Angela Costello HIS302 Professor Buxton Essay #2

Social Aspects of Dress in the Roman Empire

Thoughts of Roman dress invoke imagery of white marble statues of men and women draped elegantly in layers of perfectly pleated fabrics. Garments such as the toga have become widespread in modern culture as the quintessential Roman garment, and motion pictures often depict armor clad men in short scarlet tunics. However, research has shown that there is far more to the toga, or its female counterpart, stola, and the color dyes associated with the period than what most would assume given the popular misconceptions. These garments, coupled with embellishments and even jewelry worn could indicate the status of the wearer and place them into a certain tier within Roman society. As far as extant garments or textiles go from the period, archaeological record appears to be scarce except for in desert climates where cultures could differ greatly from that of the Italian peninsula. What does exist is a wealth of sculpture and fresco that does depict vast interpretations of Roman dress throughout the empire. It is difficult to determine the status of the wearer from such artworks, along with maintaining an understanding that the piece could be depicting a god or hero from mythology that could show a more exotic or ceremonial form of dress than what was actually worn during daily life for Romans. In the case of something depicting social status, one could assume that only the rich could afford such elaborate pieces of fresco or marble, so it is immediately possible to draw from the record that what one would be viewing is the depiction of aristocratic costume.

The most common fabric of the earlier Roman periods of regal and republic was most definitely wool,1 with linen coming in a very close second. While moving through the late republic and into the Augustan period, the use of dyes became more of an indicator of wealth and status as any fabric could theoretically be transformed into a luxury item, an example being the use of purpura dibapha tyria, literally twiced-dyed Tyrian purple, or better known as imperial purple. As the empire expanded, so did its access to more materials including silk, into which gold could be woven for imperial garments, and displays of true social one-upmanship began to be shown as access to more vibrant and expensive dyes became available.2 Laws were fast put into place to control the use of certain dyes, namely purples during the early empire, which were heavily documented by several writers. Before Octavian became emperor, he passed that no man should wear a garment of purple unless he was a senator acting as magistrate (Dio, XLIX, 16.) The wearing of various shades of purple did continue to evolve during the course of the empire, with new laws enacted seemingly with every new emperors reign, as it was common for people to overlook said laws if a counterfeit dye was produced. Pliny the Elder fortunately documented several different types of purple dye and the hues that he produced in his Natural History, in which he states that several older colors had begun to lose status once they were more readily available for consumption by the general public (Plin. H.N. 9, 137.) Hues of red, yellow, and blue that produced extremely vibrant and notable colors were also very popular with those of discerning taste and plenty of disposable income. Coccinus, the brilliant scarlet so often depicted in Roman cinematic epics, was made from a scale insect and was a notably expensive luxury dye with origins in Asia (this should not be confused with cochineal, a similar dye derived from insects in the New World that was brought to Europe during the period of exploration.) To clothe
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entire garrisons of soldiers in tunics dyed in this color would have been a huge financial burden on the empire. There were less expensive dyes, such as russus, which appears to have roots in the theatre during the late republic,3 but there is no mention of this being used in any military attire. Both Ovid and Pliny note the existence of indigo, which also bore with its notable deep blue shade a notable price tag at twenty denarii a pound, which didnt seem to slow the consumerism of the dye in the least. (Plin. H.N. 46.) Overall, it was obvious the more colorful, vibrant, and notably the cost of the clothings dyes, the more important and rich the wearer. The most notable of all nationalistic garments in the case of ancient Romans was the toga. In the Aeneid, Virgil even mentions the people of Rome to be the people of the toga (Aeneid 1, 282.) A symbol of state and a cloak of philosophers, the toga had its origins among the Etruscans in the pre-Roman Italian peninsula. It is known for its unique semi-circular shape that sets it apart from the Greek counterpart, the himation. Originally a unisex garment, the toga evolved from the national standard into something more ceremonial as times progressed into the imperial period. By the time of Augustus, it was already considered inappropriate for a woman to wear a toga, and by doing so, meant that she was either in disgrace or a prostitute (Cic. Phil. 2.44.) A woman, in contrast, would have worn a similar garment by the name of a palla, which was draped entirely different, and served the purpose as a shawl or cloak for going outdoors, rather than anything symbolic. The toga was primarily woven out of very thin wool, and men who wore it did often complain of the cold. Nevertheless, the garment embodied Roman citizenship, and even as it completely fell out of favor as a day-to-day garment during the empire, it still had a place. Augustus did force the citizens to wear it on a daily basis (Suet. Aug. 40), but that seemed to have completely come out of favor within just a couple of centuries when

