Production of Power from

Heat
MLP Dalida
Carnot Engine
1-2 Reversible isothermal process: Q
H
is absorbed
from hot reservoir at temp T
H
2-3 Reversible adiabatic process: T
H
decreased to T
C
3-4 Reversible isothermal process: Q
C
is rejected to
cold reservoir at temp T
C
4-1 Reversible adiabatic process : T
C
increase to T
H
Carnot Cycle
Difficulties:
High liquid content in exhaust of turbine ch
which causes corrosion
Difficult to find a pump that takes in mixture
of liquid and vapor and discharges it as
saturated liquid
Rankine Cycle
1 - 2: A constant pressure heating process in a boiler.
2 - 3: Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) expansion of vapor in a
turbine to the pressure of the condenser.
3 - 4: A constant-pressure, constant-temperature process in a
condenser to produce saturated liquid at point 4.
4 - 1: Reversible, adiabatic (isentropic) pumping of saturated
liquid to the pressure of the boiler, producing compressed
(subcooled) liquid.
S
fs
cv
W Q m zg u H
dt
mU d
& &
& + =
(

\
|
+ + +
2
2
1 ) (
) (
1 2
H H m H m W
S
= = & &
&
1 2
H H H W
S
= =
The maximum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S
1
= S
2
)
S S
H isentropic W ) ( ) ( =
The turbine efficiency
S S
S
H
H
isentropic W
W
) ( ) (

=
Values for properly designed turbines: 0.7~ 0.8
Pressure increases: compressors, pumps, fans,
blowers, and vacuum pumps.
Interested in the energy requirement
S
fs
cv
W Q m zg u H
dt
mU d
& &
& + =
(

\
|
+ + +
2
2
1 ) (
) (
1 2
H H m H m W
S
= = & &
&
1 2
H H H W
S
= =
The minimum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S
1
= S
2
)
S S
H isentropic W ) ( ) ( =
The compressor efficiency
H
H
W
isentropic W
S
S
S

=
) ( ) (

Values for properly designed compressors: 0.7~ 0.8

Compression process
Boiler and Condenser
Boiler- transfers heat from burning fuel to
the cycle
Condenser transfers heatnfrom cycle to
surroundings
Energy equations:
H Q H m Q = =
&
&
Steam generated in a power plant at a pressure of 8600 kPa and a temperature of
500C is fed to a turbine. Exhaust from the turbine enters a condenser at 10 kPa,
where it is condensed to saturated liquid, which is then pumped to the boiler. (1)
What is the thermal efficiency of a Rankine cycle operating at these conditions?
(2) What is the thermal efficiency of a practical cycle operating at these conditions
if the turbine efficiency and pump efficiency are both 0.75? (3) If the rating of the
power cycle of part (2) is 80000kW, what is the steam rate and what are the heat-
transfer rates in the boiler and condenser?
The turbine (2 3) :
( )
kg
kJ
H isentropic W
S s
2 . 1274 ) ( = =
kg
kJ
H 4 . 2177
3
=
The enthalpy of saturated liquid at 10 kPa:
kg
kJ
H 8 . 191
4
=
The condenser (3 4):
kg
kJ
H H Q 6 . 1925
3 4
= =
The pump (4 1):
( )
kg
kJ
H isentropic W
S s
7 . 8 ) ( = =
kg
kJ
H 5 . 200
1
=
(1) The enthalpy of superheated steam at 8600 kPa and 500 C:
kg
kJ
H 6 . 3391
2
=
The boiler (1 2):
kg
kJ
H H Q 1 . 3191
1 2
= =
3966 . 0
1 . 3191
7 . 8 2 . 1274
| |
| ) ( |
=
+
=
boiler
s
Q
Rankine W

) ( ) ( ) ( condenser Q boiler Q Rankine W

s
=
(2) With a turbine efficiency of 0.75:
( )
kg
kJ
H turbine W
S s
6 . 955 ) ( = =
kg
kJ
H H H 0 . 2436
2 3
= + =
The condenser (3 4):
kg
kJ
H H Q 2 . 2244
3 4
= =
The pump (4 1):
( )
kg
kJ
H pump W
s
6 . 11 ) ( = =
The net work of the cycle is:
kg
kJ
net W
s
0 . 944 6 . 11 6 . 955 ) ( = + =
&
kg
kJ
H H H 4 . 203
4 1
= + =
The boiler (1 2):
kg
kJ
H H Q 2 . 3188
1 2
= =
2961 . 0
2 . 3188
0 . 944
| |
| ) ( |
= =
boiler
s
Q
net W

The enthalpy of saturated liquid at 10 kPa:

kg
kJ
H 8 . 191
4
=
power rating of 80000kW
) ( ) ( net W m net W
s s
&
&
=
(3)
s
kg
m 75 . 84
0 . 944
80000
=

