied in the producing basins for finding newer plays and various exploratory inputs are being generated to convert and/or enhance the category of non-producing basins into producing one. A brief description of all the producing and prospective basins is presented below. Basins Along the Western Continental Margin The western continental margin (WCM) basins of India, viz., Rajasthan, Kutch, Mumbai offshore and Kerala - Konkan, owe their existence to three stages of rift and subsequent drift mechanism. The first stage - the separation of Eastern Gondwanaland (Madagascar, India-Seychelles, Antarctica and Australia) from Western Gondwanaland (South America and Africa) during late Triassic/Jurassic (~196-203Ma) is closely associated with Karoo volcanism in South Africa, the conjugate of this is in Antarctica. The second stage represents the separation of Seychelles-India from Madagascar in late Cretaceous (~93Ma), associated with minor volcanism on conjugate margins of southwestern India and southeast Madagascar. The third stage marks the final breakup of Seychelles at Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary (KTB, ~65Ma) coinciding with the Deccan volcanism. All these events have their manifestation in the MesozoicCenozoic sedimentary history of these basins.

Fig. 1: Indian sedimentary basins

* E-mail: bhowmick_pk@ongc.co.in

Rajasthan Basins The western Rajasthan shelf located to the west of Aravalli ranges, possesses three important basins viz.,

Indian Oil and Gas Potential Jaisalmer, Bikaner-Nagaur and Barmer-Sanchor, stretching over an area of about 1,20,000 km2. Each basin has varied geological and sedimentation history, although at some point of time, there were some common elements. Rajasthan basin represents the only basin in India where hydrocarbon potential has been reported from the Mesozoics and InfraCambrian sediments.
01 NW
0m SANU FM PARSHWAR FH 1000
BAISAKHI BHADASAR

219
SE SEISMO-GEOLOGICAL BACKUP
PALAEOCENE EARLY CRET
UPP IC ER JURASS ASSIC ASSIC

CONCEPTUAL

EXPOSURE

MIDDLE JUR

JAISALMER FH LATHI FH 2000

SHUMERWALI FM

EARLY JUR

BIRMANIA FM
TRIASSIC PERMIAN
RAN DHA FM

KARAMPUR 3000

INDEX MAP J1 BIRMANIA RANDHA

4000 DAW FAULT 5000

LATE PROTEROZOIC TO EARLY PALEOZOIC

LEGEND SHALE/ CLAY/ CLAYSTONE LIMESTONE SANDSTONE

METAMORPHIC IGNEOUS BASEMENT POSSIBLE H/C PLAYS

3 400

SCALE HORIZONTAL 0 3 6 Km VERTICAL 0 400 800 Km

6000

Fig. 4: Geological section based on well tied up with surface outcrop showing Permian and Proterozoic prospects plays Two potential source rock layers that more or less extend laterally across the basin, wherever source rock development is significant have been identified at late Jurassic and early Cretaceous levels. In Jaisalmer basin, Baisakhi-Bhadasar formation is considered the regional source facies with total organic carbon (TOC) up to 4.99% and Tmax of 415-431C in the Manehara Tibba, Ghotaru and deeper area of Miajlar. Pariwar formation is also reported to have up to 7.92% in most wells. The source-rock development in Sahagarh sub-basin is poor at late Jurassic and poor to marginal at early Cretaceous, whereas in Miajalar sub-basin fair to good source rock development has taken place at late Jurassic only, but it is Fig. 3: Structural map of western Rajasthan Basins
BARMER BASIN
EPOCH AGE

BIKANER-NAGAUR BASIN
FORMATION THICK LITHO H/C

JAISALMER BASIN
AGE FORMATION THICK LITHO H/C

i)

Jaisalmer Basin
T E R T I A R Y

AGE
RECENT SUB-RECENT PLEISTOCENE PLIOCENE MIOCENE OLIGOCENE E O C E N E
P A L E O C E N E

FORMATION
DUNE SANDS & ALLUVIAL GRAVEL/ TRAPWASH UTTARLAI FORMATION
CENOZOIC

RECENT TO PALAEOCENE JURASSIC

Jaisalmer area in Rajasthan Basin has no commercial discovery of liquid hydrocarbons except as yet, some show in Chinnawala Tibba1 and Ghotaru-2. The liquid hydrocarbon shows in these wells is from Cretaceous sequence. Gas has been found in seven structures. The gas from Mahera Tibba (from Cenozoic) and Chinnawala Tibba (from Cretaceous) is methane-rich and commercially viable. In the remaining five structures (Ghotaru, Bankia, Bhakari Tibba, Khartar and Sadewala) the gas is nitrogen-rich and commercially not viable. The genetic correlation of known accumulation of gases in Cenozoic and Cretaceous reservoirs suggests that they have been generated from sediments at higher maturity and have been trapped at their present locale after long-distance migration. The source-rock evaluation suggests that in the deeper part of the basin in the west the sourcerock development is poor. In the northwest, good development of source rock is observed and the maturity of the source rock is not enough to generate the gases of this maturity.

