Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 19:419433, 2009 Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC ISSN:

: 1091-1359 print/1540-3556 online DOI: 10.1080/10911350902869409

Predictors of Academic Achievement for Latino Middle Schoolers

YVONNE RUIZ
School of Social Work, Salem State College, Salem, Massachusetts

The aim of this study was to examine specific child, home, and school factors that predict academic achievement for Latino middle school students. The sample for this study (N D 173) was drawn from seven public schools located in three school districts in the northeastern United States. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to predict academic achievement from a combination of predictor variables: gender, parent educational attainment, parent employment status, acculturation, parent involvement in school, and school identification. Findings indicate that school identification and parent involvement in school are protective factors that promote Latino middle grade students academic achievement. These findings suggest that collaborative partnerships between school social workers, teachers, and Latino students and their parents are an important strategy that can optimize connections to school that result in academic achievement. KEYWORDS Academic achievement, Hispanics, Latinos, parent involvement, school identification Much of the recent rise in minority enrollment in elementary and secondary schools may be attributed to the growth in the number of Latino students. As of 2002, Latino children younger than 18 years comprise 17.7% of all children in the United States (Ramirez & de la Cruz, 2003). Proportionately, the number of Latino children has been increasing faster than for White and Black children, and it is projected that more than one in five children younger than age 18 will be of Hispanic origin by 2020 (National Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2003). It is important to note that Latino and Hispanic are used interchangeably in this study, as both terms are frequently used in the literature to refer to individuals of Cuban, Dominican, Mexican,
Address correspondence to Yvonne Ruiz, PhD, LICSW, School of Social Work, Salem State College, 352 Lafayette Street, Salem, MA 01970-5353. E-mail: yruiz@salemstate.edu 419

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Puerto Rican, and South and Central American descent who are residing in the United States. Considering that Hispanic children represent growing numbers of the school-age population, academic achievement is of major importance. Hispanic students continue to lag behind White students in assessments on reading, mathematics, and science in elementary and secondary grades (NCES, 2003). Many studies have focused on the risk factors associated with academic underachievement among Latinos, such as minority status, discriminatory experiences, low socioeconomic status, institutional barriers at school, greater probability of placement in special education and remedial tracks, and limited-English proficiency (Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Ginorio & Huston, 2000; Martinez, DeGarmo, & Eddy, 2004). However, this risk perspective obscures the fact that many Latinos do succeed in school despite the risks. Although numerous studies have demonstrated that academic achievement among Latinos is determined by ecological processes rather than any one particular factor (Adams, Astone, Nunez-Wormack, & Smodlaka, 1994; Alva, 1991; Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Catterall, 1998; Ceballo, 2004; Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997; Gordon, 1996; Martinez et al., 2004; Reyes & Jason, 1993), few studies have examined the predictive ability of multiple ecological factors. The purpose of this study is to test a model of predictors of academic achievement for Latino middle schoolers to identify multiple protective factors that contribute to academic achievement. The theoretical framework for this study is based on Germain & Gittermans (1996) ecological perspective that focuses on the dynamic array of linked influences, between and among people and their environments, which shape and influence each other over time. In applying the ecological perspective to schools, Germain (2002) describes the school environment as a real-life ecological unit (p. 27) that includes the school, the child, and the family. This perspective recognizes that the school, the child, and the family share a dynamic context where multiple interactions occur that influence academic outcomes. Consistent with such a theoretical framework, Latino academic achievers are differentiated from their less successful classmates by personal characteristics, familial and sociocultural processes, and schoolrelated factors.

ECOLOGICAL FACTORS OF LATINO ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT Personal Characteristics

Prior studies have identified a variety of personal attributes that are associated with Latino academic achievement, including high levels of self-esteem and self-worth, an optimistic outlook, a highly positive attitude, and greater sense

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of control over life and the future, strong belief in cognitive abilities and in ability to do competent schoolwork, high academic aspirations, and an intrinsic drive to succeed (Alva, 1991; Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Buriel & Cardoza, 1988; Diaz, 1996; Finn & Rock, 1997; Gordon, 1996; Waxman, Huang, & Padrn, 1997).

