Reading: Sections 9.19.6 in White.

After completing this unit, you will have a basic understanding of the differences
between incompressible and compressible flow physics. Specifically,
you will be able to:
State the assumptions for compressible, isentropic flow.
Understand why pressure, density, and temperature all vary with velocity
for compressible flow.
Relate pressure, density, and temperature to Mach number for isentropic
flow.
Understand the basic differences between compressible and incompressible
flow through a converging-diverging nozzle.
Explain how and why a moving shock wave behaves differently than
a sound wave.
Solve isentropic converging-diverging nozzle flow problems. Explain how and
why shocks might form in a supersonic nozzle.
Solve converging-diverging nozzle flow problems involving shocks.
Well focus on 1D inviscid flow of a perfect gas. Viscous compressible flow is
harder to analyze, as are real gas effects.
COMPRESSIBLE FLOW
1
Compressible flow a flow in which there are significant
changes in fluid density (approx. more than 3%)
Density changes create a mechanism for exchange of energy
between mechanical energies and thermal internal energy.
Equations for compressible flow dynamics:
Continuity equation
Momentum equation
Energy equation
Equation of state
6 equations and 6 unknowns
Ma < 0.3 incompressible flow
0.3 < Ma <0.8 subsonic flow
0.8< Ma < 1.2 transonic flow
1.2 < Ma < 3 supersonic flow
Ma > 3 hypersonic flow
External flows Internal flows
Ma < 1 subsonic flow
Ma > 1 supersonic flow
2
Objectives
By the end of the class, you should be able to:
- Calculate internal energy, enthalpy, entropy
and specific heats for a perfect gas
- Define isentropic flow
- Find the power-law relations for an isentropic
perfect gas
3
Internal energy, enthalpy and specific heats
real gas
(v, ) e e T =
Specific Internal energy e for a real gas
v is the specific volume, T - temperature
v
v
v
v T v
e e e
de dT d c
T T

| | | | | |
= + =
| | |

\ \ \
Enthalpy for a real gas
p
h e

= +
( , )
p
T
h h p T
h h
dh dT dp
T p
=
| |
| |
= +
| |

\
\

p
p
h
c
T

| |
=
|

\
Specific heat at constant pressure
Specific heat at constant volume
4
For a perfect gas, internal energy and enthalpy are related simply to
temperature:
and the specific heats are related to each other and the gas constant by
( )
( )
2 2
1 1
2 2
1 1
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
e T
v v
e T
h T
p p
h T
e e de c dT c T T
h h dh c dT c T T
= = =
= = =


Internal energy, enthalpy and specific heats
perfect gas
Perfect gas law says:
5
Second Law of Thermodynamics for Perfect Gases
Typically, we write the Second Law as:
where Q is positive for heat added to the flow and Q is used instead of dQ
because the result is path-independent. In differential form, and using the
First Law definition of Q,
If we eliminate h and we get:
For constant specific heat, we can integrate to get:
Eliminate pressure instead of density, and we get:
6
Isentropic Compressible Flow
A process reversible and adiabatic is also isentropic
For any isentropic process, s = 0, so
Similarly from equation of state:
Summarizing, we get for any isentropic process for a perfect gas:
7
Isentropic Compressible Flow
Physically, this means that for compressible flow, any
increase in pressure implies also an increase in
temperature and density.
Note that Bernoullis equation in its most common form
cant be applied for compressible flows, because we
assumed constant density in deriving it. Nevertheless,
its still true that the pressure decreases with
increasing velocity.
The accompanying temperature decrease is easiest to
interpret physically as an energy effect: the fluid
exchanges thermal energy for kinetic energy as it
accelerates.
8
Application: Property changes in Compressible Duct flow
Air flows through a long duct of constant area at 0.15 kg/s. A short section of the duct
is cooled by liquid nitrogen that surrounds the duct. The absolute pressure,
temperature , and velocity entering the cooled section are 188 kPa, 440K, and
210m/s, respectively. At the outlet, the absolute pressure and temperature are 213
kPa and 351 K. Compute the duct cross-sectional area and the changes in enthalpy,
internal energy and entropy for this flow.
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10
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Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
Derive an expression for the speed of sound in any
medium in terms of thermodynamics quantities
Derive specific expressions for the speed of sound
in solid, liquid and perfect gas
Propagation of sound waves
Mach number , Ma = V/c
c - sound speed
V - fluid velocity
Speed of sound is an important marker in Fluid Mechanics
Sound is a pressure wave of very low pressure magnitude, for
human hearing typically between 10
-9
atm and 10
-3
atm.
Superimposed on the ambient atmospheric pressure, sound
waves consist of extremely small pressure fluctuations.
Sound speed is the rate of propagation of a pressure pulse of
infinitesimal strength through a still liquid. It is a thermodynamic
property of a fluid.
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Propagation of Sound Waves
Consider propagation of a sound wave of an infinitesimal strength into
an undisturbed medium.
We are interested in relating the speed of wave propagation c, to fluid
property changes across the wave
Propagating wave
Note: The flow appears unsteady to a stationary observer
Propagation of Sound Waves
Inertial control volume moving with wave velocity c
Note: The flow appears steady to an observer located on an inertial control
volume moving with a segment of the wave
Conservation of Mass
Conservation of Momentum
Sound Speed in different media
We have derived the expression for the speed of sound in any medium in
terms of thermodynamic properties:
2 2
1 , for p, very small
p dp
c c
d

