CHAPTER- 1 HUMANOID ROBOTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION: A humanoid robot or an anthropomorphic robot is a robot with its overall appearance, based on that of the human body, allowing interaction with made-for-human tools or environments. In general humanoid robots have a torso with a head, two arms and two legs, although some forms of humanoid robots may model only part of the body, for example, from the waist up. Some humanoid robots may also have a 'face', with 'eyes' and 'mouth'. Androids are humanoid robots built to aesthetically resemble a human as in shown in figure 1.1.

Fig 1.1: ASIMO Humanoid Robot A humanoid robot is an autonomous robot, because it can adapt to changes in its environment or itself and continue to reach its goal. This is the main difference between

humanoid and other kinds of robots. In this context, some of the capacities of a humanoid robot may include, among others: self-maintenance (i.e. recharging itself) autonomous learning (learn or gain new capabilities without outside assistance, adjust strategies based on the surroundings and adapt to new situations) avoiding harmful situations to people, property, and itself safe interacting with human beings and the environment

Like other mechanical robots, humanoid refer to the following basic components too: Sensing, Actuating and Planning and Control. Since they try to simulate the human structure and behavior and they are autonomous systems, generally humanoid robots are more complex than other kinds of robots.This complexity affects all robotic scales (mechanical, spatial, time, power density, system and computational complexity), but it is more noticeable on power density and system complexity scales. In the first place, most current humanoids arent strong enough even to jump and this happens because the power/weight ratio is not as good as in the human body. The dynamically balancing Dexter can jump, but poorly so far. On the other hand, there are very good algorithms for the several areas of humanoid construction, but it is very difficult to merge all of them into one efficient system (the system complexity is very high). Nowadays, these are the main difficulties that humanoid robots development has to deal with. Humanoid robots are created to imitate some of the same physical and mental tasks that humans undergo daily. Scientists and specialists from many different fields including engineering, cognitive science, and linguistics combine their efforts to create a robot as human-like as possible. Their creators' goal for the robot is that one day it will be able to both understand human intelligence, reason and act like humans. If humanoids are able to do so, they could eventually work in cohesion with humans to create a more productive and higher quality future. Another important benefit of developing androids is to understand the human body's biological and mental processes, from the seemingly simple act of walking to the concepts of consciousness and spirituality.

There are currently two ways to model a humanoid robot. The first one models the robot like a set of rigid links, which are connected with joints. This kind of structure is similar to the one that can be found in industrial robots. Although this approach is used for most of the humanoid robots, a new one is emerging in some research works that use the knowledge acquired on biomechanics. In this one, the humanoid robot's bottom line is a resemblance of the human skeleton. Robots by Feng Yuan are also created for time pass.The Beat Magnum True Hero Robot is an example of a robot which is used by children to make small robots fight.

1.2 HISTORY The concept of human like automatons is nothing new. Already in the second century B.C.,Hero of Alexander constructed statues that could be animated by water, air and steam pressure. In 14995,Leonardo Da Vinci designed and possibly built a mechanical device that looked like an armored knight. It was designed to sit up, wave its arms, and move it s head via a flexible neck while opening and closing its jaw. By the eighteenth century, elaborate mechanical dolls were able to write short phrases, play musical instruments, and perform other simple , life like acts. In 1921 the word robot was coined by Karel Capek in its theatre play:R.U.R(Rossums Universal Robot). The mechanical servant in the play had a humanoid appearance. The first humanoid robot to appear in the movies was Maria in the film Metropolis. Westinghouse Electric Corporation exhibited at the 1939 and 1940 worlds fairs the tall motor man Elektro. Humanoid in appearance, it could drive on wheels in the feet, play recorded speech,smoke cigarettes, blow up balloons, and moves its head and arms. Elektro was controlled by 48 electrical relays and could response to voice commands. Humanoid robots were not only part of the western culture.in 1952,Ozamu Tezuka created Astroboy, the first and one of the worlds most popular Japanese sci-fi robots. In 1973, the construction of a human-like robot was started at the Waseda University in Tokyo. Wabot-1 was the first full-scale anthropomorphic robot able to walk on two legs. It could also communicate with a person in Japanese and was able to grip and transport objects with touch-sensitive hands. The group of Ichiro Kato also developed Wabot-2,
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which read music and play an electonic gun. It was demonstrated at the Expo1985 in Tsukuba, Japan. Wabot-2 was equipped with a hierarchical system of 80 microprocessors. Its wire-driven arms and legs had 50 degrees of freedom. Many researchers have also been inspired by the movie Stra Wars which featured the humanoid robot C3-PO and by the TV series Star Trek which featured the humanoid data.In 1986 , Honda began a robot research programwith the goal that a robot should cooperate and coexist with human beings,by doing what a person cannot do and by cultivating a new dimension in mobility to ultimately benefit society. After ten years of research , Honda intoduced in 1996 P2 to the public, the first self-contained full- body humanoid. It was able to walk not only on flat floors,but could climb stairs. It was followed in 1997 by P3 and in 2002 by Asimo. In the U.S.Manny, a full-scale android body, was completed by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory in 1989. Manny had 42 degrees of freedom, but no intelligence or autonomous mobility. Rodney Brooks and his team at MIT started in 1993 to construct the humanoid upper-body Cog. It was designed and built to emulate human thought processes and experience the world as a human. Another milestone was the Sony Dream Robot,Unveiled by Sony in the year 2000. The small humanoid robot, which was later called Qrio, was able to recognise face, could express emotion through speech and body language, and could walk on flat as well as irregular surfaces.More recent examples of humanoid robot appearances in the movies include David from A.I., and NS-5 from I,Robot. The developments in humanoid robots through time has been shown in the table shown below. Table 1.1: Development through times Year Development