MESOZOIC

FRIADONIAN BARTONIAN LUTETIAN KAPUNDI FORMATION YPRESIAN THANETIAN MONTIAN DANIAN SATONIAN CONIACIAN TURONIAN CENOMANIAN AKLI FORMATION D. DUNGAR FORMATION BARNER FORMATION FATEHGARH FORMATION

P A L E O Z O I C

ALLUVIUM JOGIRA FULLERS EARTH/ MARH/PALANA JAISALMER/LATHI BADHAURA/BAP___ NAGAUR HANSERAN EVAP

500

QUATERNARY EOCENE PALAEOCENE CRETACEOUS

SHUMAR BANDAH-KHUIALA SANU PARH GORU PARIWAR BAISAKHI BEDESIR JAISALMER LATHI SHUMARWALI KARANPUR BIRMANIA RANDHA BASEMENT

450 100 500

LATE CAMBRIAN

JURASSIC 550 TRIASSIC

EARLY CAMBRIAN

BILARA JODHPUR

500

PERMIAN CAMBRIAN

PRECAMBRIAN

BASEMENT

PRECAMBRIAN

C R E T A C E O U S

U P P E R

ALBIAN L APTIAN O W NEOCOMIAN E R

SARNU FORMATION

J UP U R A MI S S I LR LIAS C
TRIASSIC

JAISALMER FORMATION LATHI FORMATION

PERMIAN CARBONIFEROUS DEVONIAN TO ORDOVICIAN

UPP. CAMBRIAN MID LOW PRECAMBRIAN

(PROTEROZOIC)

BIRMANIA FM. RANDHA FM.

Fig. 5: Stratigraphy of the Barmer, Bikaner-Nagaur and Jaisalmer Basins (modified from the DGH document)

220 at shallower depth and has not yet reached the top of oil window maturity (%VRo 0.5). The Randha and Birmania formations in Miajlar sub-basin and sandstones in Lathi, Baisakhi-Bhadasar, Pariwar and Goru formations provide adequate reservoir qualities. In addition the limestone in the Bandah and Khuiala formations also host gas-bearing reservoirs. ii) Bikaner- Nagaur Basin Exploration in the Bikaner-Nagaur Basin got a fillip with the discovery of heavy oil in the Baghewala well from the clastics of early Cambrian age. Further oil was struck in the Nanuwala structure in this basin from the Hanseran Evaporite formation at an approximate depth of 960 m. Here also the oil is heavy with 350API. The basin is floored by Malani rhyolites as basement and has a thin sedimentary cover (~ 1500m) of lower Paleozoic overlain by Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments. In this basin the, carbonates of Bilara formation (lower Cambrian age) constitute the source facies. The samples of Jodhpur and Bilara formations indicate moderate to high
A INTERNATIONAL BORDER A PUGAL-1 KOLAYAT

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India

1000

12

(KM)

2000 (MTS) ALLUVIUM KHUIALA TERTIARY MESOZOIC BAP/BADH PERMO-CARB UPPER CARBONATE NAGAUR HANSERAN EVAPORITE BILARA JODHPUR BASEMENT

Fig. 7: Barmer Basin showing the distribution of oil/gas fields -Mangala, Aishwarya, Kameshwari, Saraswati and Raageswari (from north to south in the Barmer-Sanchor Basin) has established its petroleum potential. The major contributor in all the fields are Fatehgarh and Barmer hill formations except in the Raageswari field where it is relatively deep non-conventional volcaniclastic reservoirs with a gas column of over 800 m (source: Cairn web). i) Cambay Basin

Fig. 6: E-W Geological cross section -Bikaner -Nagaur Basin TOC and HI up to 400mgHCg TOC. The main reservoirs in this basin are in the Infra-Cambrian Jodhpur, Bilara, Hanseran and from lower-Cambrian carbonate formations. Barmer-Sanchor Basin The Barmer-Sanchor Basin is an intra-cratonic rift, northward extension of the Cambay Basin. This NW-SE trending exhibits graben well-defined basin margin faults between Barmer high on the west and the Indian shield in the east. The basin is limited in the north by Fatehgarh fault and in the south by Sarnu fault. Some instances of volcanic intrusions are also reported. The Malani igneous suite and metamorphics constitute the basement over which the Mesozoics and Tertiaries have been deposited. The Proterozoic sequence is represented by Birmania and Randha formations followed by the Lathi and Sarnu formations of Mesozoic age. The Fatehgarh formation constitutes the base of Tertiary sequence overlain by Barmer formation having three sub-units named as Akli Formation, Mataji ka Dungar and Kapurdi members. The shallow basement and small sedimentary column in this basin probably did not attract the attention for early exploration efforts. It was the discovery of oil in Guda structure by Shell that informed on the hydrocarbon potential of this basin. Recently, successes in striking oil in the fields

The Cambay Basin, is a narrow elongated (NNW-SSE trending) intra-cratonic rift basin (area 59,000 km2), situated between Saurashtra craton to the west, Aravali swell on the northeast and Deccan craton to the southeast. In the south, it extends into Cambay Gulf and further southwards into the Bombay Basin. The extensional architecture of the basin is defined by the NNW-SSE-trending limiting faults related to Dharwarian orogeny. In addition, the basin is also transected by NESW-trending faults related to Aravalli orogeny, and ENEWSW trend related to Satpura orogeny. The basin is further sub-divided into five blocks separated by NE to ENE - SW to WSW transfer faults. These are Ahmedabad-Mehsana, Cambay-Tarapur Jambusar/Broach, and Narmada blocks (Fig. 9). The sedimentary succession in the basin ranges in age from late Cretaceous pre-rift sediments to Recent. Based on basin formative tectonic events and their impact on

