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INTRODUCTION
The four basic types of tissues in the body are the: Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscular tissue Nervous tissue These tissue exist and function in close association with one another.
Epithelia
Epithelia are a diverse group of tissues which cover or line all body surfaces, cavities and Tubes. They function as interfaces between different biological compartments. As such, the mediate a wide range of activities such as; Selective diffusion Absorption and/or secretion Physical protection Containment
They are closely bound to one another by a variety of membrane specialisations called cell junctions which provide physical strength and exchange of info and metabolites. All epithelia are supported by basement membrane which separates epithelia from underlying supporting tissues and are never penetrated by blood vessels. Thus, epithelia are dependent on the diffusion of oxygen and metabolites from adjacent supporting tissues.
Structure
Arrangement of cells
separates the epithelium from the underlying conective tissue. Can easily be seen with a light microscope.
Epithelium
is
traditionally
classified
according
to
three
morphological characteristics: The number of cell layer: a single layer of epithelial cells is termed SIMPLE epithelium, whereas epithelia composed of several layers are termed STRATIFIED epithelium
The shape of the component cells: This is based on appearance of sections taken at right angles to the epithelial surface. NB: In stratified epithelia the shape of the outermost layer of cells determines the descriptive classification. Cellular outline are often difficult to distinguish, but the shape of epithelial cells is usually reflected in the shape of their nuclei.
The presence of surface specialisation such as cilia and keratin: an example is the epithelia surface of skin whis is classified as stratified squamous keratinized epithelium. NB: Epithelial maybe derived from ectoderm, mesoderm or endoderm origin.
Glands Epithelia
Epithelium which is primarily involved in secretion is often arranged into structures called GLANDS Glands are merely invaginations of epithelial surfaces which are formed during embryonic development by proliferation of epithelium into the underlying tissues
EXOCRINE glands.
In some cases, the duct degenerates during development leaving isolated islands of epithelial secretory tissue deep within other tissues.
Glands are cells or aggregations of cells whose function is secretion. Exocrine glands release the secretory product via a system of ducts that opens upon one of the surfaces of the body which are in contact with the external world (skin, gastrointestinal tract etc.).
into the spaces between the secretory cells (extracellular space) from
Both endocrine and exocrine glands are developmentally derived from epithelia, which form a down-growth into the underlying connective tissue. The cells forming this down-growth then develop the special
characteristics of the mature gland. NB: Exocrine glands maintain the connection with the surface epithelium, whereas the connection is lost by endocrine glands.
Exocrine glands
and ducts.
only example of unicellular exocrine glands are goblet cells, which occur
substance, mucus.
Multicellular glands: The simplest form of a multicellular gland is a secretory epithelial sheath - a surface epithelium consisting entirely of secretory cells (e.g. the epithelium lining the inner surface of the stomach, where the mucous secretion protects the stomach wall from the acidic contents of the stomach). Other multicellular glands have their secretory portion embedded in the connective tissue underlying the epithelium. The secretion is either discharged directly from the secretory portion onto the epithelium or reaches the epithelium via a duct system that consists of non-secretory cells.
The secretory portion may have a variety of shapes. Secretory cells may form tubes in tubular glands, acini in acinar glands or alveoli in alveolar glands
section
of
the
secretory
system
has
specialized
function.
The precursors of digestive enzymes are produced by the acinar cells. Tubular
cells secrete the alkaline bicarbonate solution which eventually neutralizes the
acidic contents of the stomach that are released into the duodenum.
Multicellular
glands
with
an
unbranched
excretory
duct
are
called simple.
branched gland.
Secretory Mechanisms
The secretory cells can release their secretory products by one of three
exocytosis. Vesicles open onto the surface of the cell, and the
Apocrine secretion: designates a mechanism in which part of the apical cytoplasm of the cells is lost together with the secretory product. The continuity of the plasma membrane is restored by the fusion of the broken edges of the membrane, and the cell is able to accumulate the secretory product anew. This mechanism is used by apocrine sweat glands, the mammary glands and the prostate.