| |
= + =
|

\
The sound wave propagates isentropically (reversible and adiabatic)
( , )
s
p p
p p s dp d ds
s

| |
| |
= = +
| |

\
\
The speed of sound

s
p
c

| |
=
|

\
For a perfect gas in an isentropic process
constant
k
p

=
c kRT =
2

s
dp p
c
d
| |
= =
|

\
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Solids and liquids: we define the bulk modulus:
/
dp dp
K
d d

= =
19
Application: Speed of sound in Steel, Water and Air
Find the speed of sound in (a) steel (K=200 GN/m
2
), (b) water (at 20 C), and (c)
air at sea level on a standard day.
Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
Define the stagnation condition and stagnation
properties
Write the conservation of energy for
compressible flow
Write relationships for properties at sonic point
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Reference state
1 2
Actual flow P
1
,T
1
,
1
, e
1
,h
1
,s
1
, V
1
P
2
,T
2
,
2
, e
2
,h
2
,s
2
, V
2
P
10
,T
10
,
10
, e
10
,h
10
,s
10,
V=0
P
20
,T
20
,
20
, e
20
,h
20
,s
20,
V=0
Isentropic processes
Local stagnation properties
In compressible flow, all properties may be changing, as the flow proceeds.
We need to obtain reference conditions that can be used to relate
conditions in flow from point to point.
A reference condition is obtained when the fluid is brought to rest (V=0) -
Stagnation condition
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Conservation of Energy
For any adiabatic, work-free flow (not necessarily isentropic), energy
per unit mass is:
Now well use perfect gas and speed of sound to manipulate this.
Replace c
p
with k
Now using definition of Mach number
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25
Mach Number Relations for , P, T
If the flow is also reversible (that is, if the flow is isentropic), thermo tells
us that:
Combining with the energy equation, we get
26
Properties at Sonic Point (Ma=1)
Even if there is no point in the given flow field where the Mach number is equal
to unity, such a hypothetical condition still is useful as a reference condition
In terms of stagnation quantities, we have
For air (k=1.4), the values are:
Lower relative values for T, , P imply supersonic flow.
T*, *, p* - Properties at Ma=1
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Example 1: Stagnation Conditions for Commercial Jet
Given: 737 flying at Ma=0.85 at 11000 m altitude (T=217K, P =22,600 Pa)
Find: Flight speed, stagnation pressure and temperature.
Solution:
Speed of sound (from definition)
Velocity (from definition of Mach number)
28
Stagnation temperature (from isentropic flow relations)
Stagnation pressure (from isentropic flow relations)
29
Example 2
A Formula 1 car is hitting top speed of Mach 0.3 on a day when the air pressure
is 100 kPa and the temperature is 20 C. What are the temperature and
pressure of the air at the stagnation point on the nose cone of the car?
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Objectives
By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:
Understand how fluid properties change with area
change
Understand how the sonic condition can be
attained
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Compressible Flow with Area Change
Assume:
Isentropic flow
Perfect gas
Area changes slowly with x
Wall nearly straight
Neglect velocity variation across the duct
Flow is changed only by area variation
32
Mass flux same at every section
or, taking a differential and dividing by mass flux:
Differential form of Bernoulli (OK for compressible or incompressible
flow): from energy conservation
Speed of sound: For isentropic flow:
dA
+ 0
A
d dV
V