Familial and Sociocultural Processes

Familial processes that contribute to Latino academic achievement include strong parent commitment to the importance of education, parent support and encouragement, including home practices such as checking homework and discussing school courses with children (Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Catterall, 1998; Ceballo, 2004; Diaz, 1996; Martinez et al., 2004). Sociocultural processes include households wherein both Spanish and English is spoken; wherein familism, cultural awareness, and cultural pride are evident; and wherein there are low levels of family conflicts and difficulties (Alva, 1991; Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997; Lango, 1995). Though some researchers suggest that acculturation is an important influence on education, results are inconsistent as to the direction of the relation between acculturation and academic achievement (Alva, 1991; Buriel & Cardoza, 1988; Martinez et al., 2004; Suarez-Orozco & Suarez-Orozco, 1995).

School-Related Factors
Latino academic achievers are distinguishable on a set of school behaviors that include more regular attendance, less tardiness, more homework completion, greater preparation and participation in class, and less conflict or disruptive behavior in the classroom (Finn & Rock, 1997; Reyes & Jason, 1993). Prior research suggests that these types of behaviors are fostered by school characteristics and school-related processes such as educational support from teachers, supportive mentors and role models, a supportive academic environment and a sense of belonging to school, enjoyment and involvement in school and school-related activities, and satisfaction with school (Alva, 1991; Brewster & Bowen, 2004; Ceballo, 2004; Diaz, 1996; Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997; Reyes & Jason, 1993; Waxman et al., 1997).

THE CURRENT STUDY

This study is designed to investigate the influence of a set of variables and their ability to predict academic achievement for Latino middle school students. The central hypothesis of this study is that parent involvement in school and school identification are predictors of academic achievement for Latino middle school students. The model controls for gender, parent

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educational level, parent employment status, and acculturation. Academic achievement is measured by grade and school participation.

METHOD Sample
The convenience sample for this study was drawn from students enrolled in seven northeastern public schools located in three school districts. The participants are seventh and eighth grade students who self-identified their ethnicity, race, and/or nationality as Hispanic or Latino (N D 173). Forty-six percent of the participants identified their nationality of origin from Puerto Rico, 12% from the Dominican Republic, 15% from Central America, 15% from South America, and 12% were Other. Participants ranged in age from 12.2 years to 16.3 years (for grade 7, M D 13.2 years; standard deviation [SD] D .64; for grade 8, M D 14.2 years; SD D .63). Table 1 presents demographic characteristics of the sample participants.

Procedures
A self-report questionnaire was administered to seventh and eighth grade Latino students during a free period at each school. A description of the research study and instructions were presented to the students. Passive informed consent forms in both English and Spanish were distributed to students one week prior to the date of the data collection; therefore, any student who was not given permission to participate by a parent or legal guardian was excused from the data collection session. Additionally, students were informed that their participation was voluntary and that they could opt out at any time. The questionnaire asked for sociodemographic data and included measures of acculturation, school participation, parent involvement in school, and school identification. School staff was present to help answer questions and assist students during the data collection process. On average, students completed the questionnaire in thirty minutes.

Independent Variables
Sociodemographic factors. The self-report questionnaire was designed to collect data on student characteristics, including gender, grade, nationality of origin, parent educational attainment, and parent employment status. The sample characteristics are reported in Table 1. Acculturation. The Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanic Youth has 12 items designed to assess familial language use, extrafamilial language use, and ethnic social relations (Barona & Miller, 1994). Answers to the 12 items (for example, What languages do your parents speak to you in? and What