Indian Oil and Gas Potential

221 sedimentation processes, three distinct sedimentary sequences have been recognized: the pre-rift late Cretaceous sequence, the syn-rift Paleocene sequence and early Eocene to Recent post-rift sequence. The late Cretaceous sediments are deposited in continental, fluvial setup and comprise sandstones with minor claystone, basal conglomerate and thin inter-beds of shale. The early Paleocene sequence, bounded by unconformities below and above, is restricted only to fault grabens and fault scarps, and is either absent or thinly developed over paleohighs. These sediments extend as piedmont fanglomerate represented by trapwash, claystone, shale and sand with thin coal beds toward north representing initiation of basin fill in the basin. The late Paleocene witnessed the first marine transgression, followed by regression, during which arenaceous sediments in the northern areas of Mehsana got deposited under tidal regime on the down-thrown blocks. The top of Paleocene marks the end of rifting followed by an unconformity over which early Eocene transgressive shale is observed in the southern part of Cambay Basin. The Eocene to Recent post-rift succession, overlying the Paleocene succession is encountered throughout the Cambay Basin with a minor hiatus. Early Eocene witnessed the deposition of grey shale, silts and coals. The top of early Eocene witnessed regression during which deltaic sands and silt, shale and thick coal bands were deposited. The early/Middle Eocene boundary is marked by a regression in Middle Eocene during which deposition of sandstone, siltstone, shale and coals took place in tidal to estuarine setup. The upper part of Middle Eocene and late Eocene is a mixed facies of laminated sandstone, with limestone nodules and occasional carbonaceous shale. The early Oligocene succession overlying the Eocene strata after a brief hiatus, includes grey shale with claystone, argillaceous sandstone followed by a major regression and unconformity spanning the entire duration of late Oligocene. The Miocene succession in the basin is represented by current bedded sandstone, conglomerates, clays and shale. This is followed by an unconformity above which claystone, sandstone, clay, sand and kankar of Pliocene to Recent age were deposited. ONGCs efforts have resulted in 90 large- and smallsize oil and gas discoveries, notably Ankleswar, Gandhar, Nawagam, Dholka, Kalol, Sanand, Jhalora, Viraj, North and South Kadi, Linch, Jotana, Sobhasan, Balol and Santhal, out
Cambray Field NARMADA HIGH 0.0
BROACH BLOCK IV
M AR A AD R.

Fig. 8: Structural architecture of Cambay Basin

SANCHOR

THARAD
BA NA S R.

SANCHOR PATAN BLOCK I

PATAN MEHSANA
AHMEDABAD MEHSANA BLOCK II
R.

AHMEDABAD
TARAPUR BLOCK III

LEGENDS
LIMIT OF SYN-RIFT DEPOSITS PRIMORDIAL FAULTS LISTRIC FAULTS TRANSFER FAULTS DEPOCENTRES TOWNS BASEMENT RIDGE (TRANSVERSE) TECTONIC BLOCK

TARAPUR
M

SAR

ASW ATI

KALOL

CAMBAY

SA GA AH

VADODARA

R.

BROACH BASIN

CAMBRAY HIGH

TARAPUR BASIN

PADRA

1.0 2.0 3.0

Km

Pliocene Recent
Approx. Top Oil Window

Miocene

MBS pay OS II & III pay EPI potential pay EP IL, III & IV potential pay

BHAVNAGAR

GANDHAR BROACH ANKLESWAR

Approx. Base Oil Window Oligocene

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 Lower Eocene Cambray Snale Source

Late

Eoce

ne

NARMADA BLOCK V

Late Palaeocene

0
SCALE

25 Km.

GULF OF CAMBAY

SURAT

Deccan Trap Basaltic Basement

Early Palaeocene

50 Km

Fig. 9: Map showing the outcrops and the sub-division of Cambay Basin

Fig. 10: N-S geological cross-section across Cambay Basin

222 of which two, namely Ankleshwar and Gandhar are giant fields. The Cambay shales (Paleocene-Eocene) constitute the main source facies. The Eocene shale is the regional cap for the hydrocarbon accumulation in the basin. The distribution of hydrocarbon in the basin is largely influenced by the tectonic setup and sedimentation patterns. Structural and stratigraphic plays are responsible for hydrocarbon entrapment in the known fields. Two major petroleum systems have been identified in this basin. These are the Cambay-Kadi/Kalol petroleum System in north, and Cambay-Hazad petroleum System in the south. Two other speculative petroleum systems (due to lack of proper geochemical match between source rocks and accumulated hydrocarbons) of smaller magnitudes, viz. Olpad- Kalol (?) petroleum System in the north, and Olpad- Hazad (?) petroleum System in south, are also identified. West Coast Offshore Basins The western continental margin (WCM) of India hosts three major offshore basins viz., Kutch, Mumbai offshore and Kerala Konkan, out of which the Mumbai offshore is the major petroliferous basin, with other two having oil and gas indications. The continental margin is featured by parallel to sub-parallel ridges and intervening depressions. The continental shelf on the western margin is wide and
NORTH TAPTI SOUTH TAPTI

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India tapering, 300 km wide off Kachchh-Saurashtra in the north, narrowing down progressively southward to 60 km in Kerala offshore. Mumbai Offshore Basin The Mumbai offshore basin is the most prolific producer among the petroliferous basins of India. The production is primarily from the carbonate reservoirs of Miocene and Middle Eocene age. The basin is bounded by the Deccan Trap outcrops to its north and east, Kori-Comorin ridge to its west and Vengurla arch to its south, covering an area of about 1,48,000 km2 up to 200m isobath. Based on the tectonic evolution of the basin, two sequences have been identified in the Cenozoic succession. The lower, corresponding to the Paleocene age represents the rift phase with deposition in response to major tectonic events of separation of Seychelles. The upper passive margin sedimentary succession of late Paleocene to Recent has been further subdivided into successions based on unconformities and their magnitude. The Paleocene rift sequence represents the initiation of Cenozoic sedimentation in the basin. These dominantly fluvial intertidal to shallow inner-shelf clastics (with subordinate carbonates, trapwash and trap derivatives in the lower part) represent post-trappean sediments as graben-