c. 250 BC The Lie Zi described an automaton.[3]

c. 50 AD

Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria described a machine to automatically pour wine for party guests.[4]
4

1206

Al-Jazari described a band made up of humanoid automata which, according to Charles B. Fowler, performed "more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection."[5] Al-Jazari also created hand washing automata with automatic humanoid servants,[6][verification needed] and an elephant clock incorporating an automatic humanoid mahout striking a cymbal on the half-hour.[citation needed] His programmable "castle clock" also featured five musician automata which automatically played music when moved by levers operated by a hidden camshaftattached to a water wheel.[7]

1495

Leonardo da Vinci designs a humanoid automaton that looks like an armored knight, known as Leonardo's robot. [8]

1738

Jacques de Vaucanson builds The Flute Player, a life-size figure of a shepherd that could play twelve songs on the flute and The Tambourine Player that played a flute and a drum or tambourine. [9]

1774

Pierre Jacquet-Droz and his son Henri-Louis created the Draughtsman, the Musicienne and the Writer, a figure of a boy that could write messages up to 40 characters long. [10] The story of the Golem of Prague, an humanoid artificial intelligence activated by inscribing Hebrew letters on its forehead, based on Jewish folklore, was created by Jewish German writerBerthold Auerbach for his novel Spinoza. Czech writer Karel apek introduced the word "robot" in his play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots). The word "robot" comes from the word "robota", meaning, in Czech, "forced labour, drudgery". [11] The Maschinenmensch (machine-human), a gynoid humanoid robot, also called "Parody", "Futura", "Robotrix", or the "Maria impersonator" (played by German actress Brigitte Helm), perhaps the most memorable humanoid robot ever to appear on film, is depicted in Fritz Lang's film Metropolis. Isaac Asimov formulates the Three Laws of Robotics, and in the process of doing so, coins the word "robotics". Norbert Wiener formulates the principles of cybernetics, the basis of practical robotics. The first digitally operated and programmable non-humanoid robot, the Unimate, is installed on a General Motors assembly line to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them. It was created by George
5

