C.P. Beckwith et al.

Soil Use and Management (1998) 14, 123^130

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Nitrate leaching loss following application of organic manures to sandy soils in arable cropping. I. Effects of application time, manure type, overwinter crop cover and nitrification inhibition
C.P. Beckwith1, J. Cooper1, K. A. Smith2 & M.A. Shepherd3
Abstract. Experiments were set up at two sites to measure nitrogen (N) leaching loss from applications of separated pigacattle slurry and cattle farmyard manure(FYM), during winters 1990a91^1993a94 (site A) and from broiler litter and FYM, during winters 1990a91^1992a93 (site B). The manures were applied at a target rate of 200 kg ha1 total N during the autumn and winter to overwinter fallow or top dressed onto winter rye. The total N in leachate was calculated from leachate N concentrations, in samples collected using ceramic cups buried at 90 cm, and an estimate of drainage volume. Nitrogen losses were greatest following manure applications in September, October and November but losses following applications in December or January were not significantly elevated above those from untreated controls. Losses were consistently lower from FYM than from broiler litter or separated slurry. The presence of a cover crop (winter rye) significantly reduced overall N leaching compared with the fallow, but only reduced the manure N leaching losses at one site during one winter when a high proportion of drainage occurred late. The incorporation of a nitrification inhibitor (DCD) with manures applied in October did not significantly reduce the manure N leaching. Keywords: Nitrates, leaching, animal manures, catch crops, application date, nitrification inhibitors, sandy soils

oncern about the nitrate content of drinking water (Conrad, 1988) requires a reduction in nitrate leaching to water sources. Agriculture is a major contributor and, therefore, practices need to be modified accordingly. Shepherd & Lord (1996) and Johnson et al. (1996) have shown that arable husbandry can be adapted to decrease nitrate losses with some success. However, their experiments excluded the use of organic manures and Duynisveld et al. (1988) observed that incorrect fertilization promoting N leaching is more common with the application of manures (in their case, slurry) than with mineral fertilizers. Pedersen (1990), similarly, stated that losses of nitrate are larger from rotations with manure than without. Animal manures are often applied to soils in the autumn andaor at rates that exceed crop requirement. Nitrate leaching can then increase as a result (Juergens-Gschwind, 1989). There are generally two causes of increased leaching from applications of manure: incorrect timing or excessive application rates. Bertilsson (1988) showed that the leaching of N from pig slurry increased the earlier the application in autumn. The fertilizer effectiveness of manure N has been
1 Crop and Environment Research Centre, Harper Adams Agricultural College, Newport, Shropshire, TF10 8NB,UK. Fax: 44 (0)1952 814783 E-mail cpbeckwith@haac.ac.uk 2 ADAS Wolverhampton,Woodthorne,Wolverhampton,WV6 8TQ ,UK. 3 ADAS Land Research Centre, Gleadthorpe, Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, NG20 9PF, UK.

I N T RO DUC T I O N

shown to increase with spring applications, compared to autumn, presumably due to reductions in leaching losses (e.g. Van Dijk & Sturm, 1983; Smith et al. 1994). Vetter (1985) similarly demonstrated the importance of timing, with large increases in shallow groundwater nitrate concentrations from August applications, compared with February applied pig slurry. The second major cause of nitrate leaching is the over-fertilizing of crops with N. Over- supply of N increases post-harvest soil mineral N residue (e.g. Chaney et al., 1990). Ritter & Churnside (1987) observed high nitrate concentrations in groundwater associated with frequent excessive applications of poultry manure. Unwin (1986), in lysimeter experiments, reported large N losses from the application of pig slurry and poultry manure in excess of crop need. Liebhart et al. (1979) associated groundwater contamination by nitrate with histories of excessive poultry manure applications. Thomsen et al. (1993) demonstrated increased leaching losses from a rotation including pig slurry compared to losses from a conventionally fertilized rotation. The need to modify manure practices has been recognised. Prins et al. (1988) recommended no application of autumn N, including manures. Vetter (1985) recommended a similar strategy for manure application as for mineral fertilizers (i.e. application in the spring during active growth), and to adjust fertilizer applications to avoid over-fertilization. The need for application limits is therefore recognised and many countries have introduced restrictions on manure use. For example the Code of Good Agricultural Practice for the

