U

S
E
R
G
U
I
D
E
Guidelines for the Design of
River Bank Stability and
Protection using RIP-RAP
Prepared by
Associate Professor R. J. Keller
www.toolkit.net.au/riprap
Document History
Date Author Revision Description of Change
July 2004 R. J. Keller 1.0.0 Original draft
January 2005 Keirnan Fowler 1.1.0 Toolkit version, added tutorial
Copyright Notice
CRC for Catchment Hydrology, Australia 2005
Legal Information
To the extent permitted by law, the CRC for Catchment Hydrology (including its employees and consultants)
accepts no responsibility and excludes all liability whatsoever in respect of any persons use or reliance on
this publication or any part of it
Acknowledgements
These Design Guidelines, in part, reproduce material originally prepared by Ian Drummond and Associates
(now Earth Tech Pty Ltd.). The permission of Dr. John Tilleard to freely use this material is appreciated.
























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Contents

i
i
RIP-RAP User Guide
CONTENTS
1 Introduction...........................................................1
1.1 The user guide...................................................................................................................1
1.2 Software............................................................................................................................1
1.2.1 Overview......................................................................................................1
1.2.2 Audience ......................................................................................................2
1.2.3 RIPRAP theory summary ..................................................................................2
1.2.4 Limitations ....................................................................................................2
1.3 Key references ...................................................................................................................2
2 Installation ............................................................3
2.1 Technical specifications.......................................................................................................3
2.2 Licence agreement .............................................................................................................3
2.3 Installation.........................................................................................................................3
3 RIPRAP Tutorial ......................................................4
3.1 Getting started...................................................................................................................4
3.2 The tutorial scenario...........................................................................................................4
3.3 Inputting data ....................................................................................................................5
3.4 Running RIPRAP..................................................................................................................6
3.5 Results...............................................................................................................................6
3.6 Further reading ..................................................................................................................8
4 Using RIPRAP.........................................................9
4.1 Inputs................................................................................................................................9
4.1.1 Energy slope .................................................................................................9
4.1.2 Bank angle .................................................................................................10
4.1.3 Rock specific gravity.....................................................................................10
4.1.4 Rock angle of repose ...................................................................................11
4.1.5 Maximum depth ..........................................................................................11
4.1.6 Depth of interest ..........................................................................................11
4.1.7 Factor of safety............................................................................................12
4.2 Outputs...........................................................................................................................12
5 Notes on the rip-rap technique............................14
RIPRAP User Guide
ii
5.1 Introduction to the rip-rap technique.................................................................................. 14
5.2 Further design considerations............................................................................................ 15
5.2.1 Extent of bank protection ............................................................................. 16
Length of bank to be protected..................................................................... 16
Proportion of bank height to be protected...................................................... 16
5.2.2 Allowance for scour at toe of rip-rap............................................................. 17
5.2.3 Specification for rock quality and grading and thickness of layer ...................... 17
5.2.4 Details of filters ........................................................................................... 18
Geotextile filters .......................................................................................... 18
Appendix A - RIPRAP Theory .........................................20
Appendix B - References...............................................23
Contents

iii
iii
TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 3-1: The tutorial scenario .........................................................................................................5
Figure 3-2: The input table with tutorial input values .............................................................................6
Figure 3-3: The output table with calculated tutorial values....................................................................7
Figure 3-4: The output graph based on calculated tutorial values...........................................................7
Figure 4-5: Ratio of local to reach-averaged energy gradient as function of bend geometry. ...................10
Figure 4-6: Angle of repose of dumped rip-rap. (Source: Simons and Senturk, 1977) ...........................11
Figure 4-7: RIPRAP output table ........................................................................................................13
Figure 4-8: RIPRAP output graph.......................................................................................................13
Figure 5-9: A typical RIPRAP scenario, showing various design considerations. ......................................15
Figure A-1: Forces on a rip-rap particle .............................................................................................20
TABLE OF TABLES
Table 4-1: Commonly specified bank angles for rip-rap ......................................................................10
Table 4-2: Specific gravities of typical rock types used for rip-rap .........................................................11
Table 4-3: Typical values of the Factor of Safety. ................................................................................12
Table 5-4: Suggested rock gradation.................................................................................................18
Table 5-5: Advantages and disadvantages of geotextile and granular filters ..........................................19