1837

1921

1927

1941-42 1948 1961

Devol and constructed by Unimation, the first robot manufacturing company. 1969 1970 1972 1973 1980 D.E. Whitney publishes his article "Resolved motion rate control of manipulators and human prosthesis".[12] Miomir Vukobratovi has proposed Zero Moment Point, a theoretical model to explain biped locomotion. [13] Miomir Vukobratovi and his associates at Mihajlo Pupin Institute build the first active anthropomorphic exoskeleton. In Waseda University, in Tokyo, Wabot-1 is built. It was able to communicate with a person in Japanese and to measure distances and directions to the objects using external receptors, artificial ears and eyes, and an artificial mouth. [14] Marc Raibert established the MIT Leg Lab, which is dedicated to studying legged locomotion and building dynamic legged robots. [15] Using MB Associates arms, "Greenman" was developed by Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, San Diego. It had an exoskeletal master controller with kinematic equivalency and spatial correspondence of the torso, arms, and head. Its vision system consisted of two 525-line video cameras each having a 35degree field of view and video camera eyepiece monitors mounted in an aviator's helmet. [16] At Waseda University, the Wabot-2 is created, a musician humanoid robot able to communicate with a person, read a normal musical score with his eyes and play tunes of average difficulty on an electronic organ. [17] Developed by Hitachi Ltd, WHL-11 is a biped robot capable of static walking on a flat surface at 13 seconds per step and it can also turn. [18] WASUBOT is another musician robot from Waseda University. It performed a concerto with the NHK Symphony Orchestra at the opening ceremony of the International Science and Technology Exposition. Honda developed seven biped robots which were designated E0 (Experimental Model 0) through E6. E0 was in 1986, E1 E3 were done between 1987 and 1991, and E4 - E6 were done between 1991 and 1993. [19] Manny was a full-scale anthropomorphic robot with 42 degrees of freedom developed at Battelle's Pacific Northwest Laboratories in Richland, Washington, for the US Army's Dugway Proving Ground in Utah. It could not walk on its own but it could crawl, and had an artificial respiratory system to simulate breathing and sweating.[20] Tad McGeer showed that a biped mechanical structure with knees could walk passively down a sloping surface. [21] Honda developed P1 (Prototype Model 1) through P3, an evolution from E series, with upper limbs. Developed until 1997.[22] Hadaly was developed in Waseda
6

1983

1984 1985 1985

1986

1989

1990 1993 1995

University to

study

human-robot

communication and has three subsystems: a head-eye subsystem, a voice control system for listening and speaking in Japanese, and a motion-control subsystem to use the arms to point toward campus destinations. 1995 1996 Wabian is a human-size biped walking robot from Waseda University. Saika, a light-weight, human-size and low-cost humanoid robot, was developed at Tokyo University. Saika has a two-DOF neck, dual five-DOF upper arms, a torso and a head. Several types of hands and forearms are under development also. Developed until 1998. [23] Hadaly-2, developed at Waseda University, is a humanoid robot which realizes interactive communication with humans. It communicates not only informationally, but also physically. Honda creates its 11th bipedal humanoid robot, ASIMO.[24] Sony unveils small humanoid entertainment robots, dubbed Sony Dream Robot (SDR). Renamed Qrio in 2003. Fujitsu realized its first commercial humanoid robot named HOAP-1. Its successors HOAP-2 and HOAP-3 were announced in 2003 and 2005, respectively. HOAP is designed for a broad range of applications for R&D of robot technologies.[25] JOHNNIE, an autonomous biped walking robot built at the Technical University of Munich. The main objective was to realize an anthropomorphic walking machine with a human-like, dynamically stable gait [26] Actroid, a robot with realistic silicone "skin" developed by Osaka University in conjunction with Kokoro Company Ltd. [27] Persia, Iran's first humanoid robot, was developed using realistic simulation by researchers of Isfahan University of Technology in conjunction with ISTT. [28] KHR-1, a programmable bipedal humanoid robot introduced in June 2004 by a Japanese company Kondo Kagaku. The PKD Android, a conversational humanoid robot made in the likeness of science fiction novelist Philip K Dick, was developed as a collaboration between Hanson Robotics, the FedEx Institute of Technology, and the University of Memphis.[29] Wakamaru, a Japanese domestic robot made by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, primarily intended to provide companionship to elderly and disabled people. [30] REEM-A, a biped humanoid robot designed to play chess with the Hydra Chess engine. The first robot developed by PAL Robotics, it was also used as a walking, manipulation speech and vision development platform.[31] TOPIO, a ping pong playing robot developed by TOSY Robotics JSC. [32] Justin, a humanoid robot developed by the German Space Agency (DLR). [33] KT-X, the first international humanoid robot developed as a collaboration
7

