Rice is one of the most popular grains in the world.

It is consumed as a staple by nearly every culture except those on the fringes of the planet. Rice is a semi-aquatic plant that requires constant moist conditions for survival. Thus rice can only be grown in certain regions. Yet it is relatively easy to grow and has great storing qualities.

FROM WIKI: Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or Oryza
glaberrima (African rice). As a cereal grain, it is the most important staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in Asia and the West Indies. It is the grain with the third-highest worldwide production, after maize(corn) and wheat, according to data for 2009.[1] Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption, rice is the most important grain with regard to human nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than one fifth of the calories consumed worldwide by the human species. Rice is a major food staple and a mainstay for the rural population and their food security. It is mainly cultivated by small farmers in holdings of less than 1 hectare. Rice is also a wage commodity for workers in the cash crop or non-agricultural sectors. Rice is vital for the nutrition of much of the population in Asia, as well as in Latin America and the Caribbean and in Africa; it is central to the food security of over half the world population. Developing countries account for 95 percent of the total production, with China and India alone responsible for nearly half of the world output. Rice Rice is a plant of Asian origin. The earliest record of rice in the world comes from Non Nok Tha in Thailand, where it dates back to 3500 BC. First evidence of Oryza sativa (Scientific name of rice) is found in North Bihar dated to 2000-2300 BC as well as in Hastinapur dates back to 100-800 BC (Randhawa, 1980). No wonder 90% of the world?s area under rice is in Asia and also about 90 percent of world rice is produced and consumed in Asia. In 7 countries of Asia, namely, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, SriLanka and Vietnam, 90% of people are rice eaters, while in 6 other countries, namely, Indonesia, Japan, Korea Republic, Taiwan and Thailand, the percentage of rice eaters is 70-80 percent (De Datta, 1981). In India and China, which together hold about half the worlds rice area, about 63-65 percent people are rice eaters.

A s if rice farming werent

hard enough. It is patently clear now that humans have gone and made it a whole lot harder. And, in a cruel irony, while the rich, developed countries are the ones that have produced most of the greenhouse gases that are causing climate change, it will be the poorer countries in the tropicsmany of them reliant on rice to keep their populations from hungerthat will be worst affected. As Earth warms up, one of the biggest concerns is the effect on agricultureyet there has been relatively little research investigating the fundamental question of how humanity will feed itself in a changed climate. How will higher temperatures and

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Drying is the process of simultaneous heat and moisture transfer. It is the removal of excess moisture from the grains. Once dried, the rice grain, now called rough rice, is ready for processing. Proper drying results in increased storage life of the grains, prevention of deterioration in quality, reduction of biological respiration that leads to quality loss of grains, and optimum milling recovery. In the country three methods are used for drying the paddy grains, namely : Sun drying Mechanical drying Chemical drying Sun Drying Sun drying is a traditional method of drying the paddy grains. In fact, the major quantity of produce is being dried in the country by this method. Sundrying is the most economical method of drying grains. Grains are spread on drying surfaces such as concrete pavement, mats, plastic sheets and even on fields to dry naturally. Mechanical Drying Mechanical drying process means drying the grains by ventilating natural or heated air through the grain mass to get it evaporated the moisture from it. Mechanical dryers are more reliable since drying could be done anytime of the year. Chemical Drying Chemical drying method involves the spraying of common salt solution with specific gravity of 1.1 to 1.2 on the ears of the mature paddy crop. This treatment reduces the moisture content from 29% to 14.5% after four days.
Drying palay on the road, which is a practice that most farmers do, is wasteful as it can result in 0.7 to 8.7% rice losses, according to the 1996 report of the Bureau of Postharvest Research and Extension (BPRE). Cognizant of this problem, the Department of Agriculture through its various agencies has been distributing several units of the Maligaya flatbed dryers.

The Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice), for one, is expected to finish soon the distribution of 20 Maligaya flatbed dryers, its share of the 709 proposed dryer units under the project Mechanical drying support to farm clusters. Twelve of the 20 units have already been installed in Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, and Pampanga as early as October last year while the remaining 8 units are expected to be installed this month in Sta. Cruz, Zambales and in the rest of the municipalities of Nueva Ecija and Pampanga. On the other hand, around 200 dryer units have been installed by BPRE in the remaining provinces of the country since last year while another 500 units will be installed this year.

Post harvest: In developing countries, post-harvest losses destroy about 15 to 16 percent of the rice crop. This figure is even greater (as much as 40 to 50 percent) in countries where there are challenging natural events and climatic conditions, such as regular heavy monsoons. The rice post-harvest system concept is an efficient, modern approach that focuses on preventing post-harvest losses and ensuring the quality and safety of the rice crop during its processing and storage. The system also includes procedures that add value to both primary and secondary rice products, as well as by-products. Some stages in the rice post-harvest system are more critical than others, particularly in tropical and subtropical areas where rice is more vulnerable to damage and more likely to suffer qualitative and quantitative losses. Among these critical stages, drying and storage are especially important. Some technological advances have been made in the area of rice storage techniques and equipment, and FAO is playing an important role by contributing to the transfer of new post-harvest technologies for storage, which include small metal silos for storing grains at the household level (see photos). The metal silo for household use varies in capacity from 100 to 4 000 kg. For a family of five people, a silo of 1 tonne capacity can maintain the quality and safety of rice for up to a year, thereby contributing significantly to household food security. A silo of this size costs about US$55 and lasts for between 15 and 20 years. Regarding the other critical post-harvest operation for rice drying efforts are being made to improve small rice driers. For example, small portable electric fan driers have been developed by IRRI, and are becoming an important ally to small- and medium-scale rice farmers in terms of increasing their food security and ensuring the safety of their rice crops. Rice farmers are beginning to understand and accept the need to invest in post-harvest technologies because not only are these technologies affordable, but they also offer the potential to

increase profits by adding quality and commercial value to the final products. Total rice post-harvest losses for Asia are estimated to have been about 14 percent in 1997, which represented about 77 million tonnes and US$7.7 billion. Most of these losses occurred as a result of inadequate storage and drying operations. Efficient storage is critical for rice, and between 4 and 6 percent of total rice crops are lost during storage. FAO recommendes use of the small metal silo as a feasible and valuable option for reducing small- and medium-scale rice farmers food losses. This technology is already improving the socio-economic conditions of agricultural communities. The rice post-harvest system focuses on both preventing food losses and improving the efficiency of the technologies that are used to add value to rice and its byproducts. The aim is to generate more employment and income and, consequently, to improve food security, which is one of FAOs most important mandates. Rice farmers are willing to invest in post-harvest technologies that are affordable and add quality and commercial value to rice products.

f youre a rice farmer anywhere in Asia, you are likely to experience high postharvest grain losses. Total losses from harvest to market can reach 3050% in value, which means that, conservatively, farmers are losing around US$30 per ton of rice harvested. For an average four-member farming family, an additional $30 can go a long way. Studies by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) in Cambodia, Indonesia, and the Philippines have found that postharvest losses occur mainly because of spoilage and wastage at the farm level, delay in drying, poor storage, poorly maintained or outdated rice mills, and losses to pests throughout the postharvest chain. These losses result in lower quality rice for consumption or sale, smaller returns to farmers,

higher prices for consumers, and greater pressure on the environment as farmers try to compensate by growing more rice. The PPWG With the urgent need to solve postharvest problems in developing countries, the Postproduction Work Group (PPWG) was formed in 2003 under the Irrigated Rice Research Consortiums (IRRC) Phase II. By the end of the rst year, the PPWG established partnerships with stakeholders from the public and private sectors in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Vietnam. Now, with the IRRC in its third phase, the PPWG continues to pursue its objectives of increasing farmers incomes through improved postharvest management and technology, and building a network of trained postharvest researchers and extension workers, including stakeholders from the private sector. We showcase below some of the benets arising from these activities. Safe seed storage