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Introduction
1
1 Introduction
RIPRAP is a design tool developed for use in the hydraulic design of rip-rap bank protection.
Rip-rap is the term given to loose rock armour, usually obtained by quarrying, which can be
employed to provide protection to actively eroding or potentially eroding banks in rivers and
channels.
1.1 The user guide
These guidelines primarily address the program RIPRAP and its proper use in the hydraulic
design of rip-rap for specified flow conditions.
A tutorial is provided in Section 3 as a step-by-step introduction to RIPRAP, while Section 4
provides a more detailed program description.
It is emphasised very strongly that hydraulic design (the purpose of this program) is only one
aspect of the correct application and design of rip-rap protection. It is clearly not possible to
provide a complete treatise on the other issues of importance. However, design notes on
these other issues are provided in Section 5.2. These notes are intended for guidance only
and not as a set of prescribed rules.
Section 5 also contains an introduction to the rip-rap technique.
In Appendix A, the hydraulic theory underpinning the program is presented.
1.2 Software
1.2.1 Overview
RIPRAP is written as an EXCEL spreadsheet-based program. The internal calculations are run
by macros.
Inputs to the program include:
Site details, ie. bank angle, local energy slope, maximum depth
Rock details, ie. specific gravity, angle of repose
Factor of safety
Program output is a table of design values of median rip-rap diameter for a range of depths
and bank angles. A graph of the table data is also provided.
RIPRAP User Guide
2
Note The data or datasets used to run significant or important models should
be archived together with the results of the model. If the model results
are challenged, then the model can be re-run with the original dataset.
1.2.2 Audience
The program RIPRAP is designed for use by engineers in Catchment Management Authorities,
Local Government Organisations, and consulting practices who are involved in river and
stream rehabilitation and restoration studies or projects.
1.2.3 RIPRAP theory summary
The theory is based on a fundamental force balance, requiring that, at the point of incipient
particle motion, the disturbing forces on the particle (drag force exerted by the flow and
weight component resolved down the slope) are balanced by the restoring forces (the product
of the weight component resolved perpendicular to the bank and the tan of the natural angle
of repose of the rip-rap material). Appendix A gives a detailed description and explanation
of the hydraulic theory underpinning the RIPRAP program.
1.2.4 Limitations
It is important to emphasise that hydraulic design is only one aspect of correct
implementation of rip-rap. Indeed, rip-rap often fails for reasons other than inadequacies in
its specific hydraulic design. Such failures are often related to poor understanding of the
prevailing site conditions such as hydrology, overall stream morphology, floodplain and
channel hydraulics, and foundation conditions. In all cases it is important to access local
knowledge and experience with other chutes on the same stream or under similar conditions.
1.3 Key references
The design procedure is essentially a development and simplification of the group of
methods based on tractive force analysis, and particularly the so-called Factor of Safety
method developed by Simons and co-workers (Simons and Senturk, 1977).
These Design Guidelines, in part, reproduce material originally prepared by Ian Drummond
and Associates (now Earth Tech Pty Ltd.). The permission of Dr. John Tilleard to freely use this
material is appreciated.
Installation
3
2 Installation
2.1 Technical specifications
The software is written as a Microsoft Excel 2003 workbook, and will run on any computer
with a compatible version of Excel installed. Earlier versions of Excel (eg Excell 97) are known
to have problems with certain aspects of the program. The embedded macros are
programmed in Visual Basic for Applications.
2.2 Licence agreement
A licence agreement is part of the installation procedure. You must acknowledge that you