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Nitrate leaching loss following organic manures (I) extra treatment was included to test the effects of a nitrification inhibitor dicyandiamide (DCD) mixed with the manures and applied to fallow ground in October only. The manures were applied to individual plots at approximately monthly intervals. The target application rate was 200 kgaha total N based on pre- spreading analysis, although variability in N content of the manures used meant that this target was not always achieved (Table 1). The manure remained on the soil surface during winter. In October, the nitrification inhibitor was either mixed with the slurry prior to spreading or sprayed onto the solid manures after spreading. Application rate was 20 litres DCDaha (according to manufacturers recommendations) in 500 litres of water before spraying. In spring, the sites were ploughed and barley was drilled. Treatments were fully replicated in three blocks. Each block was split into two main plots (fallow or winter rye cover crop). Application time and manure type in a two -way, factorial combination, plus controls, were then fully randomized within each main plot. Individual plots were 1264 m and 1564 m at sites A and B respectively. Husbandry Each experiment followed a previous cereal crop. Winter rye was chosen as a cover crop because of its previously noted success in decreasing nitrate leaching (Shepherd & Lord 1996; Davies et al., 1996). Each year, the rye was established in late Augustaearly September; at site A by drilling 100 kg seedaha after ploughing and harrowing and at site B by broadcasting 130 kg seedaha after minimal tillage followed by discing and rolling. Fallow plots were kept weed-free through winter with herbicides as necessary. Measurements The manures were subsampled to determine dry matter (DM) and total N before spreading. These preliminary analyses were used as a basis to determine the target application rates. Further samples were taken at spreading and analysed for DM, total N , NH4 -N and C content. Nitrate leaching was measured using porous ceramic cups. These were installed before the start of each experiment, using the technique described by Webster et al. (1993). Four samplers were installed in each plot to 90 cm vertical depth at an angle of 30  to the vertical, down the centre of each plot and about 2 m apart. They were sampled at approximately fortnightly intervals from the onset, to the end, of autumnawinter drainage, as described by Lord & Shepherd (1993). The flexible nylon sampling tubes were buried below cultivation depth and brought to the surface after drilling spring barley so that leachate sampling could continue into spring.Water flux was calculated using the Irriguide computer program (Bailey & Spackman, 1996) which is based on a modified Penman-Monteith equation. Separate calculations of water flux were made for fallow and winter rye plots since differences in crop cover can affect drainage volume. The approximate date of return to field capacity, taken as just before the start of drainage (and, thus, the time to start sampling porous cups), was predicted by the Irriguide program and was confirmed by taking soil samples at 90 cm to determine gravimetric moisture content. Leachate samples (15 cm3) were immediately frozen for storage and transport to the laboratory and thawed prior to ammonium and nitrate

Protection of Water in England and Wales (Anon., 1991), advises against autumn application of poultry manure or slurry and encourages allowance for their nutrient value to be made.This code is not mandatory, however, although compulsory restrictions will be placed upon land within `Nitrate Vulnerable Zones', designated as part of the European Union Drinking Water Directive (Council of European Communities, 1980). Leaching risk may also be affected by manure type, because variation in the proportion of total N that is in a soluble or readily mineralizable form; hence the emphasis placed on the correct management of livestock slurries and poultry manure in UK advisory literature (Anon., 1991; MAFF, 1994). Prins et al. (1988) also suggested the use of nitrification inhibitors to decrease losses from winter applications of manure. Schroder et al. (1993) demonstrated a beneficial reduction in N leaching following nitrification inhibitor treatment of pig slurry. Cover crops can also be effective in reducing N losses (e.g. Shepherd & Lord, 1996) and therefore may offer promise in increasing the time `window of opportunity' for organic manure applications. The broad approach to controlling nitrate leaching from manures is now widely accepted but research is needed to more accurately establish cut- off dates before which manures should not be applied and to assess how these cut- off dates may be influenced by manure type. This detail is important if restrictions on manure use, which may carry significant cost implications (e.g. requirement for increased manure storage capacity and new manure spreading equipment), are to be justified to an already, hard-pressed livestock industry. The experiments described in this paper set out to examine the effects of application time and manure type on nitrate leaching losses following the application of organic manures to sandy soils and to assess the benefits of a cover crop and nitrification inhibitor treatment in minimizing such losses. M AT E R I A LS A N D M ET H O D Annual field experiments were carried out at Harper Adams College, Shropshire, UK (site A) spanning four winters 1990a91^1993a94, and at Gleadthorpe Research Centre, Nottinghamshire, UK (site B) spanning winters 1990a91^1992a93. At site A, the experimentwas laid down in two areas of the same field, a sandy loamaloamy sand over sandstone at 80^90 cm (Bridgnorth series; Ragg et al., 1984). In area 1 the treatments were applied in 1990a91 and 1992a93. In area 2 the treatments were appliedin1991a92and1993a94.This procedure minimized residual effects from the previous manure treatment. At Gleadthorpe, each site was in a separate field on the Centre, and at all three sites the soil was a loamy medium sand over medium sand to depth (Cuckney series: Ragg et al., 1984). During the non-test years the sites were left undisturbed over winter. Gleadthorpe and Harper Adams typically receive c. 650 mm annual rainfall,distributed evenly through the year. Treatments and Experimental Design The experiments tested the effects of manure type: separated pigacattle slurry or cattle FYM at site A; and broiler litter or cattle FYM at site B. Application time: manures applied to separate plots from September to January at monthly intervals; and over-winter crop cover: fallow or winter rye. Control plots on both fallow and winter rye received no manure. An