1997 2000 2001

2001

2003 2003 2004 2004

2005

2005 2006 2007 2008 2008

between the five-time consecutive RoboCup champions, Team Osaka, and KumoTek Robotics. [34] 2008 Nexi, the first mobile, dexterous and social robot, makes its public debut as one of TIME magazine's top inventions of the year.[35] The robot was built through a collaboration between the MIT Media Lab Personal Robots Group,[36] Xitome Design [37] UMass Amherst and Meka robotics.[38] [39] REEM-B, the second biped humanoid robot developed by PAL Robotics. It has the the ability to autonomously learn its environment using various sensors and carry 20% of its own weight. [40] HRP-4C, a Japanese domestic robot made by National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, shows human characteristics in addition to bipedal walking. Turkey's first dynamically walking humanoid robot, SURALP, is developed by Sabanci University in conjunction with Tubitak. [41] NASA and General Motors revealed Robonaut 2, a very advanced humanoid robot. It was part of the payload of Shuttle Discovery on the successful launch February 24, 2010. It is intended to do spacewalks for NASA.[42] Students at the University of Tehran, Iran unveil the Surena II. It was unveiled by President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad.[43] Researchers at Japan's National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology demonstrate their humanoid robot HRP-4C singing and dancing along with human dancers.[44] In September the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology also demonstrates the humanoid robot HRP-4. The HRP-4 resembles the HRP-4C in some regards but is called "athletic" and is not a gynoid. REEM, a humanoid service robot with a wheeled mobile base. Developed by PAL Robotics, it can perform autonomous navigation in various surroundings and has voice and face recognition capabilities.[45] In November Honda unveiled its second generation Honda Asimo Robot. The all new Asimo is the first version of the robot with semi-autonomous capabilities.

2008

2009 2009 2010 2010 2010

2010

2010 2011

1.3 PURPOSE Humanoid robots are used as a research tool in several scientific areas.Researchers need to understand the human body structure and behavior (biomechanics) to build and study humanoid robots. On the other side, the attempt to simulate the human body leads to a better understanding of it. Human cognition is a field of study which is focused on how
8

humans learn from sensory information in order to acquire perceptual and motor skills. This knowledge is used to develop computational models of human behavior and it has been improving over time.It has been suggested that very advanced robotics will facilitate the enhancement of ordinary humans. Although the initial aim of humanoid research was to build better orthosis and prosthesis for human beings, knowledge has been transferred between both disciplines. A few examples are: powered leg prosthesis for neuromuscularly impaired, ankle-foot orthosis, biological realistic leg prosthesis and forearm prosthesis.

Fig 1.2: Enon created for personal assistant Besides the research, humanoid robots are being developed to perform human tasks like personal assistance, where they should be able to assist the sick and elderly, and dirty or dangerous jobs. Regular jobs like being a receptionist or a worker of an automotive manufacturing line are also suitable for humanoids.

Fig 1.3: Nao is a robot created for companionship In essence, since they can use tools and operate equipment and vehicles designed for the human form, humanoids could theoretically perform any task a human being can, so long
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as they have the proper software. However, the complexity of doing so is deceptively great.They are becoming increasingly popular for providing entertainment too. For example, Ursula, a female robot, sings, dances, and speaks to her audiences at Universal Studios. Several Disney attractions employ the use of animatrons, robots that look, move, and speak much like human beings, in some of their theme park shows. These animatrons look so realistic that it can be hard to decipher from a distance whether or not they are actually human. Although they have a realistic look, they have no cognition or physical autonomy. Various humanoid robots and their possible applications in daily life are featured in an independent documentary film called Plug & Pray, which was released in 2010.

Fig 1.4: A Robonaut Humanoid robots, especially with artificial intelligence algorithms, could be useful for future dangerous and/or distant space exploration missions, without having the need to turn back around again and return to Earth once the mission is completed.

CHAPTER-2 FEATURES AND TECHNOLOGY

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2.1 INTRODUCTION In order to make a humanoid work as desired certain features and technologies are used to make it more efficient in real time applications. This is done by using more advanced cicuits like sensors, actuators, stacked die, a processor, a signal converter and also a memory. The computer that controls humanoid robots movement is housed in the robot's waist area and can be controlled by a PC, wireless controller, or voice commands.It is shown in figure 1.2.

Fig 2.1: Humanoid robot connected by PC with wires

2.2 SENSORS A sensor is a device that measures some attribute of the world. Being one of the three primitives of robotics (besides planning and control), sensing plays an important role in robotic paradigms.Sensors can be classified according to the physical process with which they work or according to the type of measurement information that they give as output. In this case, the second approach was used.