MID TAPTI

TAP

DIU BLOCK

TIBL DAMA OC K N

DAMAN

TARAPUR MAHIM
MUKTA PANNA BASSEN

BO MB H AY IGH -DC SB LOC

N PAN

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A-B

ASS

EIN BLO CK
NEELAM
NEERA

MUMBAI

SH EL F MA RG IN
INDEX MAP

ALIBAG MURUD

K
RATNA

BL OC K

RAT NAG IRI B LOC K

RATNAGIRI

INDIA
NORTH

200 400 Km Scale

AREA UNDER STUDY

Fig. 11: Morphotectonic map of western offshore basins and general stratigraphic and chronostratigraphic chart

Indian Oil and Gas Potential fills during synrift phase associated with the separation of Seychelles in Paleocene. The clastics comprise siltstone, claystone, shale and sandstone with coal shale. As the rifting continued, these sediments filled the initial morphotectonic depressions during Paleocene in the lows and grabens. The lower boundary is an unconformity with Deccan Trap and upper boundary is also an unconformity with passive margin sequence in late Paleocene. The late Paleocene-Recent passive Cenozoic marine sequence in wells represents the first marine transgression in the basin over the rift-fill. The lowermost succession of passive margin corresponds to late Paleocene-early Eocene and represents the first widespread Cenozoic marine transgression in the basin. The sequence represented by fluvial-intertidal shale, coal shale and finer clastics in the lower part and shallow inner shelf carbonates in the upper parts, is recorded all over the Mumbai offshore basin except over the Mumbai High platform. The succeeding Middlelate Eocene succession has a very large areal extent over the basin, except Mumbai High platform. During this period, a large part of the basin witnessed widespread carbonate sedimentation in a shallow inner-shelf setup. The lower limit of the sequence at late Paleocene-early Eocene/Middle Eocene boundary and the upper boundary is an unconformity between Eocene and Oligocene. In the northern areas of Tapti Daman, finer clastics dominate, while in other parts of the basin, limestone and shale with minor clay are the dominant facies. The uppermost sequence of passive margin is recorded between Eocene top unconformity and Mio/Pliocene unconformity/corrective conformity, covering the chronospan of early Oligocene to Miocene. The sequence is divided into two units early Oligocene and late OligoceneMiocene succession separated by an unconformity between early/late Oligocene. The lower unit covering the chronospan of early Oligocene is present over the entire Mumbai offshore basin except Mumbai High platform. Lithologically, the sequence shows a facies variation across the basin. In many areas, it is characterized by carbonates and shale deposited in shallow inner-shelf setup, while in the northern areas of Tapti Daman intertidal to shallowmarine clastics characterize the sequence. The overlying, late Oligocene-Miocene epochs represent deposition of shallow-shelf carbonates and shale over most parts of the basin, except in northern parts, where fluvial to shallow-marine clastics characterize the late Oligocene. This succession is encountered over all areas of Mumbai offshore and overlain by the finer clastics of late Miocene to Recent age. Petroleum System Hydrocarbon accumulations, occur in reservoirs of Paleocene to Middle Miocene age. Early Miocene carbonates of Mumbai High are the biggest producers. Paleocene and early Eocene sediments are the source rocks. The synrift Paleocene sediments, deposited under supratidal to intertidal setup, comprise coal shale, shale, siltstone and sandstone. The organic matter is dominantly terrestrial with maturation level at the early phase of oil window. The

223 early Eocene sediments are also characterized by terrestrial organic matter in the organic-rich shale and coal. BASINS ALONG EASTERN CONTINENTAL MARGIN i) Assam and Assam-Arakan Basin This basin extends over a large area of NE India, Myanmar and Bangladesh, covering an area of over one lakh square kilometres. In its deepest parts, the basin has accumulated over 15-20 km of Mesozoic and younger sediments. It is a polyhistory basin with distinct episodes of tectono-sedimentary evolution being essentially an amalgamated basin with phases of superposing tectonics presenting a complex picture. The intermontane, Assam Arakan Basin is bounded by the eastern Himalayas in the north/northwest and the Naga folded zone in the east. The eastwest-trending Jorhat Fault and Dunki Fault divide the Assam Valley into three geographical divisions: Upper Assam Valley in the northeast, the Dhansiri Valley in the centre and the Surma Valley in the south/south-west. The basin evolved through four tectonic phases. The first represents formation of intra-cratonic grabens along Precambrian weak zones during Permo-carboniferous when India was still part of the Gondwanaland continent. The grabens were filled with sediments derived from highland as alluvial fans and delta settings in early Permian. The second phase witnessed rifting in early Cretaceous (separation of India and Antarctica), when the sedimentation is largely over partially exhumed older sediments of Gondwana grabens. End of rift is marked by lava flows and discrete sedimentation in early Albian, when the Indian plate detached completely from Antarctica and entered the drift phase. The drift phase from late Cretaceous to Oligocene represents passive margin setup, which continued until the collision of Indian plate with Eurasian and Burmese plates. The fourth and final phase represents deposition of foredeep sequence of Miocene to Recent age in the foreland tectonic setting. The basin was formed by convergence with Eurasia in north and oblique convergence with Burma in south. As a result, the foreland basin developed as a pro-arc basin in front of Himalayas and Indo-Burma island-arc system, overriding the passive margin of Assam. This is overlain by the ongoing sequence from late Pleistocene (~1.81Ma) deposited during the superposing phase of Himalayan foreland system over Naga foreland. The high-energy sedimentation from Himalaya has covered the Kopili valley with an approximate thickness of 3200 m. A summary of these sequences is given below: The graben-fill early Permian sediments represent the oldest sequence in this basin. The outcrops are reported from Garo Hills and in the subsurface it is recorded from several wells of south Assam shelf. The rift-fill early Cretaceous sediments comprising mainly of clastics deposited in continental to shallow-marine setup, are often covered by basaltic traps the Sylhet and Mikir traps (equivalent of Rajmahal traps). The exposures are encountered in south Shillong plateau, while in subsurface it is encountered in several wells of south Assam Shelf. The sequence consists mainly of fine to coarse sandstone, dark shale with occasional coal.