C.P. Beckwith et al.

Table 1. N application rates (kg ha71) for pigacow slurry, broiler litter (BL) and cattle FYM (FYM) for each experiment. Month of Application Site A Slurry September October November December January FYM September October November December January Site B BL September October November December January FYM September October November December January {applied October 1990 1990a91 NH4 -N Total NH4 -N 1991a92 Total NH4 -N 1992a93 Total NH4 -N 1993a94

125

Total

195{ 195 172 113 135 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 10 5 11 43 25

248 248 388 201 250 300 300 335 342 274 256 176 315 116 115 100 160 201 182 156

148 153 140 105 136 24 25 37 36 32 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 47 14 1 1 1

212 190 179 181 254 248 190 212 184 225 254 239 177 214 354 311 452 338 245 638

86 72 71 88 75 17 34 46 21 21 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 51 17 44 40 36

158 181 159 132 141 243 207 185 158 139 353 121 204 179 152 245 175 185 219 226

121 78 118 118 117 23 38 23 36 43

234 213 196 198 161 216 181 190 190 194

analysis by auto -analyser (Anon., 1986). Nitrogen leaching losses (kg ha1 N) were then calculated from N concentrations and water flux, as described by Lord & Shepherd (1993). Estimated N leaching loss (% applied N) was determined by subtracting the estimate of N leached from the nil manure plots from that leached from the manure treated plots and expressing this as a percentage of the total manure N applied. Soil mineral N (SMN) (NH4 -N plus NO3 -N) was determined in each main plot (i.e. rye or fallow) at the start of the experiment and then again, each spring, on selected manure treatment and control plots (on a plot basis). Ten cores per plot were taken to 90 cm, in 30 cm increments, with Eijelkamp `cheese' augers and bulked on a depth basis, prior to freezing and transport to the laboratory, for analysis. Samples of winter rye cover crop, to assess dry matter accumulation and N uptake, were taken just before the cover crop was ploughed in spring. Above-ground material from
Table 2. Monthly rainfall data (mm) for sites A and B. Harper Adams (site A) Month Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March April Total 30 year mean 60 56 52 62 64 56 43 50 46 489 1990^94 mean 58 53 55 60 57 53 25 45 45 451 1992a3 127 51 63 83 37 51 6 13 57 488

two 0.5 m2 quadrats on each plot, was dried at 80  C for 48 hours prior to determination of Kjeldahl N (Anon., 1986). Results of these latter observations are not presented here, but are available from the authors. Statistical Analysis All variates were analysed by 2-way analysis of variance using the Genstat 5 statistical package (Payne et al., 1993). R E SU LTS A N D D I S C USS I O N Rainfall and Drainage Table 2 shows the monthly rainfall averaged over the period of the experiment and for a `dry' and `wet' autumnawinter at each site. Mean monthly rainfall over the period of the experiment was very close to the 30 year average at site A, but

Gleadthorpe (site B) 1993a4 44 77 69 55 97 57 49 62 36 546 30 year mean 49 54 54 56 60 52 44 51 51 471 1990^93 mean 40 57 75 55 57 49 21 30 55 439 1991a2 6 51 43 46 24 38 13 49 33 303 1992a3 79 85 62 82 49 53 10 8 82 510

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Nitrate leaching loss following organic manures (I)

Fig. 1. Estimated cumulative drainage from unmanured fallow soil for each year of the experiment.