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2.2.1 Proprioceptive Sensors Proprioceptive sensors sense the position, the orientation and the speed of the humanoid's body and joints.In human beings inner ears are used to maintain balance and orientation. Humanoid robots use accelerometers to measure the acceleration, from which velocity can be calculated by integration; tilt sensors to measure inclination; force sensors placed in robot's hands and feet to measure contact force with environment; position sensors, that indicate the actual position of the robot (from which the velocity can be calculated by derivation) or even speed sensors.

2.2.2 Exteroceptive Sensors Arrays of tactels can be used to provide data on what has been touched. The Shadow Hand uses an array of 34 tactels arranged beneath its polyurethane skin on each finger tip.
[2]

Tactile sensors also provide information about forces and torques transferred between the

robot and other objects.Vision refers to processing data from any modality which uses the electromagnetic spectrum to produce an image. In humanoid robots it is used to recognize objects and determine their properties. Vision sensors work most similarly to the eyes of human beings. Most humanoid robots use CCD cameras as vision sensors.Sound sensors allow humanoid robots to hear speech and environmental sounds, and perform as the ears of the human being. Microphones are usually used for this task.

2.3 ACTUATORS Actuators are the motors responsible for motion in the robot.Humanoid robots are constructed in such a way that they mimic the human body, so they use actuators that perform like muscles and joints, though with a different structure. To achieve the same effect as human motion, humanoid robots use mainly rotary actuators. They can be either electric, pneumatic, hydraulic,piezoelectric or ultrasonic.Hydraulic and electric actuators have a very rigid behavior and can only be made to act in a compliant manner through the use of relatively complex feedback control strategies . While electric coreless motor actuators are better suited for high speed and low load applications, hydraulic ones operate
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well at low speed and high load applications. Piezoelectric actuators generate a small movement with a high force capability when voltage is applied. They can be used for ultraprecise positioning and for generating and handling high forces or pressures in static or dynamic situations.Ultrasonic actuators are designed to produce movements in a micrometer order at ultrasonic frequencies (over 20 kHz). They are useful for controlling vibration, positioning applications and quick switching.Pneumatic actuators operate on the basis of gas compressibility. As they are inflated, they expand along the axis, and as they deflate, they contract. If one end is fixed, the other will move in a lineartrajectory. These actuators are intended for low speed and low/medium load applications. Between pneumatic actuators there are: cylinders, bellows, pneumatic engines, pneumatic stepper motors andpneumatic artificial muscles.

Fig2.2: An artificial hand holding a light bulb

2.4 PLANNING AND CONTROL In planning and control, the essential difference between humanoids and other kinds of robots (like industrial ones) is that the movement of the robot has to be human-like, using legged locomotion, especially biped gait. The ideal planning for humanoid movements during normal walking should result in minimum energy consumption, like it does in the

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human body. For this reason, studies ondynamics and control of these kinds of structures become more and more important. To maintain dynamic balance during the walk, a robot needs information about contact force and its current and desired motion. The solution to this problem relies on a major concept, the Zero Moment Point (ZMP).Another characteristic of humanoid robots is that they move, gather information (using sensors) on the "real world" and interact with it. They dont stay still like factory manipulators and other robots that work in highly structured environments. To allow humanoids to move in complex environments, planning and control must focus on self-collision detection, path planning and obstacle avoidance.Humanoids don't yet have some features of the human body. They include structures with variable flexibility, which provide safety (to the robot itself and to the people), and redundancy of movements, i.e. more degrees of freedom and therefore wide task availability. Although these characteristics are desirable to humanoid robots, they will bring more complexity and new problems to planning and control.

2.5 STATE-OF-THE-ART Although,from the above,it may seem that the most important issues for construction and control of humanoid robots have been solved,this is not the at all the case. The capabilities of current humanoid robots are rather limited, when compared to humans.