with the Super Bag Farmers in Battambang Province in Cambodia can attest that the Super Bag is an inanimate superhero in its own right. Typically, farmers store three bags of seeds with 70 kilograms (kg) each for their own elds. The hot, humid conditions cause the germination ability of farmers seeds to drop quickly. When they nally use the seeds after 56 months of storage in their homes, often less than 50% germinate in the elds. By comparison, upon using the Super Bag for seed storage, farmers were able to maintain germination rates above 90% and reduce the amount of seeds required. The Super Bag allows cereal grains and other crops such as coffee to be stored safely for extended periods of 612 months. One farmer reported that he sold

an additional 70 kg of seeds in the market, earning him an additional income of $9. A Super Bag costs only $1 and can be reused (as long as it is not punctured), cutting back on cost per harvest. The PPWG now focuses on > continued on page 2 Women in Lao PDR manually threshing paddy. (Photo by G. Claessens) 2 Ripple JanuaryFebruary 2007 evaluating hermetic storage systems with farmers (Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Myanmar) and rice millers/traders (Vietnam, Myanmar, and Indonesia). Samples from farmers trials taken for milling and trials with rice millers have proven that hermetic storage also increases head rice (grain fraction that has at least 75% of the whole undamaged kernel length) recovery signicantly. Better quality and price through mechanical dryers One of the main culprits for

quality deterioration of seeds is delayed or improper drying, especially when rice is spread in the open to dry under the sun. Mechanical dryers are the only way to assure high-quality products, especially in the wet season with frequent rains and high relative humidity. At Nong Lam University in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, the PPWG trained dryer manufacturers from Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Cambodia on manufacturing and performance testing of dryer components (see Postharvest information and technology exchange: lessons learned from Vietnam in RIPPLE, Vol. 1, No. 1). A manufacturer in Lao PDR who attended the training built low-cost, farm-level dryers that he plans to demonstrate and promote in key provinces throughout the country. In Cambodia and Vietnam, farmers groups and

cooperatives are installing their own at-bed dryers. Another training participant from the Myanmar Rice and Paddy Traders Association (MRPTA) produced various dryer prototypes, a low-cost dryer with a 1-ton batch capacity for the farm level, and at-bed dryers with up to 4-ton batch capacity for the commercial sector. The Associationwhich has installed eight at-bed dryers at rice mills and ve others for farmer groupsnow visits different provinces in Myanmar to demonstrate the dryers to farmers and millers (see At a glance: postharvest activities in Myanmar in RIPPLE Vol. 1, No. 3). Mechanical dryers add cost to the drying process. To minimize drying cost, a new rice hull furnace was developed in Vietnam as an alternative to kerosene burners used in most rice dryers (see New rice

husk furnace on page 6). The PPWG assists national partners in continuous adaptation of the drying systems to local conditions and farming systems to provide appropriate drying technology options for farmers, traders, and rice millers, and to help manufacturers produce commercially viable machines. Decisions based on market information Knowledge is power and, for farmers, knowledge on up-to-date market information can empower them in making informed decisions on what to produce, where to sell, and what quality grade to achieve to maximize their returns from rice harvests. Farmers

An overview of rice post-harvest technology: use of small metallic silos for minimizing losses - D.J. Meja
Agricultural Industries Officer, Agricultural and Food Engineering Technologies Service, FAO, Rome, Italy INTRODUCTION