= &
s
kJ
boiler Q m boiler Q 270200 ) ( ) ( = = &
&
s
kJ
condenser Q m condenser Q 190200 ) ( ) ( = = &
&
REGENERATIVE CYCLE
Internal-combustion engines
Steam power plant:
steam is an inert medium to which heat is
transferred from a burning fuel or from a nuclear
reactor
Steam absorbs heat at a high temperature in the boiler.
Steam rejects heat at a relatively low temperature in the
condenser.
Internal combustion engine:
No working medium
a fuel is burned within the engine and the combustion
products serve as the working medium.
High temperatures are internal and do not involve heat-
transfer surfaces.
Air as the working fluid
Otto Engine
Otto Engine
) ( 0
rejection heat olume constant v : C - B Step
) ( , 0
expansion adiabatic reversible : B - A tep
) ( 0
addition heat olume constant v : A - D Step
) ( , 0
n compressio adiabatic reversible : D - C tep
B C V BC BC BC
A B V AB AB AB
D A V DA DA DA
C D V CD CD CD
T T C U Q W
T T C U W Q
S
T T C U Q W
T T C U W Q
S
= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =
Otto Engine
1
1
1
ratio n compressio r :
1

\
|
=

= =

r
V
V
r
Define
T T
T T
Q
W
O
D
C
D A
C B
DA
net
O
The Otto Engine
The most common internal-combustion engine, because of it used in automobiles.
1st stroke: 0 1: At essentially constant pressure, a piston moving outward
draws a fuel/air mixture into a cylinder.
2nd stroke: 1 2 3: all valves are closed, the fuel/air mixture is compressed,
approximately adiabatically along 1 2; the mixture is then ignited, and
combustion occurs so rapidly that the volume remains nearly constant while the
pressure rises along 2 3.
3rd stroke: 3 4 1: the work is produced. Approximately adiabatically
expand 3 4; the exhaust valves opens and the pressure falls rapidly at nearly
constant volume along 4 1.
4th stroke: 1 0: the piston pushes the remaining combustion gases from the
cylinder.
The compression ratio:
D
C
V
V
volume end the
volume beginning the
r =
The efficiency of engine (i.e., the work produced per unit quantity of fuel)
The air-standard Otto cycle: two adiabatic and two constant-volume steps, which
comprise a heat-engine cycle for which air is the working fluid.
D A
C B
D A V
B C V D A V
DA
BC DA
DA
T T
T T
T T C
T T C T T C
Q
Q Q
Q
net W

+
=
+
=
1
) (
) ( ) (
| |
| ) ( |

Fig 8.9, the thermal efficiency

Ideal gas
|
|

\
|

=
|
|

\
|

=
D A
C B
D A
C B
D
C
P P
P P
r
P P
P P
V
V
1 1
A D
V V =

C B D A
V P V P =
B C
V V =

D D C C
V P V P =
D
C
D A
C B
P
P
r
P P
P P
r =
|
|

\
|

= 1
1 /
1 /
1

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=
r V
V
P
P
C
D
D
C
1
1
1
1
1
1

\
|
=
|

\
|
=

r r
r
The diesel engine
Differs from the Otto engine: the temperature at
the end of compression is sufficiently high that
combustion is initiated spontaneously.
Higher compression ratio the compression step to
a higher pressure higher temperature results.
The fuel is injected at the end of the compression
step
The fuel is added slowly enough the combustion
process occurs at approximately constant pressure.
At the same compression ratio:
However, the diesel engine operates at higher
compression ratios and consequently at higher
efficiencies.
diesel Otto
>
Diesel Engine
Diesel Engine
) ( 0
rejection heat olume constant v : C - B Step
) ( , 0
expansion adiabatic reversible : B - A tep
) - ( ) (
) ( ) - (
addition heat pressure constant : A - D Step
) ( , 0
n compressio adiabatic reversible : D - C tep
B C V BC BC BC
A B V AB AB AB
D A D D A V DA DA DA
D A V DA DA D A D DA
C D V CD CD CD
T T C U Q W
T T C U W Q
S
V V P T T C W U Q
T T C U Q V V P W
T T C U W Q
S
= = =
= = =
= =
= = =
= = =
Diesel engine
) 1 (
1 1
1
V
V
ratio :
) )( (
) (
- 1
1
D
A

\
|
=

+

=
+ +
= =

C
C
D
C
D A V
C B V
DA
AB DA CD
DA
net
D
r
r
r
off cut r Define
T T R C
T T C
Q
W W W
Q
W