There are two additional mechanisms by which secretory cells can release their products. Lipid soluble substances may diffuse out of the secretory cell (e.g. steroid hormone-producing endocrine cells). Transporters (membrane proteins) may actively move the secretory product across the plasma membrane (e.g. the acid producing parietal cells of the gastric glands). These secretory mechanisms may not involve any light microscopically visible specialisations of the cell.
This is the most widespread and abundant type of tissue in the human
forms,
all
types
have
three
basic
structural
elements
--
Connective tissue serves as: Packing Holds the cells of organs together Passes on nutrients to other tissues from the blood And active in fighting disease-causing organisms. The cells in connective tissue are always well spaced in a thick, fluid base substance, or matrix, in which there may also be long, thin threads called fibers.
The most common cell types are fibroblasts, which produce fibres and other intercellular materials. The two most common types of fibres are: collagen (collagenous) and elastic. Collagen fibres are for strength while the elastic ones are for elasticity of the tissue. Both the cells and the fibres are embedded in the intercellular substance. The consistency of this substance is highly variable from gelatinlike to a much more rigid material.
The proportions of the cells, fibres, and intercellular substance vary, depending on a particular nature and function of the connective tissue. For example, a strong connective tissue needs a greater proportion of the collagen fibres and fewer cells. An example would be a dense regular connective tissue, which is found in tendons and ligaments. On the other hand, a connective tissue composed of mostly cells would not be very strong. An example would be an adipose (fat) connective tissue.
connecting one part with another and, equally important, separating one
group of cells from another. This is a very large and diverse group of
tissues and includes adipose tissue (fat), areolar (loose) tissue, and
and blood. Cartilage and bone form the skeletal framework of the body
The fibres of areolar connective tissue are arranged in no particular pattern but run in all directions and form a loose network in the intercellular material. Collagen (collagenous) fibres are predominant. They usually appear as broad pink bands. Some elastic fibres, which appear as thin, dark fibres are also present.
The cellular elements, such as fibroblasts, are difficult to distinguish in the areolar connective tissue. usually visible. They have course, dark-staining granules in their cytoplasm. Since the cell membrane is very delicate it frequently ruptures in slide preparation, resulting in a number of granules free in the tissue surrounding the mast cells. The nucleus in these cells is small, oval and light-staining, and may be obscured by the dark granules. But, one type of cells - the mast cells are
Adipose Connective Tissue The cells of adipose (fat) tissue are characterized by a large internal fat droplet, which distends the cell so that the cytoplasm is reduced to a thin layer and the nucleus is displaced to the edge of the cell. These cells may appear singly but are more often present in groups. When they accumulate in large numbers, they become the predominant cell type and form adipose (fat) tissue. Adipose tissue, in addition to serving as a storage site for fats (lipids), also pads and protects certain organs and regions of the body. As well, it forms an
insulating layer under the skin which helps regulate body temperature.
Furthermore, in this tissue type, the fibres are organized in a regular, parallel pattern. Hence, the name dense regular (fibrous or collagenous) connective tissue. In addition to the tendons, this type of tissue is also found in ligaments. Hence, the function of this tissue is to anchor skeletal muscle to bone, to attach bone to bone as well as to stabilize the bones within a joint. Fibroblasts are the only cells visible, and are arranged in rows between the fibres. These fibroblasts function to lay down or create the fibres of the tissue
Cartilage: Specialized Connective Tissues Cartilage is a somewhat elastic, pliable and compact type of connective tissue. It is characterized by three traits: lacunae, chondrocytes, a rigid matrix. The matrix is a firm gel material that contains fibres and other substances.
There are three basic types of cartilage in the human body: hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage and fibrocartilage.