have read, understood and agree to be bound by the software licence agreement to be able
to proceed with the installation.
2.3 Installation
Download the RIPRAP installer from the Toolkit website. Unzip the files and run the RIPRAP
setup program.
When running RIPRAP you must choose the enable macros option if prompted to do so.
The macro security level on your computer must be set to Medium or Low in order for RIPRAP
to run properly.
RIPRAP User Guide
4
3 RIPRAP Tutorial
This tutorial aims to provide the user with a brief introduction to RIPRAP. For more
information on any aspect of the tutorial, please refer to the more extensive sections of the
manual.
3.1 Getting started
Start RIPRAP from the menu Start > Programs > Toolkit > Riprap > Riprap, or from the
shortcut menu on the Desktop.
You must choose enable macros if prompted to do so. If you encounter problems, it may
be because your macro security level is too high. Change it through Tools>Macro>Security
(while in Excel).
For more information on technical specifications or other aspects of installation, see Section
2.
3.2 The tutorial scenario
The tutorial will use a hypothetical scenario to introduce the key concepts of RIPRAP. The
main characteristics of the scenario are shown in Figure 3-1 below.
RIPRAP Tutorial
5
Figure 3-1: The tutorial scenario
3.3 Inputting data
Type in the following input data:
Energy slope
Enter 0.001
This is the local hydraulic energy gradient. For information on how to derive this value from
a reach-averaged value, see Section 4.1.1.
Bank angle
Enter 31
This is the angle (in ) of the finished rip-rap surface to the horizontal.
Rock specific gravity
Enter 2.65
This is the density of the composite rock relative to the density of water.
RIPRAP User Guide
6
Rock angle of repose
Enter 40
This is the natural angle (in ) of repose of the rock being used as rip-rap. See Section
4.1.4 for more information.
Maximum depth
Enter 5
This is the maximum depth (in m) for which data is required.
Depth of interest
Leave this blank
RIPRAP outputs at 10 equally spaced depths, varying between 0 and the maximum. If you
have an additional depth for which you require information, enter it here.
Factor of safety
Enter 1.2
This is a user-defined variable that accounts for such things as uncertainty, high
consequences of failure, or other site-specific factors. See Section 4.1.7 for more
information.
Figure 3-2 shows the input table with the tutorial values entered.
Figure 3-2: The input table with tutorial input values
3.4 Running RIPRAP
To run the program, press Calculate. Values will appear in the output table.
If you have entered an incompatible value, you will receive a warning message.
3.5 Results
The maximum safe bank angle appears at the bottom of the input table. This is calculated
by RIPRAP and is a function of the inputs angle of repose and factor of safety.
RIPRAP Tutorial
7
The output table should look like that shown in Figure 3-3. The output table values are
median diameters for the rip-rap rocks.
Figure 3-3: The output table with calculated tutorial values
Click the Rip-rap graph tab to view the results as a graph. The graph is displayed in Figure
3-4 below.
Figure 3-4: The output graph based on calculated tutorial values
The use of a table of results rather than a single design value is deliberate. It is intended to
force the user to consider the sensitivities of the results to the chosen design parameters. In
particular, the table shows a strong sensitivity of the results to the design bank angle when
the design bank angle is close to the natural angle of repose of the rip-rap.
RIPRAP User Guide
8
3.6 Further reading
Please refer to:
Section 4 for more information on RIPRAP inputs, outputs and assumptions
Section 5 for more information on the rip-rap technique and various design
considerations beyond what is covered above
Appendix A for the theory that underpins the RIPRAP program
Using RIPRAP
9
4 Using RIPRAP
4.1 Inputs
The following is a detailed description of each RIPRAP input variable.
4.1.1 Energy slope
This is the local hydraulic energy gradient.
The value adopted for this parameter is crucial to the accuracy of the computed required rip-
rap size. Indeed, the theoretical development in the appendix indicates that computed D
50