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a staple food consumed by over half the world population. The total world production of unmilled rice (paddy) is around 592 million tonnes (Mt) (based on the average production for 2000 and 2001). Ninety percent of this total is grown in developing countries, mostly in Asia, while Latin America and Africa produce 3.8 and 2.8 percent, respectively (FAOSTAT, 2001). It is estimated that by 2025, 10 billion people will depend on rice as a main food and demand will reach about 880 Mt. Many Asian countries and international institutions agree to the strengthening of national programmes for policy and financial support to research, seed production and extension of hybrid rice (FAO, 2001). In fact, there has been an expansion of area under high-yielding varieties (HYV), and in 1998 more than 90 percent of irrigated areas in Asia were under HYVs (Evenson, 1998). Methodology on the impact of the improvement of productivity on postharvest operations has been developed by FAO for several crops including rice (Phan, 1998). As HYVs are increasingly used, the post-harvest system must be improved, including infrastructure development and also the dissemination of technologies, allowing small and medium farmers to prevent food losses and consequently to achieve the food security which is a priority of FAO in its fight against hunger. The rice post-harvest system requires improvement in the use of resources for research and development, particularly with regard to the level of post-harvest losses. These losses are attributed to a combination of factors during production and post-production operations (De Padua, 1999). This paper presents an overview of the main postharvest operations traditionally used by rice farmers in developing countries and the importance of post-harvest technologies for minimizing rice losses. Inadequately performed drying and storage operations contribute to increased losses. The advantages of the household metallic silo are discussed and it is proposed as a feasible and suitable alternative - highly recommended by FAO - for small and medium rice farmers. While this study does not address drying operations in detail, it should be noted that they are complementary to storing. Post-harvest system The post-harvest system consists of a set of operations which cover the period from harvest through to consumption. An efficient post-harvest system aims to minimize losses and maintain the quality of the crop until it reaches the final consumer. When food losses are minimized, both food security and income increase, and this is of vital importance for small and medium farmers, particularly in developing countries. From a socio-economic point of view, the implementation of an efficient post-harvest system in any community must provide equitable benefit to all those involved in the system (Grolleaud, 2001). Post-harvest losses The traditional concept of post-harvest losses - for the main part quantitative losses - is currently changing. Many post-harvest specialists recognize that measurement of post-harvest losses is a very relative concept for various reasons; for example, losses could be determined as a function of theoretical yield, real yield, soil and fertility conditions, variety etc. Then there are the other losses which are not normally measured, such as agricultural inputs, time, manual labour, lost opportunities etc. In spite of the above, when post-harvest losses are assessed - whether in grains, cereals, fruits or vegetables - the most practical approach (and therefore the norm)

continues to be quantitative measurement. To obtain reliable data of post-harvest losses, it is nevertheless important to establish a methodology which takes into account a range of factors (cultivar size, plot size etc.). Data should be supported by basic statistical analysis in order to understand how efficiently a post-harvest system works (Calverley, 1994). Likewise, observations and rapid appraisal in situ by an expert may help to identify how efficiently a postharvest operation system works within a rural community and for a specific crop. The post-harvest system for rice deserves special attention: rice is a major staple food in the world and is mostly produced in developing countries where the implementation of post-harvest technologies is urgent in order to prevent food rice losses. It has been estimated that rice postharvest losses may be as high as 16 percent. A study carried out in China revealed that total post-harvest losses ranged from 8 to 26 percent, with storage and drying the most critical operations (Ren-Yong et al., 1990). Main post-production operations used by rice farmers Paddy pre-harvesting operations The quantity and quality of final milled rice depend on the efficiency of farming management, field operations and post-harvest operations. Decisions are taken from planting through to consumption of the rice crop. Initial decisions about the variety to be planted determine intrinsically desirable characteristics and depend upon consumer preference as well as the technical capacity of the farmers during production and post-production operations. These characteristics in turn become factors which influence efficiency, grain loss magnitude, choice of harvesting and threshing technology, rate and quality of the drying and dehusking process, and eventually total recovery of the milled rice. Then there are the wrong practices at the planting stage which can lead to losses: planting of red rice admixture, attacks by rodents and birds, poor weeding and a harvest maturity date which can be too early or too late. It is important to point out that the differences in varieties planted in certain localities also affect the final milled rice, as the high-value rice market usually prefers a pure and single variety. Nevertheless, for reasons of biodiversity and more sustainable agriculture, planting different varieties (although not necessarily in the same field) is an excellent strategy for improved food security. Sometimes, high management is required to monitor planting in order to prevent varieties becoming mixed; on the other hand, varieties are sometimes deliberately mixed to produce special characteristics, such as consistency of flavour, which cannot be found in a pure variety. During pre-harvest operations, efficient technology and input management, as well as timeliness of activities, are important, and this applies also to postharvest operations for good yield and quality and in order to obtain good prices for the milled rice and byproducts. Correct timing at harvest is essential to avoid losses incurred by harvesting too soon or too late. Immature grains harvested too early result in a high percentage of brokens and low milling recovery, while if harvesting is delayed, the crop is exposed to insects, rodents and birds, in addition to the risks of lodging and shattering. The optimum harvest time should be chosen depending on the variety planted (Lantin, 1997). Table 1 shows the losses incurred if the rice is harvested 1 week early and up to 4 weeks late on the basis of the maturity date of the crop.