well below the 30 year average at site B. At both sites the autumn and winter of 1990a91 and 1991a92 were relatively dry, drainage started late in the autumn and the estimated total volume of drainage from the unmanured fallow did not exceed 200 mm. In contrast drainage started earlier in the autumn of 1992 and, at site A, in 1993 and continued at that location to give the highest total volume of drainage (274 mm) (Fig. 1). Nitrogen leaching loss Nitrogen concentrations in drainage water.The pattern of leachate nitrogen concentration (NH4 -N +NO3 -N) from selected treatments during a `dry' winter (1992a93 (site A) and 1991a92 (site B)) and a `wet' winter (1993a94 (site A) and 1992a93 (site B)) is summarized in Figure 2. At site A, in 1992a93, the peak N concentration for the October slurry application was after 170 mm drainage. The peak was less clear cut in 1993a94 with the greater volume of drainage and lower N concentrations. At site B in 1991a92 the late onset, and relatively small volume, of drainage resulted in higher N concentrations and the peak concentration from the September broiler litter application occurred after approximately105 mm of drainage. In contrast in 1992a93, an earlier start and more drainage, resulted in lower N concentrations and a peak concentration after approximately 160 mm of drainage. At both sites, the pattern observed for the dry winter, shows the cessation of drainage before the peak of nitrate from the application of slurry and broiler litter in December reached the ceramic

Fig. 2. Nitrate N concentration in drainage from unmanured over-winter fallow (!) and following the application of slurry in October (d) and December (j) (site A) and the application of poultry manure in September (d) and December (j) (site B) to overwintered fallow ( ) and rye cover crop () in a `dry' winter and a `wet' winter.

C.P. Beckwith et al. cups.The presence of the rye cover crop during both of these winters substantially reduced leachate N concentration and, at site A (with a more vigorous growth of rye), the estimated drainage volume. Manure type On average the separated pigacow slurry (3.8% DM) (site A) contained 0.23% N (fresh weight) of which 55% was NH4 -N and the broiler litter (55.1% DM) (site B), 2.16% N of which 18% was NH4 -N. Other work suggests that uric acid-N plus NH4 -N (UAN) represents about 30% of the total N of poultry litters (Nicholson et al., 1996). In contrast, on average the FYM at site A contained 0.86% N of which 14% was NH4 -N and at site B, 0.59% N of which 6.6% was NH4 -N.These analyses are consistent with the range of total N and NH4 -N contents in cattle and pig slurry, poultry manure and FYM reported elsewhere (Smith etal.,1994; MAFF,1994; Nicholson et al., 1996). The application of slurry and broiler litter to over-winter fallow and cover cropped soil resulted in consistently higher nitrate concentrations in drainage and, hence, greater estimated N loss than the corresponding FYM treatment (Table 3 & Fig. 3). Averaged across both cropping situations and all years, the N leached following the application of manures in October was 26.7% of slurry-N (55.5 kg N ha1) compared with 9.0% of broiler litter-N (24.1 kg N ha1) and 6.0% and 4.8% (10.3 and 18.7 kg N ha1) from FYM-N at sites A and B respectively. This difference in N loss probably reflects the amount of `available' N applied in the different manures; this approximates to the soluble N component, i.e., NH4 -N in slurries and FYM and the NH4 -N and uric acid-N in broiler litter (MAFF, 1994). The C:N ratio of the slurry used at site A averaged 5.0, compared to 10.6 for the broiler litter (site B) and 23.5 and 12.3 for the FYM at sites A and B respectively.

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Fig. 3. Estimated N leaching loss (% applied manure N) following the autumn and winter application of slurry and FYM. Mean of crop type.

There was no evidence of a significant rapid release of mineral N following the application of the FYM. Manure with a C:N ratio of less than 25 is often assumed to readily

Table 3. Estimated N leaching loss (% applied N) following the autumawinter application of slurry, broiler litter (BL) and FYM to fallow or cover cropped land during a relatively dry and a wetter winter. 1) Site A Month of application September October November December January Mean SEM(df36) drainage{ 190 143 67 48 10 Fallow slurry 13.3 5.3 0.7 11.8 1.8 0.9 1992a93 (dry) FYM 2.9 5.3 7.8 11.6 6.6 4.7 4.87 Cover Crop slurry 28.4 9.1 3.5 2.1 1.3 8.9 FYM 3.5 0.2 0.6 2.1 7.0 2.7 drainage{ 286 243 200 122 89 Fallow slurry 23.5 21.0 17.5 17.9 15.6 19.1 1993a94 (wet) FYM 8.2 7.8 7.4 2.2 0.8 5.3 4.09 Cover Crop slurry 18.0 13.3 6.0 1.2 3.6 8.4 FYM 6.1 5.0 8.3 6.5 4.9 4.2