values are directly proportional to the adopted energy gradient. The description of the
hydraulic conditions, which dictate the forces on the rip-rap particle, is fully embodied in the
value adopted.
The adopted value must represent the local energy gradient adjacent to the rip-rap. The local
slope will vary significantly from the reach-averaged energy gradient at constrictions, bridges,
other in-stream structures, and at channel bends. Only in straight channels of reasonably
prismatic cross-section will the local energy gradient approximate the reach-averaged value.
The following comments provide some guidance on appropriate values to be adopted.
On channel bends, the multiplying factor, S
e
/S
a
, to be applied to the reach-averaged energy
gradient may be estimated as a function of the ratio of the outside bend radius of curvature
to the channel width from Figure 4-5, adapted from US Soil Conservation Service (1971).
At bridges and constrictions the local energy slope needs to be estimated through detailed
hydraulic analysis. Backwater analyses with closely spaced cross-sections and detailed bridge
waterway computations will prove helpful.
For the nose of groynes and at bridge abutments, work by Maynard (1978) suggests that a
design energy gradient of 4 times the reach-averaged value in the channel is appropriate.
RIPRAP User Guide
10
Figure 4-5: Ratio of local to reach-averaged energy gradient as function of bend geometry.
4.1.2 Bank angle
This is the angle (in degrees) of the finished rip-rap surface to the horizontal.
Commonly specified bank angles are presented in Table 4-1 below.
Table 4-1: Commonly specified bank angles for rip-rap
Bank slope Corresponding bank angle ()
1.5 H : 1 V 34
2.0 H : 1 V 30
2.5 H : 1 V 22
3.0 H : 1 V 18.5
4.1.3 Rock specific gravity
This is the density of the composite rock relative to the density of water.
Quartz-based granite typically has a specific gravity of about 2.65. Table 2 gives a guide to
relative densities, but it is recommended that, for major projects, actual densities should be
measured.
Using RIPRAP
11
Table 4-2: Specific gravities of typical rock types used for rip-rap
Rock Type Relative Density
Sandstone 2.1 2.4
Granite 2.5 3.1 (typically 2.65)
Limestone (crystalline) 2.6
Basalt 2.7 3.2
4.1.4 Rock angle of repose
This is the natural angle of repose of the rock being used as rip-rap.
The natural angle of repose of rock typically varies between about 30
0
and 43
0
, depending
on rock size and shape. Figure 4-6, sourced from Simons and Senturk (1977), provides a
good estimate. It is evident from this figure that for angular rock of size greater than 100mm,
the natural angle of repose is 41-42
0
, covering most design situations.
Figure 4-6: Angle of repose of dumped rip-rap. (Source: Simons and Senturk, 1977)
4.1.5 Maximum depth
This is the maximum depth for which data is required.
RIPRAP splits the maximum depth into ten equal intervals and provides output at each interval
of depth.
The generation of depth-dependant rip-rap size permits the specification of different rip-rap
stone sizes at different depths, which may be appropriate on very large projects where cost is
a substantial issue.
4.1.6 Depth of interest
This is a user-specified depth for which output data is required.
In the output table, this depth appears along with the ten of equal interval (see above).
RIPRAP User Guide
12
4.1.7 Factor of safety
This variable relies on the judgement and experience of the designer for suitable application.
Its technical definition is the ratio of the restoring force to the disturbing force on a rip-rap
particle (see Appendix A, equation A-3 for more information).
The following factors will influence this variable:
The consequence of failure
The return period and likely duration of the design flood
The reliability of estimates of the design flood
The reliability of the estimate of the local energy gradient
The quality, consistency, and grading of available rock
The reliability of placement techniques
The severity and mode of failure of existing bank erosion
The likelihood of turbulence or high velocity eddies
The likelihood of the rip-rap being stabilised by vegetation within a time period much
less than the return period of the flood
Other uncertainties in the analysis
The most important of these factors is the consequence of failure in terms of subsequent
erosion, loss of habitat, and potential threat to other assets such as bridges.
As a guide, a factor of safety of 1.5 is appropriate for most major projects.
As a guide for inexperienced users, values for factor of safety are suggested in Table 4-3
below.
Table 4-3: Typical values of the Factor of Safety.
Value Comment
1.1 Minimum value to be adopted
1.2 Typical protection of eroding banks in a rural environment
1.3 For eroding banks in a rural environment where additional
uncertainties exist or where assets are threatened.
1.5 Where failure would threaten a major asset or cause major loss, or
where major uncertainties exist in the appropriate values of input
parameters.
The relatively low factors of safety reflect the generally conservative assumptions built into the
rock sizing procedures. The recommended values should lead to design conditions in which
there is no significant rock movement under the design flow condition
4.2 Outputs
The program generates both tabular and graphical output. An output table is shown in
Figure 4-7.
Using RIPRAP
13
Figure 4-7: RIPRAP output table