In general, the correct time to harvest is 1 week before the maturity date. Others indicators for optimum harvesting time for rice are as follows:

When the rice has reached the exact date of maturity or numbers of days after heading (usually 28-34 days). When 80 percent of the grains have changed from green to straw colour. When at least 20 percent of the grains at the base have a hard dough stage. When the grain moisture content is between 21 and 24 percent. When the hand-dehulled grain, as indicated by daily tests near the projected harvested date, is clear and hard. 1

TABLE Grain losses at different harvesting times based on crop maturity

Losses (%) 0.77 Harvesting time (weeks) -1 3.35 5.63 8.64 40.70 60.46 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 Maturity date

Source: Almera, 1997. Harvesting Harvesting includes numerous operations, including: cutting the rice stalk; reaping the panicles; laying out the paddy-on-stalk or stacking it to dry; and bundling for transport. Correct harvesting and handling operations can considerably reduce post-production losses. Excessive handling creates problems in terms of both quality and quantity. The sequence of manual harvesting, field drying, bundling and stacking in traditional systems can cause losses of between 2 and 7 percent (Toquero and Duff, 1974). At this stage, losses can occur when secondary tiller panicles are missed when the sickle cuts 60 cm above ground in lowland rice. Also, delayed harvest causes shattering losses during harvesting and transport. Harvesting methods There are a variety of different methods for rice harvesting, with traditional manual methods prevailing in developing countries: Panicle reaping This is accomplished by using a hand-held cutting tool (Yatab in the Philippines, Ani-ani in Indonesia, Kae in Thailand, Espigadora in Bolivia). The method is used in areas where traditional varieties are resistant to shattering. Resistance to shattering is particularly important during handling and when transporting the bundles of panicles from field to house. The labour time required for this method is 240 labour-hours/ha (done mostly by women and older children), which is four times that required with the hand-sickle method. It remains popular because of the social custom of chatting while working. In addition, it generates income among the landless rural population and is suitable for hilly and terraced areas.

Long stalk cutting by sickle This is a widely used manual method presenting different styles in the design. It requires between 80 and 180 labour-hours/ha. The stalk is cut about 10 to 15 cm above the ground or with a stalk length of about 60 to 70 cm for easy bundling and threshing. Reaping efficiency depends on various cultural practices, plant density and variety, degree of lodging, soil conditions and the skill of the harvester. Lodged paddy and saturated soils may considerably reduce the cutting rate. Modern mechanical methods These methods are generally used when labour is scarce; otherwise, harvesting is generally still done with a sickle in most developing countries. The use of mechanized harvesting methods in some areas depends upon the custom and suitability of the machine and other socio-economic factors. Some examples of these machines are:

Reaper binder: once very popular, it is currently being replaced by the combine. The machine cuts and bundles stems together and lays them in the field in a single operation. Combine: very popular, its adoption in Japan, Korea and other Asian countries is slow only because of its high cost. The binder can harvest 0.05 ha/hour. A similar, large model was developed in Thailand to resolve the problems of scarcity and cost of labour; Viet Nam may also adopt mechanized methods because of economies of scale. Some other Asian countries import second-hand, large combines for harvesting the basic rice crop. In commercial rice production, large combines are generally used in countries such as Brazil and Uruguay in Latin America, in Europe and in the United States of America. In Africa, on the other hand, these machines (introduced through international aid programmes) have had little impact because of the lack of maintenance facilities. Stripper harvester: an innovation from IRRI and an adaptation of the rotary stripping combine principle developed by Silsoe Research Institute in the United Kingdom, it works with varieties which are non-lodging, medium height, with erect panicles and low to medium shattering (Naphire, 1997).

There continue to be constraints for farmers in developing countries to the adoption of mechanical harvesting methods: low income, reluctance to move away from traditional methods, poor mechanical aptitude, the desire to save straw for off-farm uses, lack of access to the field, excessive moisture content, uneven ripening etc. Other limiting factors are the high cost of imported equipment and the fact that machinery management must be competitive with the relatively low cost of labour (IRRI, 1997). Transport In developing countries, transportation of paddy from the field to processing areas is performed mainly by humans and animals, and sometimes using mechanical power. In hilly areas where paddy fields are terraced (e.g. Bhutan, Nepal, some parts of the Philippines and Indonesia) the paddy is transported in panicles or bundles of long stalks using human or animal power. These traditional methods of transport, which are related to the harvesting and field drying activities, very often result in high grain losses. Small and family-sized volumes of paddy are generally transported in bags from the house storage to the small rice mill on foot, in bullock carts, by

bicycle, using small vehicles or with public transport - whatever means is available and affordable. Other methods of transport include donkey, buffalo and even boat. In some places, the practice is to windrow the cut paddy in the field to dry for 3 to 7 days, depending upon the weather conditions. Losses are even greater, especially if harvesting is delayed with respect to the crop maturity date. In addition to the losses incurred in cutting, windrowing, sun-drying, collecting and bundling of the cut crop, there are those when the bundled paddy-in-straw is loaded onto the persons back to be carried to the house. Grain then falls en route, especially with the transportation of shattering varieties, and also when the carrier (usually a woman) stops to rest. Nevertheless, some farmers prefer this method for both cultural and practical reasons, as the straw can be used as animal feed. The large losses incurred are the principal drawback to manual transport. Threshing of the paddy in the field and transportation in bags (40-75 kg) can minimize grain losses, however. Sun-drying of the paddy can also be done in the yard of the house rather than on stalks in the field. The normal practice in Asia is to bring the paddy from the field to the roadside manually or using animal power; it is then transported to the drying area or rice mill by motor vehicle (e.g. tricycle, power tiller with trailer, tractor with trailer, truck or lorry). The loading and unloading of the bags require additional labour costs, and these are normally assumed by the buyer. In developing countries and advanced developing countries, the paddy is harvested by combine and is handled and transported in bulk. The paddy is unloaded from the combine by an auger conveyor and loaded into a waiting lorry or tractor-trailer located on the field road (part of the infrastructure for mechanized rice production). The paddy is then unloaded from the lorry or trailer onto a floor hopper in the rice mill area to be conveyed to a mechanical dryer. Finally, commercial rice is bagged at the rice mill and normally transported to wholesale and retail markets by means of vehicles. This mechanized procedure results in much lower losses (Lantin, 1997). Threshing During threshing the paddy kernel is detached from the panicle, an operation which can be carried out either by rubbing, impact or stripping. Rubbing may be done with trampling by humans, animals, trucks or tractor; however, the grain becomes damaged. Mechanical threshers adopt mainly the impact principle, but there is also a built-in stripping action. With a paddy thresher, the unthreshed paddy may be either held or thrown in. In the hold-on type, the paddy is held still in the cylinder while spikes or wire loops perform impact threshing. In a throw-in machine, whole paddy stalks are fed into the machine and a major portion of the grain is threshed by the initial impact caused by bars or spikes on the cylinder. In a conventional threshing cylinder, stripping may also be used for paddy threshing; impulsive stripping normally occurs with impact threshing. In a throw-in thresher, large amounts of straw pass through the machine and some designs use straw walkers to initially separate the loose grain from the bulk of the straw and chaff (Lantin, 1997). IRRI developed the Votex Ricefan thresher. A portable machine, as well as being suitable for both paddy panicles and paddy stalks, it may be adapted for wheat, corn, soybean and beans.