2) Site B Month of application September October November December January Mean SEM(df36) drainage{ 118 118 97 73 28

Fallow slurry 22.9 2.3 1.2 3.3 0.3 5.5

1991a92 (dry) FYM 9.7 2.9 1.7 0.2 0.2 2.9

Cover Crop BL 18.6 4.7 4.8 0.5 2.5 3.3 FYM 1.0 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.0 0.4 drainage{ 209 177 120 68 40

Fallow BL 11.1 10.5 5.2 0.1 0.1 5.4

1992a93 (wet) FYM 4.7 4.5 2.2 0.6 0.1 2.1

Cover Crop BL 5.9 6.4 4.4 0.3 0.2 3.4 FYM 4.0 3.8 1.1 0.4 0.5 2.0

2.09

1.05

{calculated drainage (mm water) subsequent to slurry application to fallow.

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Nitrate leaching loss following organic manures (I) tions in N leached of about 65^70% from cover cropped soil compared with a fallow soil. Davies et al. (1996) found that a rye cover crop reduced N leaching loss by more than 90% provided drainage did not start before the cover was established. The growth of the rye was much less vigorous at site B. On average 0.5 t DM ha1, containing 17.7 kg N ha1, was accumulated. On this site the rye reduced nitrate concentration in drainage and estimated N leaching loss by only 37 and 42% respectively. On average estimated N leaching loss (kg ha1 ) was consistently lower from the manured cover than from manured over-winter fallow (Fig. 4). However much of this difference in the quantity of N leached was the result of the capacity of the rye to take up residual N in the soil, during the autumn. Whilst background N leaching losses were less from the cover crop, on average the estimated manure N leaching loss from the cover cropped soil was not significantly lower than from the fallow (Fig. 5). The application of slurry, particularly in early autumn, improved the growth of the cover and average slurry N leached (kg ha1) was reduced. Cover crop DM accumulation often declined following the later manure treatments. In periods of little drainage, when N loss was relatively low anyway, the cover crop had little additional impact on reducing leaching of manure N (Table 3). However in a winter of more late drainage (site A 1993a94) the cover did result in some significant reductions in slurry N leaching loss. The success of cover crops in reducing N leaching loss has commonly been associated with a combination of uptake of soil N by the crop and a reduction in drainage volume resulting from a growing crop (Wyland et al., 1996). At site B the growth of the cover was generally not significantly affected by the application of broiler litter and hence the presence of the cover tended not to reduce N loss from litter application. The total manure N

release mineral N on decomposition although Van Faassen & Van Dijk (1987) suggested that net N immobilization occurred for 1 to 5 months following the application of cow manure of C:N- organic of 16 or above. Application time The application of manure in the autumn and winter significantly increased the average nitrate concentration in the drainage and the estimated N leaching loss. In all years N leaching loss declined with later timings of application. At both sites the application of manure in September and Octo ber consistently elevated nitrate in drainage by on average 23.3 and 12.4 mg N l1 at site A and B respectively and increased estimated N leaching loss.The likelihood of significant leaching when manure was applied after October appeared to depend on the extent and pattern of drainage following the application. Manure applied in November significantly increased estimated N leaching loss when the pattern and extent of winter rainfall allowed over 100 mm of drainage to occur following the application (e.g. Site A, 1993a94; site B, 1992a93). The drainage occurring during this experiment, was not usually sufficient to significantly increase N leaching following manure applications in December or January. The average elevation of nitrate in drainage following manure application in January was less than 0.5 mg N l1 at both sites. However N leaching after application of slurry in December and January was, apparently significantly, increased at site A even in the December and January when the estimated drainage following applications exceeded 120 mm and 80 mm, respectively (1993a94). The application of slurry and broiler litter in September and October, usually significantly elevated N leaching loss (Table 3) compared with the later timings of application and this can be seen more clearly in Figure 3.The same trend was also apparent following applications of FYM (Fig. 3), but the differences were less often significant and losses from FYM were lower overall.These results are consistent with observations at ADAS Gleadthorpe in 1989a90, when leaching losses from poultry manure and cattle FYM were compared on a similar site (Smith & Chambers, 1993). These authors suggested that, manures containing a high proportion of available N (e.g. pigacattle slurry, poultry manure), applied in the period September to December, were likely to give rise to considerable nitrate leaching losses on freely drained soils. Over-winter cover crop At site A the winter rye was generally well established before the start of drainage and, on average, accumulated 2 t DM ha1, containing 72 kg N ha1 on the unmanured soil by the beginning of March. This was similar to the DM yield and N accumulation for an early sown rye cover crop reported by Christian et al. (1990).The rye reduced nitrate concentrations in drainage and N leaching loss from the untreated soil by an average of 74% and 79% respectively over the period of the experiment. Previous cropping and fertilizer residues, at site A, were sufficient to raise the average nitrate concentration in the drainage from the untreated fallow to 50 mg N l1, well above the EU limit of 11.3 mg N l1 in 1991. However the concentration of nitrate in the drainage from the untreated fallow averaged over the following 3 years (8.8 mg N l1) was below the limit. A number of studies (Martinez & Guiraud, 1990; Levan, 1994; Wyland et al., 1996) have reported reduc-