The most common type of cartilage is the hyaline cartilage. Most of the skeleton of the mammalian fetus is composed of hyaline cartilage. As the fetus ages, the cartilage is gradually replaced by more supportive bone. In the mammalian adult, hyaline cartilage is mainly restricted to: the nose, trachea, Bronchi, ends of the ribs, and the articulating surfaces of most joints
The matrix appears as a smooth, solid, blue or pink-coloured substance. Fine protein fibres, are embedded in the matrix, but they are not visible with the light microscope since they do not stain well. The large cartilage cells called chondrocytes, are trapped within the matrix in spaces called lacunae (singular, lacuna). Cartilage is a non-vascular tissue. As such, the chondrocytes rely on blood vessels in the tissue surrounding the cartilage for nutrient supply and waste removal.
BONE
Bone is the main component of the skeleton in the adult human. Like cartilage, bone is a specialised form of dense connective tissue.
Trabecular or cancellous or spongy bone consists of delicate bars and sheets of bone, trabeculae, which branch and intersect to form a sponge like network. The ends of long bones
Compact bone does not have any spaces or hollows in the bone matrix
that are visible to the eye. Compact bone forms the thick-walled tube of
the shaft (or diaphysis) of long bones, which surrounds the marrow cavity
(or medullary cavity). A thin layer of compact bone also covers the
Bone is, again like cartilage, surrounded by a layer of dense connective tissue, the periosteum. A thin layer of cell-rich connective tissue, the endosteum, lines the surface of the bone facing the marrow cavity. Both the periosteum and the endosteum possess osteogenic potency. Following injury, cells in these layers may differentiate into osteoblasts (bone forming cells) which become involved in the repair of damage to the bone.
Compact Bone Compact bone consists almost entirely of extracellular substance, the matrix. Osteoblasts deposit the matrix in the form of thin sheets which are called lamellae. Lamellae are microscopical structures. Collagen fibres within each lamella run parallel to each other. Collagen fibres which belong to adjacent lamellae run at oblique angles to each other. Fibre density seems lower at the border between adjacent lamellae, which gives rise to the lamellar appearance of the tissue. Bone which is composed by lamellae when viewed under the microscope is also called lamellar bone.
In the process of the deposition of the matrix, osteoblasts become encased in small hollows within the matrix, the lacunae. Unlike chondrocytes, osteocytes have several thin processes, which extend from the lacunae into small channels within the bone matrix , the canaliculi. Canaliculi arising from one lacuna may anastomose with those of other lacunae and, eventually, with larger, vessel-containing canals within the bone. Canaliculi provide the means for the osteocytes to communicate with each other and to exchange substances by diffusion.
In mature compact bone most of the individual lamellae form concentric rings around larger longitudinal canals (approx. 50 m in diameter) within the bone tissue. These canals are called Haversian canals. Haversian canals typically run parallel to the surface and along the long axis of the bone. The canals and the surrounding lamellae (8-15) are called a Haversian system or an osteon. A Haversian canal generally contains one or two capillaries and nerve fibres.
Irregular areas of interstitial lamellae, which apparently do not belong to any Haversian system, are found in between the Haversian systems. Immediately beneath the periosteum and endosteum a few lamella are found which run parallel to the inner and outer surfaces of the bone. They are the circumferential lamellae and endosteal lamellae.
A second system of canals, called Volkmann's canals, penetrates the bone more or less perpendicular to its surface. These canals establish connections of the Haversian canals with the inner and outer surfaces of the bone. Vessels in Volkmann's canals communicate with vessels in the Haversian canals on the one hand and vessels in the endosteum on the other. A few communications also exist with vessels in the periosteum.
Trabecular Bone The matrix of trabecular bone is also deposited in the form of lamellae. In mature bones, trabecular bone will also be lamellar bone.
However, lamellae in trabecular bone do not form Haversian systems. Lamellae of trabecular bone are deposited on pre-existing trabeculae depending on the local demands on bone rigidity. Osteocytes, lacunae and canaliculi in trabecular bone resemble those in compact bone.