The table comprises the design values of median rip-rap diameter for a range of bank angles
and a range of depths. The ranges include the actual design bank angle (27 in the above
case) and design depth (2.5m) as specified in the input table.
There is a maximum allowable bank angle, which is a function of the specified angle of
repose and the selected factor of safety. Rock sizes for angles greater than the maximum
allowable are not shown.
Note Use of a table of results rather than a single design value is deliberate.
It is intended to force the user to consider the sensitivities of the results
to the chosen design parameters. In particular, the table shows a strong
sensitivity of the results to the design bank angle when the design bank
angle is close to the natural angle of repose of the rip-rap.
In a normal design case, the user will re-run the program several times after altering one or
more of the input parameters. This procedure is greatly simplified by the input table
appearing directly above the output table on the screen.
The graphical output is generated directly from the output table. It comprises a graph of
median rip-rap size as a function of depth for each bank angle. An example is shown in
Figure 4-8.
Figure 4-8: RIPRAP output graph
RIPRAP User Guide
14
5 Notes on the rip-rap
technique
5.1 Introduction to the rip-rap technique
Rip-rap is the term given to loose rock armour, usually obtained by quarrying. It is widely
used for bank protection. Useful engineering qualities of rip-rap include:
General ease of placing can be placed underwater
Flexibility
High hydraulic roughness to attenuate waves and currents
Low maintenance requirements and convenience of repair
Durability
Rip-rap is normally placed by machine in the dry, although it can be tidied or even placed by
hand, to improve its packing density or to key larger stones into the underlayer or subsoil. As
with granular underlayers, rip-rap can become segregated into different sized zones if
dumped into place. The aim of machine placing is always to release the material as close as
possible to its final position. Later spreading, by bulldozer or otherwise, may increase
breakage, segregation, and surface roughness.
A major advantage of rip-rap protection is that it is very flexible. As a result, damage tends to
occur gradually and, as stones move relative to each other, is, to some extent, self-healing.
This allows maintenance work to be undertaken on a routine basis in contrast to rigid
protection systems, such as concrete blocks, which require immediate repairs to prevent
widespread progressive failure once localised failure occurs. It is, nevertheless, important that
maintenance is carried out, since the misaligned surface where stones have been lost or
where deformation has occurred will generally experience higher than average hydrodynamic
forces.
Although the concept of rock rip-rap is simple, proper hydraulic design is very important to
ensure that the river geometry and rock size are matched with the expected flow conditions
such that the rock remains stable under all expected flow conditions. In addition, appropriate
rip-rap design requires that a number of other issues be adequately addressed. In particular:
The grading of sizes within the rock rip-rap minimises the presence of voids within the
protective layer and minimises the area of individual rocks exposed to forces from the
flow
Notes on the rip-rap technique
15
A filter layer is provided where necessary to prevent bank material washing out
through the protective rip-rap layer
The rock rip-rap extends a distance upstream and downstream which is appropriate to
the level of security to be achieved and the overall cost of the protection
The rock rip-rap covers a proportion of the bank height which is appropriate to the
level of security to be achieved and the overall cost of the protection
The rock rip-rap extends below estimated scour depth
The rock is of suitable quality
5.2 Further design considerations
Hydraulic design, which is covered by the RIPRAP program, is only one aspect of overall
riprap design. Considerations must be made of a number of additional factors, such as:
Extent of bank protection (including length of bank to be protected and proportion of
bank height to be protected)
Allowance for scour at toe of rip-rap
Specification for rock quality and grading and thickness of layer
Details of filters
The following section considers each of these factors.
Reference is also made to Figure 5-9 below throughout this section.
Figure 5-9: A typical RIPRAP scenario, showing various design considerations.
These notes are intended as a guide only.
RIPRAP User Guide
16
5.2.1 Extent of bank protection
There are no universal rules to determine the extent of bank protection appropriate to a
particular site and design case. Factors to be considered include the cost of protection,
acceptable degree of risk, and consequences of failure. The following paragraphs provide
some guidance in this assessment.
Length of bank to be protected
A site inspection and an understanding of the mechanisms causing erosion will assist in
determining the appropriate length of bank to be treated. Aerial photographs will provide
guidance in understanding the temporal development of the river alignment and, together
with local knowledge, will often assist in determining the history of erosion at the site. Such a
history is often a valuable indicator of likely future developments.