2.5.1 Bipedal Locomotion The distinctive feature of full-body humanoids is bipedal locomotion. Walking and running on two legs may seem simple, but humanoid robots still have serious diculties with it. There are two opposing approaches to bipedal walking. The rst-one is based on the zeromoment-point theory (ZMP), introduced by Vukobratovic. The ZMP is dened as the point on the ground about which the sum of the moments of all the active forces equals zero. If the ZMP is within the convex hull (support polygon) of all contact points between the feet and the ground, a bipedal robot is dynamically stable.The use of the ZMP to judge stability was a major advance over the center-of-mass projection criterion, which describes static
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stability. Prominent robots, which rely on ZMP-based control, include Honda Asimo and Sony Qrio. Asimo was shown in 2006 to be capable of 6km/h running. However, its gait with bent knees does not look human-like. It does not recycle energy stored in elastic elements, the way humans do it and, hence, it is not energy ecient. Furthermore, Asimo requires at, stable ground for walking and running and can only climb certain stairs.

Fig 2.3: Bipedal Locomotion A completely dierent approach to walking is to utilize the robot dynamics. In 1990 McGeer showed that planar walking down a slope is possible without actuators and control. Based on his ideas of passive dynamic walking, actuated machines have been built recently. These machines are able to walk on level ground. Because their actuators only support the inherent machine dynamics, they are very energy-ecient. They are easy to control, e.g. by relying on foot-contact sensors. However, because they use round feet, these machines cannot stand still. So far, these machines can also not start or stop walking
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and are not able to change speed or direction. What is missing in current humanoid robots is the ability to walk on dicult terrain and the rejection of major disturbances, like pushes. Such capabilities were demonstrated by the quadruped BigDog. This robot, however, is not suited for indoor use due to its combustion engine and hydraulic actuators. First steps towards bipedal push recovery have been done in sim ulation using Pratts concept of capture point. It is dicult to transfer these simulation results to physical robots, partly due to the lack of suitable actuators. Although hydraulic actuators (e.g. Sarkos biped used at ATR and CMU) and pneumatic actuators (e.g. Lucy designed at Brussels) have been used for bipeds to implement compliant joints, their walking performance is still not convincing. 2.5.2 Perception Humanoid robots must perceive their own state and the state of their environment in order to act successfully. For proprioception, the robots measure the state of their joints using encoders,force sensors, or potentiometers. Important for balance is the estimation of the robot attitude. This is done using accelerometers and gyroscopes. Many humanoid robots also measure ground reaction forces or forces at the hands and ngers. Some humanoid robots are covered with force-sensitive skin. One example for such a robot is CB2, developed at Osaka University. Although some humanoid robots use super-human senses, such as laser rangenders or ultrasonic distance sensors, the most important modalities for humanoid robots are vision and audition. Many robots are equipped with two movable cameras. These cameras are used as active vision system, allowing the robots to focus their attention towards relevant objects in their environment. Movable cameras make depth estimation from disparity more dicult, however. For this reason, xed calibrated cameras are used for stereo. Most humanoid robots are equipped with onboard computers for image interpretation. Interpreting real-world image sequences is not a solved problem, though. Hence, many humanoid vision systems work well only in a simplied environment. Frequently, key objects are colorcoded to make their perception easier. Similar diculties arise when interpreting the audio signals captured by onboard microphones. One major problem is the separation of the sound source of interest (e.g. a human communication partner) from other sound sources and noise. Turning the microphones towards the source of interest and beam-forming in microphone arrays are means of active hearing. While they
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improve the signal-to-noise ratio, the interpretation of the audio signal is still dicult. Even the most advanced speech recognition systems have substantial word error rates. Due to the described diculties in perception, some humanoid projects resort to teleoperation, where the signals captured by the robot are interpreted by a human. Examples for teleoperated humanoids include the Geminoid developed by Ishiguro, the Robonaut developed by NASA, and the PR1 developed at Stanford. 2.5.3 Human-Robot Interaction Many humanoid research projects focus on human-robot interaction. The general idea here is that the ecient techniques which evolved in our culture for human-human communication allow also for intuitive human-machine communication. This includes multiple modalities like speech, eye gaze, facial expressions, gestures with arms and hands, body language, etc. These modalities are easy to interpret by the human sensory system. Because we practice them since early childhood, face recognition, gesture interpretation, etc. seem to be hard wired in our brains. A smile from a robot does not need much explanation. In order to address these modalities, communication robots are equipped with expressive animated heads.