Predictors of Academic Achievement TABLE 1 Characteristics of Student Participants by Gender, Grade, Nationality of Origin, Parent Educational Attainment, and Parent Employment Status (N D 173) Variable Gender Female Male Grade Seven Eight Nation of origin Puerto Rico Dominican Republic Central Americaa South Americab Otherc Parent educational attainment Mother not high school graduate Father not high school graduate Mother high school graduate or higher Father high school graduate or higher Parent employment status Two parents employed full-time Two parents employed part-time One parent employed full-time Single parent employed full- or part-time Parent unemployed Number 105 68 77 96 80 21 26 26 20 57 61 116 112 71 31 28 27 16 % 60.7 39.3 44.5 55.5 46.2 12.1 15.0 15.0 11.6 32.9 35.2 67.0 64.7 41.0 17.9 16.2 15.6 9.2

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Note. a Of the participants who identified their nationality as Central American, 76.9% identified themselves as El Salvadoran (n D 20) and 11.5% identified themselves as Guatemalan (n D 3). b Of the participants who identified themselves as South American, 92.3% identified themselves as Colombian (n D 24). c The participants who comprise the Other category (n D 16) identified two Hispanic/Latino nationalities (e.g., Puerto Rican and Guatemalan, Dominican and El Salvadoran).

languages do you usually speak with your friends?) are based on a 5-point response scale with language items ranging from 1 D only Spanish to 5 D only English and ethnic relations items ranging from 1 D all Hispanic to 5 D all White. The acculturation score is the sum total of the 12 items with a higher score indicating a higher level of acculturation. Scores ranged from 12 to 53; D .86 (M D 33.39, SD D 8.46). Parent involvement in school. The Parent Involvement in Schooling Questionnaire (Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling, 1992) has five items that assess parent involvement in school based on helping with homework, knowing how the student is doing in school, and attending school programs, sports or other extracurricular activities. For the purpose of this study, the item helping students select courses was dropped because it does not apply to middle school students. Two homework items were added:

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Makes sure homework is done and checks homework over. Answers to the six items are based on a 3-point response scale ranging from 1 D never to 3 D usually. Participants were asked to respond separately for mother, father, stepfather, and/or stepmother as appropriate. The parent involvement in school score is the sum total of the six items with a higher score indicating a higher level of parent involvement. The scores ranged from 6 to 18: D .76 (M D 13.56; SD D 2.91). School identification. The Identification with School Questionnaire (Voelkl, 1996) has 16 items designed to assess the degree to which students identify with school (for example, I feel proud of being a part of my school and I participate in activities at my school) and school-based outcomes (for example, Doing well in school is useful for getting a job and Doing well in school is important in life). Answers to the 16 items are based on a 4-point response scale ranging from 1 D strongly disagree to 4 D strongly agree. The school identification score is the sum total of 16 items (after reverse coding negative items), with 4 indicating a higher degree of identification for each item. A higher score indicates a higher level of school identification. Scores ranged from 25 to 63: D .80 (M D 49.35; SD D 6.97). Dependent variable. Academic achievement outcomes were measured by student self-report of their average grade in social studies class and a school participation questionnaire. Average grade in class was measured by one item that asked participants to report their average grade in social studies class. A review of the curriculum at each school demonstrated that social studies was a required course for all of the participants. The responses ranged from F to AC with B and BC as shared modal responses. The school participation questionnaire (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) contains nine items that assess behavioral and emotional school engagement in the classroom, including students effort, attention, and persistence during the initiation and execution of learning activities (for example, I participate in class discussions and I work hard when we start something new in class). Answers to the nine items are based on a 4-point response scale ranging from 1 D not at all true to 4 D very true. The school participation score is the sum total of nine items (after reverse-coding negative items), with a higher score indicating more active behavioral or more positive emotional engagement. Scores ranged from 3 to 36: D .76 (M D 27.15; SD D 4.77). The test results of the correlation between average grade in social studies class and school participation were not strong (r D .28). Therefore, academic achievement was measured separately by each variable, and all of the statistical procedures were run separately as two criterion variables.