Flow lines and corresponding points of attack will vary significantly with the flow level. In a
meandering stream, the main current lines tend to straighten, and the point of attack on a
bend will tend to move downstream, with increasing flow. Braided streams are less
predictable.
Erosion on the outside of bends will also move downstream with time. For this reason, it is
desirable to continue erosion protection downstream beyond the limit of existing erosion.
Generous location of the downstream limit is essential to successful rip-rap protection. As a
guide for the treatment of major meander developments, rip-rap protection should be
provided for a distance of twice the bank-to-bank distance downstream of the existing
erosion.
The upstream limit of erosion protection is generally easier to locate. As a guide for the
treatment of major meander developments, rip-rap protection should be provided for a
distance upstream of the existing erosion equal to the bank-to-bank distance.
Proportion of bank height to be protected
It is generally not necessary to extend rip-rap protection to the top of the bank unless dictated
by unusual site constraints. Such constraints may include the presence of strong overbank
flows, upper bank erosion by strong wave action or prolonged high flows, and severe
consequences of rip-rap failure.
As a general rule, protection of the lower two thirds of a bank (as shown in Figure 5-9) is
usually considered to offer optimum protection. The upper one third of the bank can be
treated, as appropriate, with less resistant and less expensive techniques such as vegetation.
However, this rule should always be reviewed in the light of local knowledge and conditions.
For example, conditions where a river has a very high bank such that bank-full flows are
reached less than once a year, may justify a reduction in the height of protection. Conversely,
a low bank, relative to the level of the annual flood, may need full protection.
An understanding of the mode of failure also assists in this assessment. For example, if the
bank failure mechanism is through undermining of the toe and subsequent collapse,
protection of the toe is crucial. On the other hand, if fretting at high levels is primarily
responsible for erosion, it is more important to provide protection at that water level.
In designing extensive rip-rap works, it may be desirable to consider, in addition, the stream
longitudinal profile. This gives the designer the additional options of ensuring that the height
of rip-rap protection represents an adequate proportion of the average bank height, or
allowing the rip-rap height to vary along the reach to reflect variations in the water surface
profile.
Notes on the rip-rap technique
17
5.2.2 Allowance for scour at toe of rip-rap
Many failures of rip-rap occur through undermining of the toe of the rip-rap by scour of the
stream bed during high flow events. Two methods of allowing for this are (see also Figure
5-9):
1 Extend the rip-rap protection below the estimated scour level by placing rip-rap
material in an excavated trench
2 Provide extra rip-rap material at the toe of the bank which can drop down and
provide protection should scour occur.
Use of the second alternative requires care. The response of the rip-rap to settling is
unpredictable. In particular, if a graded rock is used as is recommended the finer
material will be susceptible to loss during settlement. Accordingly, it is recommended that
allowance should be made for at least 50% loss of rock.
In a particular design situation, the likely severity of bed scour needs to be assessed.
Although this assessment should be technically based on techniques for estimating scour
depth, the particular design situation is also of great importance. The following comments
are pertinent:
In meandering gravel bed rivers, allowance for scour on the outside of bends is
generally made by ensuring generous provision of rock at the toe of the protection
works. Additional scour depths beyond the deep holes typical of this situation are
likely to be reasonably small.
In sand bed streams, scour depths can be several metres in magnitude, particularly if
the channel is steep. Allowance for scour is an essential component of successful
design.
Deep scour may occur at constrictions, groynes, bridge abutments, and other areas of
flow constriction and flow disturbance. Standard texts on scour should be consulted to
estimate the extent.
The depth of scour increases with increasing slope and depth of flow and with
decreasing bed material size.
Where scour is estimated to be very severe, in-channel scour control techniques may be
considered as an alternative means of ensuring rip-rap integrity.
5.2.3 Specification for rock quality and grading and
thickness of layer
Rock should be hard, tough, and durable. It should have a crushing strength of at least
25Mpa. The rock should be free of defined cleavage planes and should not be adversely
affected by repeated wetting and drying.
The rock should be predominantly angular in shape with not more than 25% of rocks,
distributed through the gradation, having a length more than twice the breadth or thickness.
No rock should have a length exceeding 2.5 times its breadth or thickness.
Where rock fails to meet this specification, it may still be considered at the designers
discretion, provided allowance is made in the design for its shortcomings.
Rock to meet the necessary size and strength criteria will normally be won from a hard rock