Fig 2.4: Janet robot interacting with human Examples include Kismet and Leonardo, developed at MIT, and WE-4RII developed at Waseda. Movable eyes, head, and chests communicate where the robot focuses its attention. When the robot looks at the interaction partner, the partner feels addressed. Some robots animate their mouth while generating speech. This helps the listener to detect voice
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activity. Some robots have an emotional display. By moving eyebrows, eyelids, the mouth, and possibly other parts of the face, a number of basic emotions can be expressed. The expression of the emotional state can be supported by adapting pitch, loudness, and speed of the synthesized speech. Robots with anthropomorphic arms and hands can be used to generate gestures. At least four joints per arm are needed. One example for a upper-body robot used to generate a variety of gestures is Joy, developed at KAIST, Korea. The generated gestures of humanoids include symbolic gestures, such as greeting and waving, batonic gestures, which emphasize accompanying speech, and pointing gestures, which indicate a direction or reference an object. The size of objects can also be indicated with arms and hands. The robot head can be used for pointing, nodding and shaking as well. Robots with articulated ngers like Hubo, also developed at KAIST, may even be used to generate sign language. Full-body humanoids can use their entire body for communication using body language. Wabian-RII, for example, was programmed to generate emotional walking styles. Another example is HRP-2, which reproduced a Japanese dance captured from a human dancer. The most extreme form of communication robots are androids and gynoids, which aim for a photorealistic human-like appearance. Their faces are covered with silicone skin, they have human-like hair, and they are dressed as humans. Some of these robots are modeled after living persons, such as Repliee Q2, developed in Osaka, and the copy of Zou Ren Ti, developed at XSM, China. These robots, however, heavily suer from the uncanny valley eect. There is not a monotonous increase in attractiveness as robots become more humanlike, but there is a sudden drop in attractiveness close to perfect human-likeness. While the synthesis-part of multimodal interaction works reasonably well, the insucient perception performance of the computer vision and audition systems and the lack of true meaning in the dialogue systems so far prevent humanoid robots from engaging in truly intuitive multimodal interactions with humans. 2.5.4 Dexterous Manipulation Another key human capability is dexterous manipulation. The human hand has about thirty degrees of freedom. It is not easy to reproduce its strength, exibility, and sensitivity. Among the most advanced robotic hands are the Shadow hand, which is driven by 40 air
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muscles and the four-nger hand developed by DLR and HIT. Dexterous manipulation not only requires capable hands, but also hand-arm coordination and the coordination of two hands and the vision system. Due to the high number of joints involved, controlling grasping and manipulation is challenging. Three examples for manipulation-oriented humanoid robots are the Robonaut, which is using the space tools designed for humans, Justin, for which DLR developed an impedance-based control scheme, and Twendy-One, which is equipped with passive impedances in the actuators. While the performance of these robots is impressive, they cannot grasp and manipulate unknown objects. This is mainly due to decits in the perception of grasping aordances. Also the interpretation of the touch and force sensors integrated in the hands must be improved in order to allow for blind adjustments of the grip in the way humans do it.

Fig 2.5: Humanoid robot with Dexterous manipulation 2.5.5 Learning and Adaptive Behaviour To be useful in everyday environments, humanoid robots must be able to adapt existing capabilities and need to cope with changes. They are also required to quickly learn new skills.Fortunately, humanoid robots have the unique possibility to learn from capable teachers, the humans in their environment. This is called imitation learning or programming by demonstration. Imitation learning has been applied, for example, to complex motions like swinging a tennis racket or generating gestures and to manipulation tasks. One diculty of imitation learning is the perception of the teacher.
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Frequently,external motion capture systems relying on special markers or attached motion sensors are used to sense the motion of the teacher. Another diculty is the mapping between the human body and the robots body. Some human motions may not be possible for the robot, e.g. due to lack of joints, limited joints angles or dynamic constraints. On the other hand, the robot might have degrees of freedom that are not constrained by the captured motion. These must be controlled by optimizing secondary criteria such as energy use. A frequently used possibility to simplify imitation is also to rely on kinesthetic teaching, where the teacher directly moves the limbs of the robot. While the imitation of human motion patterns greatly assists in the generation of humanoid motion, it does not suce. Because of the dierences between the teacher and the robot, for true imitation the robot must infer the intentions of the human teacher and come up with its own strategy to accomplish the same goals.