Fig. 4. Estimated N leaching loss (mean of manure type) following the application of manures in the autumn and winter to fallow and cover cropped soil.

C.P. Beckwith et al.

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Fig. 5. Estimated N leaching loss of manure N (% applied) following the application of manures to overwintered fallow and cover cropped soil. Mean of manure type.

applied in 1992a93 was generally lower, and the broiler litter was of a higher C : N ratio than the previous season (14.6 and 8.6 respectively); hence the extent of N leaching was smaller than expected. However in the wetter season, 1992a93, some significant reductions were apparent. The application of FYM frequently smothered and significantly reduced the growth of the cover at both sites. Hence N accumulation by the cover crop was reduced by FYM applications and leaching loss was similar to losses from the fallow situation. Nitrification inhibitor The inclusion of the nitrification inhibitor (DCD) with the October manure applications tended to reduce nitrate concentration in drainage and estimated N leaching loss (Fig. 6) but these reductions rarely reached statistical significance. The inhibitor reduced estimated N leaching from the Octo ber slurry applications from an average of 30% of applied N without the inhibitor to an average of 17% following its inclusion but, only in one year at site A was this reduction significant. On no occasion did the inhibitor treatment of broiler litter or FYM significantly reduce N leaching. At soil temperatures greater than 10 C the rapid breakdown of DCD is likely to reduce the effectiveness of the inhibitor (T veitnes & Haland, 1989) but the average monthly soil temperature at a depth of 10 cm for October and November for the 4 years at site A was 8.2 and 5.9 C, respectively. Shepherd (1996) observed a reduction in nitrate leaching following the application of sewage sludge with DCD in September. Schroder et

Fig. 6. Estimated N leaching loss (kg ha71 N) following the application of manures with and without a nitrification inhibitor (inh) to a fallow soil in October.

al. (1993) also reported a reduction in the leaching of N from cattle slurry when it was applied with DCD to a sandy soil in late October or early November and when the drainage volume ranged from 346 to 514 mm per annum. Corre & Zwart (1995) found that DCD applied with cattle slurry in November had little effect on reducing N leaching but found that DCD itself was susceptible to leaching, and was present in leachate samples at 90 cm depth, some 3 months after application. C O N C LUS I O N S A strategy to reduce the leaching of N following the application of organic manure to free draining soils, must take account of the characteristics of the manure and the climatic conditions at the location. In this study, manures with a high proportion of available N (i.e. cattleapig slurry and broiler litter) applied to a sandy soil in September, October and November consistently increased N leaching loss when the overwinter drainage volume was typical of the long-term average for the site. Such manures must be considered `high risk' when considering the formulation of a strategy to limit nitrate leaching from agricultural land. In these experiments the application of `high risk' manures, after November, only led to an elevation of N leaching loss when an unusually high

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Nitrate leaching loss following organic manures (I)

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volume of drainage occurred in late winter. FYM, with a lower proportion of available N, caused consistently less N leaching than slurry or broiler litter applied at the same time, and at a similar rate of total N. The presence of crop cover over the winter period was very successful in reducing `background' N leaching loss from unmanured soil. When the cover established well and the drainage volume was relatively high, a reduction in the leaching from `high risk' manures was also apparent. However this reduction did not appear consistent enough or of a sufficient magnitude to suggest any major benefit to manure use efficiency or to drainage water quality. The benefits of nitrification inhibitor treatment of autumn applied manures, in these experiments, were too small and inconsistent to suggest that they might usefully contribute to any general strategy to limit nitrate leaching losses from manures applied to agricultural land. AC K N OW L E D G E M E N TS Financial support from the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food is gratefully acknowledged. R E FE R E N C E S
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