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Juvenal wrote in his Satires that there was a great part of Italy where no one wears the toga until they die, possibly comparing it to a burial shroud. Various decorative treatments could symbolize the wearers status and occupation. The English word candidate, for example, is a direct derivative of the toga candida, a bleached white garment being worn by those running for political office. Another notable garment of rank was the toga praetexta, in which a purple stripe was sewn along the border of the robe. This was reserved for magistrates and high priests (Plin. H.N. 8, 174, 95.) The presence of a colored stripe carried over onto the mans tunic as well and a symbol of rank. These were known as clavii, and were vertical stripes running the length of the tunic over each shoulder. The color of the stripe could signify the rank or office held by the wearer. Wide purple stripes, the latus clavus, were reserved for the senatorial class, and narrower stripes, the angustus clavus, were worn by members of the equestrian class. The feminine counterpart of the toga was not the shawl-like palla, as previously mentioned, which was considered outerwear or even decorative in nature. The stola was a dress reserved in the highest regards for a woman of high merits and social graces. It was worn by women when she was married, signifying her change of status from maiden to matron, and gave the desired layered look that assisted in both warmth and modesty.4 The stola is described as a sleeveless dress gathered at the shoulders into a strap or brooch, having a length sometimes twice the wearers height in that the excess fabric could be gathered and belted in a multitude of ways. This dress was always worn over a tunic, and never by itself.

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The garment commanded a certain respect and dignity, and in an account written by Josephus in Jewish Antiquities, he gives the story of a woman by the name of Paulina, born of a high line who was a devotee of Isis, who was seduced by a man claiming to be Anubis. Once it is revealed that the man tricked her, Paulina notably rips her stola as a sign of her loss of status, signifying that Josephus was well aware of the significance this garment had. (Josp. A.J. 18.6580) Garments were not the only aspects of dress that indicated social status. More often than not, jewelry played a significant part in displaying a persons status and wealth among Roman society. Pliny the Elder blamed Pompey the Greats victory over Mithridates for the Roman taste in pearls and gemstones as objects from eastern conquests were paraded before the Roman populace5 though Etruscans also appeared to have lavish taste in jewelry. Rings played an integral part in status, including the wearing of a gold band by married women documented as early as the second century CE, and prior to that during the republic, a gold ring was worn for special occasions, or by senators going on an embassy. This was later picked up by the military during the reign of Septimius Severus. (Plin. H.N. 33.4-8.) Signet rings were also used, especially by those in power, as they were used to sign documents. Certain inscriptions on rings or other pieces of jewelry could signify what office one held, a political or religious affliation.6 Crowns themselves often conveyed different meanings depending on who wore them and why they were awarded. Emperors could be awarded several different types of crowns for military victories, or for religious ceremony. Crowns, such as the radiate crown which signified the rays of the sun, did not become popular until the third century, prior to that, the laureate, or a

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crown shaped to look like oak or laurel wreathes, was a more common option for general wear by emperors, and is more commonly depicted in coinage. The pearl was also an important element of jewelry spanning the duration of the empire through Byzantium, prized for its shape, beauty, and rarity. It definitely saw its heyday as the jewel of the empire during the early Byzantine periods as portrayed in the many mosaics found at San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, including the famous portraits of Justinian I and Theodora dripping in strands of pearls from their elaborate headpieces. However, it appeared that the display of jewelry could have also passed from reign to reign, as Augustus showed very little, and yet Caligula was said to have jeweled slippers, something that Pliny the Elder reamed him for (Plin. H.N. 33.6.) The social structure of the Roman Empire was defined not just by the political hierarchy set up for centuries, but it was also echoed in the dress and appearance of Roman citizens. From the materials they wore, the colors they boasted, elegantly draped garments of status and rank and the jewelry they adorned themselves with, Roman society was one driven by symbolism and opulence.

Works Cited Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars Translated by Robert Graves. 2003 Edition. London: Penguin Cassius Dio, Roman History 1925 Edition, Cambridge: Harvard University Press http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html Pliny the Elder, Natural History 1938 Edition, Cambridge: Harvard University Press Josephus Flavius, The Complete Works Translated by William Whiston. 2011 Edition. Edinburgh: Hendrickson Virgil, The Aeneid translated by Robert Fagles. 2010 Edition. London: Penguin Judith Lynn Sebesta and Larissa Bonfante, The World of Roman Costume, 2001, London: University of Wisconsin Press Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold, Roman Civilization Volume II: The Empire, 1990, New York, Columbia University Press Meyer Reinhold, 1969, April. On Status Symbols in the Ancient World The Classical Journal http://www.jstor.org/stable/3295685 Meyer Reinhold, 1971, 2nd Qtr. Usurpation of Status and Status Symbols in the Roman Empire Historia: Zeitschrift fr Alte Geschichte http://www.jstor.org/stable/4435195