224 The passive-margin sequence, deposited over tectonically stable shelf, ranges in age from late Cretaceous to Oligocene. The outcrops of late Cretaceous are reported from Garo hills, south Shillong plateau and only in well drilled in Shillong plateau. The Paleocene-Oligocene sequence form passive margin accretionary prism consists of sandstone and shale with occasional coal in proximal part and shale and carbonates in the distal part with thin conglomerates at the base. The youngest foredeep Miocene to Recent sequence comprises dominantly argillaceous facies with distinct intervals of sandstone/siltstone in lower part overlain by immature coarse sands and arenaceous facies with subequal proportion of claystone, clay and silts. The Assam geological province is endowed with hydrocarbon accumulations in multiple reservoirs of different ages. Most of the oil reservoirs are within Mio-Pliocene, Oligocene, Eocene, Paleocene and even fractured basement. From the source rock perspective, the sediments within passive margin possess fair to good mature source-rock characteristics. Several petroleum systems are present within the Assam geologic province (Chandra and others, 1995; Naidu and Panda, 1997; Kent and others, 2002). For assessment purposes, however, they were combined into a composite petroleum system designated the Sylhet-Kopili Barail-Tipam TPS. A composite TPS was used because few correlations of source

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India to reservoir hydrocarbons were available at the time of the assessment. Multiple-stacked source and reservoir-rock sequences, and extensive fault systems allowing mixing of hydrocarbons from multiple sources (Chandra and others, 1995) also make distinguishing individual systems difficult. The distinct systems might include the Sylhet-Kopili, BarailTipam, and in the southwest a Buban-Bokabil system. The petroleum systems of the Assam Shelf most likely are also genetically and temporally related to some of the gas-prone petroleum systems in the Bengal Basin (Wandrey and others, 2000). The Sylhet-Kopili/Barail-Tipam petroleum system comprises the Jaintia Group, Sylhet and Kopili Formations, the Barail Group, and the Surma and Tipam Groups. With the exception of the Barail Coal Shale (BCS), most rocks in the Assam geologic province do not have high total organic carbon (TOC) contents. The Eocene Jaintia Group contains the oldest source rocks in this TPS and includes interbedded shales of the Langpar and Lakadong members of the Sylhet Formation (Mathur and others, 2001). The Sylhet Formation is a shallow-marine limestone interbedded with thin sandstones and shales deposited in marine to lagoonal environments. In places its thickness exceeds 400 m. The overlying Eocene Kopili Formation consists of alternating fossiliferous fluvial shales and fine-grained sandstones more than 500 m thick; it contains

LOHIT

RA UT AP HM RA
Dikom

Hatiali Borhapjan

Talap
Kumchai

Tengakhat Kathalani

Hapjan Jengoni Dechal Langkasi Bhekal Rajali NAHORKATIYA

Samdang Duarmara Bogapapi DIGBOI Kusijan

Pengri Kherem Kharasang

BRA

HM

APU

D TRA

EPR

ESS

ION

HMAPUTRA BR A
JORHAT

Jorajan Shalmari Barbil Sarojani Dholiya Tinali Diroi Rajgarh Tarajan PANIDIHIN Dipling GH Baruanagar RUS AR Moran TH M Disangmukh A Kuragaon Lakwa AG N Rudrasagar R VE Sonari RI Charali Demulgaon Nahorhabi Lakhmani Chaingmaigaon Bihubar

TF AU LT

NAZIRA

SINGHPHAN

Tedk

Amguri Namti

DERGAON

Holangapar Tiru Hill Naginsjan Mariani Titabar Bandersulia Changki Satsuk Borholla Old Tsori Champang Mekrang Baghty Nagar

Lakshmijan Geleki Borsilla

ER IT

AULT ST F THRU

EXPLANATION
Oil and gas field Oil fields

GOLAGHAT

Gas fields Identified prospect or field product not identified Thrust fault Sawteeth on upthrust block

MIRKIR HILLS

Merapani Barpather Kasomarigaon Telihal Suphayam Uriamghat

Jamguri

0
Noajan Harupani Khoraghat

10

20 Kilometers

DIMAPUR
Daldali Hakhejenaga Tynphe Chumukedima Rajaphe Pimpla Toshezu

Fig. 12: Oil & Gas field map of Assam Shelf area, Assam-Arakan Basin

Indian Oil and Gas Potential numerous potential source-rock intervals (Naidu and Panda, 1997). TOC values range from less than 0.8 percent to more than 12 percent in the Barail Coal-Shale Unit. The Barail is considered to be the primary source rock throughout much of the Assam geologic province. PROVEN & EXPECTED PLAY TYPES Upper Assam Shelf Fold and Thrust Belt