Data Analysis
The purpose of this study is to predict academic achievement for Latino middle schoolers from a combination of independent variables based on

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home and school practices. Hierarchical linear regression was used to analyze the data. The model controls for gender, parent educational level, parent employment status, and acculturation. Each of the predictor variables was analyzed to the extent that it contributes relevant and unique variance to the whole set of predictor variables. Separate analyses were conducted on each of the two dependent variables used to measure academic achievement: average grade in class and school participation. In the first step of each regression analysis, the gender variable was entered. In step 2, parent educational level was entered into the model, followed by parent employment status in step 3. In step 4, acculturation was entered, followed by parent involvement in school in step 5. Finally, school identification was entered into the model in step 6. In each step of the analyses, the statistical significance of each variable was analyzed and evaluated as to whether entering the variable into the previous equation resulted in a significant increase in the variance accounted for in average grade in class and school participation.

RESULTS
Two hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to test the hypothesis that parent involvement in school and school identification are predictors of academic achievement for Latino middle school students. Standardized regression coefficients for hierarchical multiple regression models are shown in Table 2 and Table 3. The first analysis was conducted to predict the average grade in class from school identification after controlling for the unique variance in gender, parent educational level, parent employment status, acculturation, and parent involvement in school. The results of step 1 indicate that gender accounted for a significant amount of the average grade in class variability: R 2 D .02, F (1,171) D 4.12; p .05. Thus, gender accounts for 2% of the variance in average grade in class and suggests that there are gender differences in attaining a higher grade in class. The results of step 6 indicate that school
TABLE 2 Hierarchical Regression Results Predicting Average Grade in Class Step Step Step Step Step Step Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 Predictor variable Gender Parent educational level Parent employment status Acculturation Parent involvement in school School identification R2 .02* .03 .04 .04 .06 .11* R 2 .016 .020 .006 .019 .053

*p .05.

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Y. Ruiz TABLE 3 Hierarchical Regression Results Predicting School Participation Step Step Step Step Step Step Step 1 2 3 4 5 6 Predictor variable Gender Parent educational level Parent employment status Acculturation Parent involvement in school School identification R2 .01 .01 .01 .04* .08* .24* R 2 .003 .003 .057 .044 .159

*p .01

identification accounted for a significant amount of the average grade in class variability: R 2 D .11, F (1,166) D 10.21; p < .01. School identification accounted for 5.3% of the variance in average grade in class. This result suggests that when there is a higher level of school identification, there is also a higher average grade in class. The second analysis was conducted to predict school participation from school identification after controlling for the unique variance in gender, parent educational level, parent employment status, acculturation, and parent involvement in school. The results of this analysis indicated that none of the demographic variables accounted for any of the variability in school participation (p > .05). Acculturation accounted for a significant amount of the variability in school participation: R 2 D .04, F (1,168) D 10.17; p .01. Parent involvement in school accounted for a significant amount of the school participation variability over and above the demographic variables and acculturation: R 2 D .08, F (1,167) D 8.23; p .01. School identification accounted for a significant amount of the school participation variability over and above demographics, acculturation, and parent involvement: R 2 D .24, F (1,166) D 36.08; p .01. Acculturation accounted for 6% of the variance in school participation; parent involvement accounted for an additional 4 percent; and school identification accounted for an additional 16 percent of the variance in school participation. These results suggest that acculturation, parent involvement in school, and school identification account for a substantial amount of the variance in school participation. As school identification accounts for the largest share of the variance, these results suggest that a higher level of school identification predicts a higher level of school participation.

DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to test a model of predictors of Latino academic achievement in middle school to identify multiple protective factors within an ecological framework. Findings suggest that Latino students who have at