+ =
Basic set of equations for compressible flow with
area change
+VdV 0
dP

=
33
34
35
Nozzle accelerates flow
Diffuser decelerates flow
36
Sonic flow, Ma=1
To avoid singularities in pressure and velocity when Ma=1, we require that
as . Hence, for an isentropic flow, sonic condition can
only occur where the area is constant.
Sonic conditions are limited not just to a location of constant area, but one
that is minimum area.
For isentropic flow the sonic condition Ma=1 can only be attained at a
throat, or section of minimum area ( This does not mean that a throat
must have Ma=1!!)
To accelerate a fluid isentropically from rest to supersonic speed we would
need to have a subsonic nozzle (converging section) followed by a
supersonic nozzle (diverging section), with Ma=1 at the throat. This
device is called converging-diverging nozzle (C-D nozzle). We need
also to generate and maintain a pressure difference between inlet and
exit.
0 dA
1 Ma
37
Reference conditions for isentropic flow of an
ideal gas
T
T
o
T
1
T
2
T*
Reference stagnation state
State 1
State 2
Reference critical state
s (entropy)
Stagnation conditions are constant throughout the isentropic flow
We need two reference states because the reference stagnation state does
not provide area information
38
39
40
Mach Number and Area
This equation is added to equations giving fluid properties at stagnation point
A* - area at Ma=1
41
Example: Isentropic flow in a converging channel
Air flows isentropically in a channel. At section 1, the Mach number is 0.3,
the area is 0.001 m
2
, and the absolute pressure and the temperature are
650 kPa, and 62 C, respectively.
At section 2 , the Mach number is 0.8. Sketch the channel shape, plot a Ts
(temperature-entropy) diagram for the process and evaluate properties at
section 2. Verify that the results agree with basic equations.
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43
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Basic equations for 1 D compressible flow perfect gas, isentropic
(system of equations to be solved)
Continuity equation
Momentum equation
Conservation of energy
Second law of thermodynamics - Isentropic power laws
Equation of state
Equations for reference stagnation and critical condition for isentropic
flow perfect gas
TABLES Appendix B - White
45
Approximate formulae
Find Mach number for given A/A

( )
( )
2
*
*
*
0.45
*
*
*
1 0.27 /
1.34 < / subsonic flow
1.728 /
1-0.88 ln 1 < / 1.34 subsonic flow
1 1.2 1
A A
A A
A A
A
A A
A
Ma
A
A

+
<
| |
<
|
\

+
*
1/ 5
2/ 3
*
* *

1 < / < 2.9 supersonic flow
216 254 2.9 < / < supersonic flow
A A
A A
A A
A A

(
| |

(
|

\
(

46
Guidelines for Ma number calculations
These are correct to within 2% for k = 1.4. If you want, you can always use the Mach
number you get from this estimate to iterate a time or two with the exact equation for
A/A

in terms of Mach number. For subsonic Mach numbers, the stable iteration
solves for the Ma outside the exponentiation:
For supersonic Mach numbers, the stable iteration solves for the other occurrence of
Ma:
These iterations dont converge incredibly quickly, but they do converge, especially if
you begin with the Mach number estimates given by the approximate formulae above.
Or you can just interpolate in the isentropic flow tables if you prefer.
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Example: Air flows isentropically through a duct with T
0
= 300C. At two
sections with identical areas of 25 cm
2
, the pressures are p
1
= 120 kPa and
p
2
= 60 kPa. Determine (a) the mass flow; (b) the throat area, and (c) Ma
2
.
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