225 sediments in the basin that were deposited in the continental grabens. The Gondwana basin was partly superposed with next phase of basin development in end-Jurassic leading to the development of horst-graben features along preexisting weak zones and deposition of non-marine sediments. The rift phase ended with the flow of Rajmahal lavas. Subsequent to the rifting and volcanism during early Cretaceous, Mahanadi shelf received continental-deltaic sediments in late Cretaceous-Paleocene times. Eocene period saw the first carbonates sedimentation and Oligocene is the period of non-deposition/erosion in the basin. Miocene witnessed regional subsidence and marine transgression both offshore and onshore, with very high subsidence rate in Middle Miocene and younger periods. At the time the basin experienced tilting with west experiencing uplift and east undergoing subsidence. This led to renewed influx of clastics and progradation of deltaic sediments over tectonically altered Miocene section, that continues till present day. As stated above, the sedimentary succession in the basin ranges from Permian to Recent. Three sequences are recorded. The oldest Permian to Triassic Gondwana sequence is recorded only from the outcrops. The overlying rift sequence of early Cretaceous is divided into two units, separated by Rajmahal basalt. The lower unit is represented by coal shale, while the upper one comprises dominantly sandstone (Athgarh Sandstone). The late Cretaceous to Recent interval represents the passive margin setup. In the late Cretaceous, the first marine transgression is witnessed in Campanian. However, in some areas of offshore, the Campanian- Maastrichtian succession is nonmarine, dominated by sandstone and shale. Within Paleocene, the Danian (early Paleocene) is absent and the late Paleocene marine sediments are encountered in the subsurface of several wells. The Eocene is represented by inner-shelf facies. The succession comprises dominantly of

Structural and combi Large anticlinal traps in nation traps in Paleocene Oligocene to Miocene to Mio-Pliocene sequences sequences Subtle traps in basement Structural, combination rocks & stratigraphic traps in Oligocene and Miocene sediments in the broad synclinal valleys ii) East Coast Offshore Basins

Eastern margin of India stretches from Bengal offshore basin in the north to Mahanadi basin, Krishna-Godavari Basin and Cauvery Basin in the south. It has a prominent continental margin with a moderately developed continental shelf. Mahanadi Basin Mahanadi basin is located along northeastern part of east coast of India and covers an area of ~1,40,000 sq.km in both onland and offshore up to 2500 m isobath in Bay of Bengal. This is a polyhistory basin that was initiated by the activation of NNE-SSW lineaments of the Precambrian rocks due to rifting related to opening of Indian Ocean. The Gondwana sediments (Permo-Triassic) are the oldest

Fig. 13: Cross section across Mahanadi Basin showing tectonic configuration

226 carbonates with thin sandstone in the upper part. In most parts of the basin especially onland and shallow-water areas, Oligocene has not been encountered. In the deeper offshore, however, outer shelf facies is prevalent. During Oligocene, due to the collision of Indian and Tibetan plates, the basin experienced tilting towards southeast with concomitant sea-level fall and subaerial erosion in the shelfal part. The Miocene succession is present throughout the basin and comprises alternation of sandstone and shale over most of the areas. In some wells, however, localized carbonates are also seen. The Pliocene succession is met in all the wells drilled in the basin and represented mainly by finer clastics in the inner to middle shelf setup. In the shelfal part of Mahanadi basin, no thermogenic hydrocarbons have been encountered. The thermal maturity modelling suggests the threshold of maturity in the southsoutheastern part in the passive margin setup, especially the Eocene-Oligocene successions. Petroleum System

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India Krishna-Godavari Basin The Krishna-Godavari basin constitutes a typical passive margin basin and has a polycyclic (dual-rift province) evolution history. It comprises a wide array of sedimentary facies from early Permian through Cenozoic with analogous outcrops in the northwestern part. Broad tectonic expression of the basin comprises linear horst-graben system, growth fault/rollover and block tilting along synthetic fault over intra - shelf regime followed by toe thrust, thus exhibiting a manifestation of typical passive margin. The tectono-stratigraphic framework reveals three distinct stages of evolution of the basin. Till early Jurassic, the northeastern area of the basin was part of intracratonic rift setup constituting the southeastern extension of NWSE-trending Pranhita-Godavari Basin. The succeeding late Jurassic to early Cretaceous synrift sediments were deposited during early tectonic subsidence accentuated by basementrifted fault system. The late Cretaceous and younger period represents the passive margin (drift stage) setup. Exponential decay in thermal subsidence with rapid subsidence continued during the drift phase with open marine transgression during Cenomanian. The basin witnessed widespread volcanism during Paleocene. During late Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogene major sediment pathways (KG fluvial system) resulted in further spreading of delta progradation to southeast. Major sea-level drops are observed in late Oligocene and late Miocene. The present deep-water regime is characterized by shelf, slope and basin floor corridors. The continental slope is deformed with contraction towards mid-down slope and more of extensional in basinal part, characterized by mud-rich debris flow, turbidity flow, channel-levee complex, marine onlap wedge, suspended-sediment rich onlapping packs, etc.