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least one parent who is involved in their schooling and who demonstrates support and commitment to the importance of education by assisting with homework and attending school events have higher academic achievement. Findings also suggest that students who are identified with school, who are prepared in class, and who enjoy school activities are more actively engaged in school, participate more, and earn good grades. The standardized coefficients indicated that school identification is the strongest predictor of academic achievement of all the predictor variables, including gender, acculturation, and parent involvement in school. These findings suggest that Latino students are more likely to earn higher grades and actively participate in school when they feel a personal connection with the people and activities that comprise the school community. Identification with adults, peers, and learning activities in the school environment fosters a sense of acceptance, involvement, and belongingness that may provide a foundation for academic achievement and act as a protective factor. An important aspect of school identification is that of belongingness, which is constructed as the extent to which one feels personally accepted, respected, included, and supported by others in the school environment (Finn, 1989). Researchers have speculated that the link between feelings of school belongingness and expectations of academic success for Hispanic students is due to the more communal and affiliative values of the Hispanic culture (Goodenow & Grady, 1993). From this perspective, the cultural values of personalized connections and relationships may account for school identifications stronger predictive value for school participation rather than for course grade as the cultural value is on interaction and collaboration rather than individual achievement. Nevertheless, the school identification findings suggest that these cultural values can potentially contribute to both greater school participation and higher grades if they are applied in the school environment. Acculturation accounted for 6% of the variance in school participation but was not a predictor of course grade. This finding suggests that more highly acculturated Latino students participate more in the classroom, including answering and asking questions, responding to the teacher, and engaging in learning activities; however, they do not necessarily earn higher grades than less acculturated students. Acculturation was measured by a questionnaire that is based solely on language usage in this study (Barona & Miller, 1994); therefore, students who are more proficient in the English language may feel more comfortable interacting with teachers and participating in the classroom. Parent involvement in school was also found to be a significant predictor of school participation but not of course grades. These findings indicate that students are more likely to participate, and that school participation is higher, when there is parent involvement in school. Studies that have looked at

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high-achieving Latino students suggest there is a positive relation between parent involvement in school and academic achievement (Arellano & Padilla, 1996; Catterall, 1998; Diaz, 1996; Gonzalez & Padilla, 1997). These studies support the findings reported here that parent involvement is a predictor of school participation and that Latino students who have at least one parent who is aware of how they are doing in school, who provides support and encouragement for homework, and who attends school activities are active participants in school. The results from this study also indicate that gender is a predictor accounting for 2% of the unique variance in average grade in class, but gender is not a predictor for school participation. Further analysis showed that girls are performing at lower levels than boys on course grades; however, school participation does not differ significantly by gender. Though Latina students may be participating in class and in school activities at the same level as boys, their course grades are not at the same level. These findings are not consistent with studies that have reported higher academic achievement among female Hispanic students rather than male Hispanic students (Adams et al., 1994; Diaz, 1996; Ginorio & Huston, 2000). However, some researchers suggest that Latinas are generally at risk for low educational attainment owing to a cultural stereotype of young Latinas as underachievers that is often reinforced by others in the family, in school, and in U.S. society generally and contributes to low educational attainment (De Leon, 1996; Hernandez, 1995; Romo, 1998). In this study, school identification and parent involvement in school are the strongest predictors of academic achievement for Latino middle school students. These findings suggest that identification with school provides a sense of motivation, competency, and confidence that enables positive relationships with peers, teachers, and other adults in the school environment. These findings also suggest that Latino students participate at higher levels in school, including paying attention in class, responding to the teachers questions and directions, and making persistent efforts to learn new material, when parents are supportive, help with homework, and attend school events. Thus, Latino middle school academic achievers are supported by ecological factors in the home and school.

Limitations of the Study

The results of this research study have promising implications for fostering academic achievement among Hispanic students in the middle grades; however, several factors limit the generalizability of this study and highlight the need for further investigation. First, the sample on which these findings are based is not fully representative of the U.S. Hispanic population because several nationalities are not included, most notably the Mexican American and Cuban American groups.