The Votex Ricefan thresher has been widely accepted among Bolivian paddy farmers (Tern, 1996) and may be either manually or power-operated. Manual threshing is pedal-operated and involves: treading; beating the panicles on a tub, threshing board or rack; or beating the panicles with a stick or flail device. The thresher consists of a rotating drum with wire loops which strip the grain from the panicle when the paddy is fed by hand. This equipment is portable, can be used in hilly areas and is easily operated by women. In power threshing, the harvested crop is trampled by tractor or truck tyres in developing countries. The grain is separated from the straw by hand and then cleaned by winnowing. Losses may occur during threshing for various reasons:

In manual threshing by beating, some grains remain in the bundle panicles and a repeat threshing is required. Grain is scattered when the bundles are lifted just before threshing. Grain can stick in the mud floor. Birds and domestic fowls feed on the grain (Lantin, 1997).

Drying Paddy as a living biological material absorbs and gives off moisture depending on: paddy moisture content, relative humidity of the air and temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. The respiration of the paddy is manifested in various ways: decrease in dry matter weight; utilization of oxygen; evolution of carbon dioxide; and the release of energy in the form of heat. However, respiration is negligible when the moisture content is between 12 and 14 percent. By and large, paddy is harvested with moisture content of 24 to 26 percent (higher in the rainy season and lower in the dry season). It has a high respiration rate and is susceptible to attacks by micro-organisms, insects and other pests. The heat released during the respiration process is retained in the grain and in the bulk due to the insulating effect of the rice husk, resulting in losses in terms of both quantity and quality. Therefore, harvested grain with high moisture content must be dried within 24 hours: to 14 percent for safe storage and milling, or at most 18 percent for temporary storage of 2 weeks when it is not possible to dry any faster. Delayed drying may result in non-enzymatic browning (stack-burning), microbial growth and mycotoxin production in parboiled rice (NRI, 1991). Square areas (10 x 10 m) of concrete have been successfully used for sun-drying in rural communities of rice farmers in Bolivia (Tern, 1996). Small rural farmers in these regions also use tarpaulins for paddy sun-drying. The main constraint of sun-drying is the dependence on good weather conditions, which can become a serious problem, particularly in tropical rainy countries. Losses due to bad drying practices range from 1 to 5 percent and it is mainly the quality which is affected. Good drying is crucial for minimizing post-harvest losses, since it directly affects safe storage, transportation, distribution and processing quality. A temperature of 43C is recommended for drying paddy for seeds and this can be achieved with shade drying. Higher temperatures can lead to physicochemical disorders in the grain