quarry by drilling and blasting. A hydraulic rock breaker mounted on a hydraulic excavator
provides an excellent means of producing rock to design size specifications.
Rock should not be single sized, but, instead, should be a well-graded mixture designed to
ensure that all interstices between large rocks are filled with rock of progressively smaller size.
This has the effect of ensuring that no significant voids occur in the rock blanket through
which underlying material can be washed out. Additionally, it helps to create an interlocking
mass of rock, which is highly stable.
RIPRAP User Guide
18
Experience suggests a rock gradation such as that summarised in Table 5-4. When specifying
rock gradation to field staff and contractors, it is helpful to transform this grading by weight
into an equivalent grading by number.
Table 5-4: Suggested rock gradation
Equivalent spherical
diameter
Percent by weight of rock of
smaller size
1.5 2.0 D
50
100%`
D
50
50%
0.3 0.4 D
50
10% - 20%
The thickness of rock rip-rap protection should be at least twice the median rip-rap diameter
or equal to the largest rocks in the rip-rap mixture, whichever is the greater.
5.2.4 Details of filters
Filter materials may be necessary to stabilise rip-rap protection over fine material. The filter
layer prevents bed material being washed through residual interstices in the rock layer (see
Figure 5-9 for filter layer position). Normally, a filter layer is only necessary where the
underlying material is largely non-cohesive such as uniform sand or silt, high groundwater
levels create large pore pressures, or an unusually high factor of safety is required. If one or
more of these conditions prevails, the need for a filter layer can be further assessed from the
following required criteria:
For stability
5
material) bank ( D
rap) rip (
85
15
s
D
and
25
material) bank ( D
rap) rip (
50
50
s
D
For permeability
5
material) bank ( D
rap) rip (
15
15
s
D
If the relationship between bed material grading and chute rock grading is outside these
limits, the need for a filter layer becomes more paramount.
A granular filter layer can be designed by applying the above relationships twice once
between the bed material and the filter layer and once between the filter layer and the chute
rock.
Geotextile filters
In those conditions that require provision of a filter layer between the rip-rap and the parent
material, geotextile can be an alternative to a filter layer.
However, caution is recommended. Several failures and partial failures have occurred
involving rock sliding on the filter cloth. This occurs where the friction between the rock and
the filter cloth is less than the internal friction of the rock mix.
Notes on the rip-rap technique
19
The most vulnerable design cases are those for which the hydraulic forces are relatively small,
permitting the bank angle to be steep. For designs where a flat batter is required to ensure
rip-rap stability against hydraulic forces, the risk of failure by sliding of the rock on the filter
cloth is diminished.
Accordingly, care must be taken to ensure maximum resistance between the rip-rap and the
cloth. This can be achieved by avoiding preparation of the bank to a smooth and even
batter, not stretching the cloth tightly over the underlying bank, and avoiding cloths with low
friction surfaces.
A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of using geotextile as an alternative to
granular filters is presented in Table 5-5, after Hemphill and Bramley (1989).
Table 5-5: Advantages and disadvantages of geotextile and granular filters
Geotextile Granular material
A
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
e
s
Cost
In-plane tensile strength
Limited thickness
Self-healing in some
circumstances
Generally very durable
Deformable retains good
surface contact above and below
Relatively easy to repair
D
i
s
a
d
v
a
n
t
a
g
e
s
Some uncertainty over
long-term behaviour
Edges must be carefully
protected
Easy to damage, difficult
to repair
Careful design and
installation needed to
accommodate settlement
of uneven foundation
Careful control needed to
achieve specified grading sand
thickness
Compaction difficult on steep
side slopes
Control of construction difficult
underwater.
RIPRAP User Guide
20
Appendix A - RIPRAP
Theory
The theoretical development is based on determining the balance between the disturbing and
restoring forces on a rip-rap particle on a sloping bank.
The force balance is developed using Figure A-1.
Figure A-1: Forces on a rip-rap particle
The disturbing force, R
D
, is the resultant of the drag force on the particle, F
D
, and weight of
the particle, W
S
, resolved down the bank slope, u . This force is expressed as:
[ ]
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
sin sin
S S D S D
a W F W R t u u + = + = (A-1)
where
a is the effective particle area exposed to flow drag
S
t is the shear stress on the bank
The restoring force, R
R
, is given by the product of the component of the particle weight
normal to the bank and the tan of the natural angle of repose, | . This force is expressed as:
| u tan cos
S R
W R = (A-2)
The factor of safety is then defined as the ratio of restoring force to disturbing force:
RIPRAP Theory
21
2 2 2 2
sin
tan cos
S S
S
D
R
S
a W
W
R
R
F
t u
| u
+
= = (A-3)
Now, on a flat bed at the threshold of particle motion, u = 0 and F
S
= 1 by definition.
The determination of the critical shear stress at the threshold of motion on a flat bed is given
by:

( )
constant
1
50
=

s
c
S D
t
(A-4)
where
c
t is the critical shear stress
is the specific weight of water
D
50
is the particle size for which 50% of the sample is finer
S
s
is the relative density of the bed material
Equation (A-4) is correct provided the particle Reynolds Number is above a certain value,
typically taken to be about 400. This corresponds to a particle size of about 6mm
(Henderson 1966). In all practical rip-rap designs, the rock size will always be larger than
this value, so the use of the equation is justified.
The magnitude of the constant is the subject of some difference of opinion in the literature.
The classic work of Shields (Henderson 1966) produced a value of 0.056, although other
studies have yielded lower values. For the present study, a more conservative value of 0.047
is chosen, consistent with the work of Meyer-Peter and Muller (1948) and Yalin and Karahan
(1979).
Thus, Equation (A-4) may be written as:
( ) 1 047 . 0
50
=
s C
S D t (A-5)
An alternative expression for
c
t may be obtained from Equation (A-3) with = 0 and F
S
=1. Under these conditions, Equation (A-3) devolves to:

a
W
S
C
|
t
tan
= (A-6)
Equating the right hand sides of Equations (A-5) and (A-6) and algebraic manipulation
yields:

( ) 1 047 . 0
tan
50

=
s
S
S D
W
a

|
(A-7)
Now, on the bank of a trapezoidal channel, the shear stress may be expressed as (after
Chow 1959):
S y
S
75 . 0 t = (A-8)
where
S is the local gradient of the total energy line.
Substituting Equations (A-7) and (A-8) into Equation (A-3) yields:

( )
2
50
2 2
1 047 . 0
tan 75 . 0
sin
tan cos
(

+
=
s
S
S
S
S
S D
ySW
W
W
F
|
u
| u
(A-9)
RIPRAP User Guide
22
Simplification of Equation (A-8) by dividing the top and bottom lines by W
S
and rearranging
yields:

( )
u
| u
|
2
2
50
sin
tan cos
1 047 . 0
tan 75 . 0

|
|
.
|

\
|
(

=
S
s
F
S
yS
D (A-10)
It is evident from the form of Equation (A-10) that a solution is only possible if
u
| u
sin
tan cos
>
S
F
. Thus, the limiting bank slope is given by:

(

=

S
F
|
u
tan
tan
1
max
(A-11)
Equations (A-10) and (A-11) are solved by the program RIPRAP.
References
23
Appendix B - References
Carter, A. C. (1953). Critical Tractive Forces on Channel Side Slopes. U. S. Bureau of
Reclamation, Hydraulic Laboratory Report Hyd-366, February
Chow, V. T. (1959). Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill, New York
Hemphill, R. W., and Bramley, M. E. (1989). Protection of River and Canal Banks,
Butterworths, London
Henderson, F. M. (1966). Open Channel Flow, Macmillan, New York
Meyer-Peter, E., and Muller, R. (1948): Formulas for Bed-Load Transport. Proceedings of
the 2
nd
Congress of the International Association for Hydraulics Research, IAHR,
Stockholm, Sweden, June
Simons, D. B. and Senturk, F. (1977): Sediment Transport Technology, Water Resources
Publications, Fort Collins, Colorado
Yalim, M. Selim, and Karahan, E. (1979): Inception of Sediment Transport. Journal of the
Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 105, No. HY11, Proc. Paper 14975, November,
pp 1433-1443.