Fig 2.6: Robot serving food to human Another possibility to optimize the behavior of humanoid robots is reinforcement learning. Here, the robot revives rewards or punishments while interacting with the environment. The problem now is to nd the policy of actions which maximizes the discounted future reward. Many techniques for reinforcement learning exist. Among the most promising techniques are stochastic gradient techniques, which have been used to optimize bipedal walking patterns and natural actor-critic learning, which has been shown to learn hitting a ball with a bat. One general diculty with reinforcement learning is the
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generation of the rewards. It cannot be assumed that the environment generates a reward structure sucient for the learning of complex tasks. Rather, intermediate rewards must be generated by the robot itself when successfully accomplishing subtasksor when meeting intrinsic needs. On the other hand, the robot must generate negative rewards when violating intrinsic constraints, for example when falling. Especially in such situations it is crucial to learn from few examples. In addition to the learning of behavior, learning and adaptation are also important for perception. Computer vision and speech recognition, for example, must adapt to changing lighting conditions and varying auditory backgrounds. The robots are required to familiarize themselves with new objects in their environment and also need to learn new words and names. For navigation, some humanoid robots construct maps of their surroundings. One example for successful mapping with a humanoid has been presented by Gutmann et al. using Sony Qrio

CHAPTER-3 APPLICATIONS

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3.1 INTRODUCTION Because the capabilities of humanoid robots are rather limited, there are few real-world applications for them so far. The most visible use of humanoid robots is technology demonstration. 3.1.1 Technology Demonstration Famous humanoid robots like the Honda Asimo or the Toyota Partner Robots do not accomplish any useful work. They are, however, presented to the media and demonstrate their capabilities like walking, running, climbing stairs, playing musical instruments or conducting orchestras on stage and during exhibitions. Such a showcase of corporate technology attracts public attention and strengthens the brand of the car manufacturers. Hence, the huge development costs of these advanced humanoids might be covered from the marketing budgets.

Fig 3.1:Asimo playing football 3.1.2 Space Missions Another area where money is not much of an issue is missions to space. Since human life support in space is costly and space missions are dangerous, there is a need to complement or replace humans in space by human-like robots. The two prominent projects in this area
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are the NASA Robonaut and DLRs Justin. Both use a humanoid torso mounted on a wheeled base. The humanoid appearance of the robots is justied, because they can keep using space-certied tools which have been designed for humans and because the humanoid body makes teleoperation by humans easier.

Fig 3.2:Robonauts 3.1.3 Manufacturing While in industrial mass production robot arms are used which are not anthropomorphic at all, the Japanese company Yaskawa sees a market for human-like dual-arm robots in manufacturing. It recently announced the Motoman-SDA10 robot which consists of two 7DOF arms on a torso that has an additional rotational joint. Each arm has a payload of 10kg. Yaskawa aims to directly replace humans on production lines. The robot is able to hold a part with one arm while using a tool with the other arm. It can also pass a part from one arm to the other without setting it down. Sales target for the SDA10 is 3000 units/year. 3.1.4 Household An obvious domain for the use of humanoid robots is the household. Some humanoid projects explicitly address this domain. They include the Armar series of robots developed in Karlsruhe, Twendy-One developed at Waseda University, and the personal robot PR1 developed in Stanford. While these robots demonstrate impressive isolated skills needed in
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a household environment, they are far from autonomous operation in an unmodied household.

Fig 3.3: Humanoid helping a human 3.1.5 Robot Competitions A currently more viable application for humanoid robots is robot competitions. RoboCup and FIRA, for example, feature competitions for humanoid soccer robots. These robots are fully autonomous and play together as a team. When they fall, they get up by themselves and continue playing. The participating research groups either construct their own robots or they use commercial humanoid robot kits available, e.g., from Robotis and Kondo. RoboCup also selected the Aldebaran Nao humanoid robot as successor of the Sony Aibo in the Standard Platform League. Another popular competition for humanoid robots is Robo-One, where teleoperated robots engage in martial arts.

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Fig 3.4: Robowar There are also competitions for robots in human-populated environments like the AAAI mobile robot competition, where the robots are supposed to attend a conference, and RoboCup@home where the robots are supposed to do useful work in a home environment. Because they provide a standardized test bed, such robot competitions serve as benchmark for AI and robotics.

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REFERENCES
1. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanoid_robot 2. www.inel.gov/adaptiverobotics/humanoidrobotics/ 3. www.ai.mit.edu/projects/humanoid-robotics-group 4. www.kuffner.org/james/humanoid

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