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Second, the questionnaire is based on student self-report, and it is possible that there is response bias in the data. For example, participants were asked to report their average grade in social studies class; however, the grade may not be accurate for a number of reasons, including grade inflation or inability to calculate the average. Any interpretation of the findings from this study must also take into account that the level of academic achievement may not be fully captured as participants were asked for their average grade in only one subject, and this may not reflect the participants total school performance. Additionally, the questionnaire was available only in English; therefore, participants who might have preferred a Spanish language version of the questionnaire did not have the opportunity to make that choice. Third, it must also be noted that acculturation was measured by a questionnaire that is based solely on usage of the English or Spanish language (Barona & Miller, 1994). This questionnaire was used because it is one of the few measures designed specifically for Latino youth; however, acculturation can also measured by cultural characteristics, such as cultural knowledge, history, traditions, familism, self-assessments of ethnic identity, and the consumption of Hispanic or American food (Casas & Pytluk, 1995). Acculturation measures that include both cultural characteristics and language usage may provide further data on the association between acculturation and academic achievement. Thus, these results must be interpreted with caution in light of the limitations that are associated with the data.

Implications for Social Work Practice

Given these findings, it is clear that successfully fostering academic achievement in Latino youths requires an ecological systems perspective that includes the child, the family, and the school. The literature suggests that there are specific home and school practices that are associated with academic achievement that can inform school social workers in their work with Latino youth and families. Knowledge of these ecological factors can provide guidance for school social workers in addressing the needs of Latino students and their families by recognizing the reciprocal nature of school, child, and family factors in the development of academic achievement. School social workers are in a unique position to support and foster academic achievement in Latino youth and their families owing to their training in an ecological approach to understanding the needs of families. Thus, by promoting school identification and parent involvement in school, social workers can work with Latino students to develop and strengthen academic achievement. These findings point to the need for Latino youth to feel accepted and valued in their school environments, to feel that school is where they belong and where they want to be and a place where adults care about them. Latino students also need parents involvement in school and support for academic

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interests. School social workers can be leaders in promoting coordination and communication among students, their families, and teachers that fosters academic achievement. School social workers can work individually with students to strengthen identification with school, develop support groups and mentoring programs designed for students, collaborate with families to increase parent involvement, and join with teachers and school staff to establish effective systems. Contact with teachers is a particularly important part of the school identification process, and students who feel respected as individuals are likely to form positive relationships with teachers and school staff. Workers can facilitate contact with teachers in the classroom and with other school staff through informal extracurricular activities. School social workers can serve as advocates in representing the voices of the students and families they serve. Workers who demonstrate support for students and validate their contributions also strengthen school identification by reinforcing feelings of school membership and competence. These feelings may be further strengthened by a curriculum that includes topics related to Hispanic history and heritage that are directly connected with students lives and experiences. Workers who develop youth leadership opportunities and help integrate Hispanic-themed content in the curricula also help create a safe and inviting school environment. School social workers can intervene at the family level through collaboration with Latino parents. Latino parents frequently report being misunderstood, misinterpreted, or not listened to by school personnel, and similarly, school staff report frustration and inability to communicate problems or expectations to Latino parents (Falicov, 1998; Scribner, Young, & Pedroza, 1999). Workers can facilitate the change processes that meet the needs and issues for Latino children and their families by collaborating with parents to support their childrens academic motivation and interests, provide emotional support, and increase their involvement in school activities. Collaboration acknowledges the importance of support and reinforcement at home by parents and extended family members and improves parents connections and meaningful contributions to the school. Collaboration reinforces parent involvement as an integral component of academic achievement in the school environment. School social workers are in an ideal position to influence policies and create programs that increase welcoming and supportive practices among all school staff toward Latino students, parents, and families. Workers must identify those school conditions and policies that hinder school identification and parent involvement and work toward implementing more supportive conditions. School social workers should also work to increase the visibility of ethnically diverse adults and role models in the school system. School-based efforts that address multiple ecological factors in the home and school recognize the reciprocal nature of child, family, and school factors

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in the development of academic achievement. Efforts to optimize academic and social competence, establish caring and supportive relationships, and create welcoming school cultures can change Latino students life chances by contributing toward the development of protective factors. School social workers can play a pivotal role by addressing the multiple ecological factors identified in this study that predict academic achievement for Latino middle school students.

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