Biogenic system: Thermogenic System:

Mio-Pliocene sediments Late Cretaceous to early Miocene source rock (oil window at 3 to 4.5 km) Neogene channel-Levee clastic reservoirs Paleogene clastic and carbonate reservoirs Late Cretaceous clastic reservoirs

Reservoirs:

Entrapment style:

Primarily stratigraphic and structural also

Fig. 14: General configuration and morphotectonic elements of KG Basin

Indian Oil and Gas Potential The lowermost intracratonic Gondwana sequence was deposited in NW-SE-trending Pranhita-Godavari graben before Gondwana breakup. The sequence is underlain by Archaean basement and topped by sub-aerial unconformity. Based on the sub-aerial unconformity at Permian top, two sedimentary successions have been identified. The lower Permian sequence in the subsurface has its equivalents in outcrops as Talchirs and Barakars. It comprises of argillites, sandstone, coal-shale deposited in fluvial-lacustrine environment. The upper Triassic sequence comprises monotonous vertically stacked predominant fluvial sandstone. The late Jurassic early Cretaceous rift sequence is represented by sandstone, shale with occasional coal bands and red claystone, deposited in fluvial - marginal marine setup. The sequence is further subdivided into lower late Jurassic early Cretaceous and upper Aptian-Albian succession. The lithology of the former is dominantly sandstone with interbedded shale with minor coal and carbonaceous shale. The Aptian-Albian sequence is mainly argillaceous with highly carbonaceous black shale in lower part and sand in the upper part. The passive margin sequence comprises late Cretaceous clastics, Paleocene volcanics and Cenozoic clastics and carbonates. It is divided into four succession based on unconformities with early Paleocene volcanics occupying the time gap between the first two sequences. The lowermost late Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Maastrichtian) comprises lower argillaceous section (claystone, shale and minor sandstone) marking the regional marine transgression and the upper arenaceous (dominantly sandstone) unit representing delta progradation. The overlying late Paleocene-Oligocene succession comprises late Paleocene marine shale, early Eocene nearshore to shallow-marine sands, Middle Eocene shallowmarine carbonates, late Eocene-Oligocene sands and their equivalent shale. The Miocene section is characterized by sandstone and claystone deposited in middle-outer to shelf setup. The uppermost Pliocene to Recent succession is represented by transgressive shale with minor sandstone and silt bands. The oil-source correlation studies indicate presence of effective source rocks in Permian, late Jurassic, early Cretaceous, Aptian-Albian, late Paleocene and Eocene ages. The reservoirs are distributed in sediments of late Jurassic-early Cretaceous, Aptian-Albian and Pliocene ages. The unique feature of Pliocene hydrocarbons is that they are charged by more than one vertically stacked source rock. Cauvery Basin Cauvery basin, on the east coast of India, extends from Pondicherry in the north to Tuticorin in the south, stretching into offshore Bay of Bengal and spans over an area of 62,500 sq km up to 200m isobath. The basin evolved as a composite of rifted graben since late Jurassic and formed a part in the development of East Coast divergent margin of India. In the exploratory wells drilled in onland and offshore, the oldest encountered sediments range in age from Oxfordian (late Jurassic) to Recent. Outcrops are patchy. Five major unconformities (late Albian, Turonian, Campanian, Maastrichtian and Miocene) are observed in outcrops. Four of them, excepting the Campanian unconformity are tracked in the subsurface.

227 The Jurassic fragmentation of eastern Gondwanaland into India, Antarctica and Australia initiated the formation of Mesozoic rift basins on the eastern continental margin of India including Cauvery basin. Numerous down-tobasin extensional faulting took place in the basin due to rifting. Active subsidence along these normal faults parallel to Precambrian Eastern Ghat trend gave rise to horst-graben setting. Several stages of reactivation of synrift extensional faults are noticeable. Inversion of the faults responsible for hanging well antiforms are observed near Cretaceous top in northern and southern parts, whereas in central part, such activity continued into Eocene and Oligocene.
AGE Recent to Mid. Miocene Lower Miocene FORMATION Tittacheri Sandstone Madanam Limestone Vanjiyur Sandstone Shiyali Clay stone Oligocene Kovilkalappal Fm. Niravi Sandstone Pandanallur Fm. Eocene Karaikal Shale
CAP PLAY CAP

THICKNESS in m 300-500

600-1200

500-800

200-400

Up.Kamalapuram Fm. PLAY Paleocene Lr.Kamalapuram Fm. Porto-Novo Shale Upper Cretaceous Lower Nannilam Fm. Kudavasal Shale Bhuvanagiri Fm. Sattapadi Shale Andimadam Fm. Archaean Basement
PLAY CAP PLAY CAP PLAY SOURCE+CAP SOURCE+PLAY PLAY

200-800

600-1500

1000-1500

Fig. 15: Generalized stratigraphy of Cauvery Basin The first well-documented hiatus from subsurface is at the top of Albian. The second one at Turonian was probably caused by Marian mantle plume and consequent mild-basin exhumation. At the KTB unconformity, development of continental facies has been observed in outcrops. During late Cretaceous, direction of sea-floor spreading changed parallel to Ninety-East ridge. The northward movement of Indian plate was taken up on the ChagosLaccadive transform on the west and Ninety- East ridge transform at eastern plate edge. The stratigraphic record of the basin comprises various depositional sequences representing syn-rift and post-rift passive margin. The principal phases of evolution of the basin are: a) Initial syn-rift fresh water/shallow marine late Jurassic; b) early Cretaceous syn-rift deposits and c) late Cretaceous to Recent post-rift sequence. The rift sequence corresponds to the chronospan of late Jurassic to Albian. An unconformity at Barremian separates the lower late Jurassic Barremian succession from overlying AptianAlbian succession. In the outcrops the succession comprises of basal boulder beds, overlain by fluviolacustrine clastics with gritty sandstone and clayey plant fossil-rich beds. In the subsurface, it is represented by