Example
An air-standard Diesel cycle absorbs
1,500J/mol of heat (step DA which
simulates combustion). The pressure and
temperature at the beginning of the
compression step are 1 bar and 20oC and
the pressure at the end of compression
step is 4 bar. Assuming air to be an ideal
gas for which Cp=(7/2)R and Cv=(5/2)R,
what are the compression ratio and the
expansion ration of the cycle?
1
(1 )/
1
1.357
1500 /
( ) 515.845
2.841
C C D D
C D
D C
D D
C C
DA
DA P D A A
C
C C C B A
e
A
A A A C
A
A D
e
P V P V
V P
r
V P
r
TP const
T P
T P
Q J mol
Q C T T T K
RT
V P T V P
r
RT
V V T P
P
P P
r

=
| |
= =
|
\
=
=
| |
=
|
\
=
= =
= = = =
=
=
the heat quantities absorbed in step DA:
) (
D A P DA
T T C Q =
the heat rejected in step BC:
) (
B C V BC
T T C Q =
the thermal efficiency:
(

=
(

=
|
|

\
|

+ = + =

r r
r r
r r
r r r r
T T
T T
T T C
T T C
Q
Q
e
e
e
e e
D A
B C
D A P
B C V
DA
BC
/ 1 / 1
) / 1 ( ) / 1 ( 1
1
/ 1
) / 1 )( / ( ) / 1 ( 1
1
1
1
) (
) (
1 1
1 1

Reversible, adiabatic expansion (step AB):

1 1
=

B B A A
V T V T
Reversible, adiabatic compression (step CD):
1 1
=

C C D D
V T V T
On the basis of 1 mol of air (ideal gas),
The compression ratio:
D C
C V r /
The expansion ratio:
A B e
C V r /
The gas-turbine engine
The Otto and diesel engines use the high energy of high-
temperature, high-pressure gases acting on the piston
within a cylinder. However, turbines are more efficient
than reciprocating engines.
The advantages of internal combustion are combined
with those of the turbine.
The air is compressed to several bars and enters the
combustion chamber.
The higher the temperature of the combustion gases
entering the turbine, the higher the efficiency of the unit.
The centrifugal compressor operates on the same shaft
as the turbine, and part of the work of the turbine serves
to drive the compressor.
The compressor compresses the incoming air. Because of this extreme
compression, the air is heated up in the process. Heated and very high
pressure air makes its way into the combustion chamber. The combustion
chamber has a glow plug similar to the glow plug in a basic glow engine.
When the air in the combustion chamber reaches the appropriate temperature
and pressure, a fine mist of fuel is introduced and the glow plug is lit. The fuel
explodes pushing the exhaust gases through the turbine
Gas Turbine Engine
Working fluid: air w/c is considered as ideal
gas with constant heat capacity
The Brayton cycle:
AB reversible adiabatic compression.
BC heat Q
BC
is added.
CD isentropic expansion.
DA constant-pressure cooling.
Based on 1 mol of air, the thermal efficiency:
BC
AB CD
BC
Q
W W
Q
net W
=
| |
| |
| ) ( |

The work done as the air passes through the compressor:

) (
A B P A B AB
T T C H H W = =
The heat addition:
) (
B C P BC
T T C Q =
Isentropic expansion in the turbine:
) ( | |
D C P CD
T T C W =
B C
A D
T T
T T

=1
Isentropic expansion:

) 1 (
|
|

\
|
=
A
B
A
B
P
P
T
T

) 1 ( ) 1 (
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=
B
A
C
D
C
D
P
P
P
P
T
T

) 1 (
1

|
|

\
|
=
B
A
P
P
JET ENGINE
1. A fan at the front sucks the cold air into the engine.
2. A second fan called a compressor squeezes the air (increases its pressure)
by about eight times. This slows the air down by about 60 percent and it's speed
is now about 400 km/h (240 mph).
3.Kerosene (liquid fuel) is squirted into the engine from a fuel tank in the
plane's wing.
4.In the combustion chamber, just behind the compressor, the kerosene mixes
with the compressed air and burns fiercely, giving off hot exhaust gases. The
burning mixture reaches a temperature of around 900C (1650F).
5.The exhaust gases rush past a set of turbine blades, spinning them like a
windmill.
6. The turbine blades are connected to a long axle (represented by the green
line) that runs the length of the engine. The compressor and the fan are also
connected to this axle. So, as the turbine blades spin, they also turn the
compressor and the fan.
7.The hot exhaust gases exit the engine through a tapering exhaust nozzle.
The tapering design helps to accelerate the gases to a speed of over 2100 km/h
(1300 mph). So the hot air leaving the engine at the back is traveling over twice
the speed of the cold air entering it at the frontand that's what powers the
plane.
JET ENGINE
JET ENGINE
JET ENGINE
ROCKET ENGINE
ROCKET ENGINE