Digital Systems

A digital system is a system whose inputs and outputs fall within a discrete, finite set of values. Two main types: Combinational (Outputs depend only on current input Sequential: Outputs depend on both past and present inputs Example:

Example-2 Consider a car, which sounds a buzzer when the lights are left on or it is left in gear (not parked) and the keys are taken out of the ignition.

Minimization

to

Truth Table

Minimization implies that fewer logic gates are required to realize the circuit.

1st Theorem: Complement of a sum equals the product of complements. 2nd Theorem: Complement of a product equals the sum of the complements

Take the complement of the expression. Change the operator Complement the whole thing.

A.B+C.D = [A.B].[C.D] = [A + B].[C + D] = [A.B].[C.D]

Exercise: 1. Simplify the following expressions: Y=A' B' C'+ A'BC'+ AB'C'+ ABC'
2

ADC and DAC

Analog signal corresponds to physical signal of a natural system. Majority of the signal in nature is analog e.g., temperature, pressure, speed, position, light intensity, audio signal, etc. It has a signal magnitude at a particular instant of time. Digital has two states and those states corresponds to a value that is anywhere in the specified range. Physical signal is analog because its each state represents a value. Transmission of analog signal incorporates noise i.e., disturbances are superimposed. Suppressing noise by digitizing is one way to transmit the analog signal. Digitising is done by sampling and quantization process. The signal is defined only at sampling instant; it is no longer a function of time rather a discrete-time signal. Signal amplitude is no longer be continuous but quantized /digitize. Conceptually A/D conversion is a two step process: Quantising and Codeing (assignment of digital code to each output) Greater the number of bits digital signal is more closer to analog signal.

What are AD/DA Converters:

ADC and DAC

An Analog to Digital converter [AD converter or ADC] is an electronic circuit which accepts an analog input signal (usually a voltage) and produces a corresponding digital number at the output A Digital to Analog converter [DA converter or DAC] is an electronic circuit which accepts a digital number at its input and produces a corresponding analog signal (usually a voltage) at the output They exist as modules, ICs, or fully integrated inside other parts, e.g. Cs.

u Advantages ?

Benefits of Computer Power for further signal processing Insensitive to noise, crosstalk, EM perturbations Permanent Data Storage

What are AD/DA Converters?

Analog
continuous time world

Digital
discrete time world

Analog
continuous time world

+/-10v

ADC 1
12

DAC 1 COMPUTER or P/C

16

+/-10v

The Real World

The Real World

+/-5v

ADC 2
16

Typical AD & DA Application

What are they used for

Any time a real world analog signal is connected to a digital system CD players, GSMs, DVMs, Digital Camcorders etc, etc HOWEVER, each application has particular needs

Resolution - number of bits Speed and Accuracy Level of input/output waveforms Cost etc

Why do you need to know how they work?

Practical converters have : Many conversion methods Trade-offs between resolution and speeds + delays Different methods of sampling the waveforms A large number of basic and methoddependent error sources Manufacturers specifications which differ - AND Almost all converters need some analog signal conditioning which is application dependent

Waveform digitising (1)

Digital value

time

A waveform is digitised (sampled) at a constant rate t Each such sample represents the instantaneous amplitude at the instant of sampling Between samples the value remains constant [zero order hold] What errors can occur in this process ?

Waveform digitising (2)

A

B D

A & B show aliasing in the time domain C & D show a different case in the frequency domain - it is important to understand these effects

Aliasing refers to an effect that causes different continuous signals to become indistinguishable (or aliases of one another) when these are sampled and then reconstructed. It results in distortion or artifact that results when a signal is sampled and reconstructed as an alias of the original signal.

Nyquist Criterion: Sampling rate must be double the highest frequency component in a signal for proper reconstruction.

Waveform digitising errors

For a DAC

For an ADC

output waveform is a distorted version of original higher frequencies not reproduced - aliasing ? average shape displaced in time sharp edges need filtering converter sampling errors

conversion time data available delay aliasing - [ is multiplication of input spectrum and fs] [must remove all spectrum > fs/2 before sampling]

with a sample & hold circuit ahead of the converter? integrating action during part, or all of the sample-time ?

Sampling rate

Nyquist rate = 2x highest frequency of interest Practically, - always sample at least 5x, or higher Ensure ADCs have input filtering [anti-alias] where necessary [large hf signals] Filter DAC outputs to remove higher frequencies and switching glitches Over-sampling converters sample x4 to x500 - this may reduce above problems and/or extend resolution

ADC and DAC Methods

Some very simple ideas

Digitally set potentiometer DAC Vref
di l

Comparator

ADC Unknown voltage

l

Vdac

ADC = precise reference voltage comparison of divider value with unknown [analog input] digitally adjustable divider or potentiometer [output value] DAC = Precise reference voltage . {multiplying dac} digitally adjustable divider or potentiometer [input value] Optional output amplifier of pot. value [analog output]

DAC circuits (1)

Simplified binary weighted resistor DAC

4-bit DAC circuit using Op-Amp summing amplifier with binary weighted register Large difference in R values between LSB and MSB R - 2R ladder DAC

Summation of binary weighted currents Modern DACs use the R-2R ladder

Basic ADC circuits (1)

Simple ramp and comparator ADC

Unknown analog input

start

Binary output

Digitising begins with a start pulse DAC is ramped up from zero counter stopped by comparator when Vin = DAC ADC output is counter value Tracking ADC
This ADC circuit is limited and rarely used slow variable time to give result out

Successive Approximation ADC solves these problems - using complex logic to test and retain each DAC bit a sample and hold circuit ahead of the comparator

Flash ADC
Flash

Vref

Signal amplitude is compared to the set of 2n references Direct measurement with 2n-1 comparators Typical performance: 4 to 10 bits (12 bits rare) Up to GHz (extreme case) n High power (2 comparators) typically, 2W. The fastest process <50nsecs Limited resolution typically 8 - 10bits Half-flash technique is cheaper
analog input

Half-Flash
Vref

analog input

Half-Flash ADC 2-step Flash ADC technique 1st flash conversion with 1/2 the precision Residue calculation (1st flash conversion result reconstructed with a DAC and subtracted from signal) Residue flash conversion

DAC Interfacing

Port A

8255 PPI

PA0

PA1

PA2

PA3

R-2R Ladder Network

Problem: How to generate (i) A square wave (ii) A triangular wave (iii) A ramp waveform (iv) A sinewave using a DAC interfaced to a microprocessor?

ADC Interfacing

Temperature Controlled Water bath

PA 8255 PPI
BATH ADC DAC RELAY HEATER WATER

PC

Thermo couple

SPECIFICATIONS FOR D/A CONVERTER

Resolution: is defined as the smallest observable change in the analog output that can be effected by a single step change in the digital input Resolution = v/2n Linearity: An ideal ADC yields equal increments in the analog output for an equal increment in numerical significance of the digital input. Linearity is a measure of the precision with which this requirement is satisfied. Accuracy: is a measure of the difference between the actual analog output and what the output should be in the ideal case. Temperature sensitivity, Offset error, D/A speed or conversion rate