228 sands and shale with subordinate algal limestone and claystone in the lower part. Overlying passive margin Albian to Recent succession is recorded in many wells drilled in the basin. This succession is interrupted by four well-defined hiatuses at the top of Cretaceous, late Eocene, Oligocene and Miocene, respectively. The basal part of the succession comprises of carbonaceous shale and sandstone of Albian Cenomanian age, overlain by Cenomanian-Turonian sandstones and thick shale of Coniacian- Santonian. The sandstones represent deposition by debris flow or high-density turbidity current. The Coniacian-Maastrichtian, in its upper part represents regressive phase with high percentage of arenaceous deposits. The horst graben morphology almost disappeared at this period with peneplanation of most of the ridges, resulting in emergence of a unified basin margin at the end of Cretaceous. Based on the maturity of organic matter, the effective mature source rocks in the basin are largely limited to the synrift succession belonging to Albian and older periods. The source rock type is generally type III and type II. The reservoirs in the basin are distributed in sediments of all ages from late Jurassic Albian to Oligocene, with maximum accumulation in the Cretaceous succession. The natural gases in the basin are thermogenic generated in the catagenetic phase of maturation of source. The oil is generated from a mixed source input deposited in peat swamp to suboxic environment in the rifted setting. Petroleum System Source Rock Andimadam Formation of Albian age and Sattapadi Shale of Cenomanian Age. Reservoir Rocks (H/C bearing) Andimadam Fm. Bhuvanagiri Sands Nannilam Sands Kamalapuram Sands Neravi Sands CONCLUSIONS In India, ONGC alone has made more than 339 discoveries by the end of year 2007, with 122 in the offshore and 217 on the onshore areas. A total of approx. 650 BMT of oil + OEG have been made known from Indian sedimentary basins. Another 6 BMT is targeted to be added as resources during next 20 years. The probability of adding these resources stems from the remaining under-explored basins and from deeper horizons of the existing fields. Thus exploration horizon is to be enlarged both in time and space. A large scope still remains as brought out in the introduction to accelerate the exploration processes in the poorly explored or under-explored basins and by revisiting the mature basins with new concepts, models, tools and technologies. : : : : : Albian Turonian Upper Cretaceous Paleocene & Eocene Oligocene

Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India Besides, a vast possibility exists to be explored in the form of unconventional resources like Tight gas, Basin centred gas accumulations, and Shale gas which needs special technological interventions and mindset for exploitation. These resources are already commercially established and being produced in a large way. In USA Tight gas and Shale gas account for around 33% of the total gas production. REFERENCES
Chandra, U., Dhawan, R., Mittal, A.K., Dwivedi, P. and Uniyal, A.K., 1995, Stable isotope geochemistry of associated gases from Lakwa-Lakhmani Field, Upper Assam Basin, India, in Proceedings First International Petroleum Conference and Exhibition, PETROTECH-95: New Delhi, v. 3. Dasgupta, U. and Bulgauda, S.S. 1994, An overview of the geology and hydrocarbon occurrences in the western part of Bikaner- Nagaur Basin: Indian Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 3, No. 1. Dhannawat, B.S. and Mukherjee, M.K., 1997, Source rock studies in Jaisalmer basin, India: Indian Journal of Petroleum Geology, v. 6, (1) 1997. Kent, W.N., Hickman, R.G. and Dasgupta, Udayan, 2002, Application of a ramp/flat-fault model to interpretation of the Naga thrust and possible implications for petroleum exploration along the Naga thrust front: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 86 (12). Mathur, N., Raju, S.V. and Kulkarni, T.G., 2001, Improved identification of pay zones through integration of geochemical and log dataA case study from Upper Assam basin, India: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 85, no. 2. Naidu, B.D. and Panda, B.K., 1997, Regional source rock mapping in upper Assam Shelf, in Proceedings of the Second International Petroleum Conference and Exhibition, PETROTECH-97: New Delhi, v. 1. Raju, A.T.R. and Srinivasan, A.S., 1993, Cambay Basin- Petroleum habitat. Proc. Second seminar on petroliferous basins of India, vol. 2, S K Biswas et al (Eds). Indian Petroleum Publishers, Dehra Dun, India. Rangaraju, M.K., Agarwal, A. and Prabhakar K.N., 1991, Tectonostratigraphy structural style, evolutionary models and hydrocarbon prospects of Cauvery and Palar basins, India; Proceedings of II seminar on petroliferous basins of India. Venkatarengen, R., Rao, G.N, Prabhakar, KN, Singh, FDN, Awasthi, A.K, Reddy, P.K, Mishra, P.K and Roy S.K., 1993, Lithostratigraphy of Indian petroliferous basins, Doc. VIII, KDMIPE Publication. Wandrey, C.J., 2004, Sylhet-Kopili/Barail-Tipam composite petroleum systems, Assam Geologic Province, India: US Geological Survey Bulletin 2208-D. Zutshi, P.L., Sood, A, Divedi, A.K. and Srivastava, H.C., 1993, Lithostratigraphy of Indian petroliferous basins, Doc. V, Bombay offshore basin, KDMIPE Publication.