(Zheng et al., 2000). The cheapest drying method is sun- or solar drying, practised by farmers, cooperatives, commercial millers and government grain agencies in most developing countries. Between 70 and 90 percent of the field harvest retained in the farm is sun-dried, with the work generally performed by women and children. Drying usually takes place on paved areas next to the warehouse and rice mills; the paved areas slope slightly so that water can drain away during the rainy season. Early harvesting when moisture content is high helps minimize shattering losses in the field. In crops of high-yielding varieties it is necessary to dry large quantities of wet grain in the shortest time so as to minimize rice spoilage. An artificial or mechanical dryer speeds up the drying process, reduces handling losses, maintains grain quality and gives better control during drying. The temperature for drying paddy should not be higher than 54.4C for food grain using the dry batch system. Low temperatures help preserve the rice aroma principle 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline (Itani and Fushimi, 1996). The choice of a drier system depends on several factors: drying capacity requirement, ease of installation and operation, portability, full heat source and the initial cost of purchase. A wide range of drying equipment and methods are available for rough rice, and computer models have been developed to assist agricultural research workers or farmers in their selection of dryers for a given crop and situation (Dissanayake, 1991). The adoption of an artificial drying system by rice farmers has numerous constraints:

High fuel costs. Small farmers producing a small volume of paddy can easily use sun-drying. It is popular belief that the bleaching effect of sun-dried paddy results in whiter grains than artificially dried paddy. Lack of capital for investing in artificial dryers. Lack of know-how about the drying technology (Andales, 1996).

The main causes of losses during drying are as follows:

Grains shattering from stalks or spilling out from bags during transport. Birds and domestic fowls. Spill-out outside the drying area. Over-drying, especially during sun-drying. Delayed drying or no grain aeration, resulting in stack-burning.

Paddy cleaning This is an important operation and highly recommended not only on a large and medium commercial scale, but also on a small scale. It consists of the separation of undesirable material, such as weed seeds, straw, chaff, panicle stems, empty grains, inmate and damaged grains, sand, rocks, stone, dust, plastic and even metal and glass particles. The degree of cleanness of the paddy reflects to some extent the care applied during harvesting, threshing and handling. In developing countries, farmers clean the paddy straight after manual threshing. First, they use hand-raking and sifting to remove straw, chaff and other large and dense materials, then

winnowing, i.e. making the grain fall down to be collected on a surface such as tarpaulin or a nylon sheet. The method depends on air natural conditions and is very slow. A hand- or pedal-operated blower may be used with a cleaning capacity of 250 kg/hour. Alternatively, an engine-powered fan is used and can simultaneously perform both operations: grading and cleaning. The latter is expensive but has the advantages of being faster and requiring less labour (particularly womens labour). A versatile model from IRRI, known as GC-7 and with a capacity of 1 t/hour for paddy and 3 t/hour for maize, was widely accepted by Bolivian farmers (CIAT, 1996). The main advantage of this model is that it can be manufactured in developing countries in local metal workshops. Cleaned paddy demands a higher price than non-cleaned paddy - an incentive for cleaning the paddy. In contrast, lack of cleaning often results in a higher concentration of contaminants in the milled rice. Another consideration is that stones and other hard particles shorten the life of the milling equipment. Finally, milling recovery is low when paddy is not cleaned (Lantin, 1997). Storage Paddy may be produced once a year or throughout the year. Productivity has increased due mainly to the use of HYVs in irrigated areas. Consequently, it is important to improve and expand the post-harvest infrastructure for better handling, processing and storage of the paddy. Storage is a critical operation and losses can easily occur if preventive measures are not taken. In Asia, between 70 and 90 percent of farm-produced paddy remains in the farms and the rest is deposited in or sold to agricultural cooperatives or sold to the private sector. Appropriate storage is therefore required, both for rice for consumption (milled or paddy) and for rice for seed purposes. The storage structure must protect the paddy from: extreme heat or cold; moisture, which causes microbial and fungal growth; and insect pests and rodents which consume or damage the rice. In Bolivia, small metallic silos with a capacity of 115 kg have been successfully used by small rice farmers (CIAT, 1996). At farm household level, storage is essential for food security or as a commodity bank for conversion into cash when required. Unfortunately, small-scale or marginal farmers often lack the resources to store large amounts of grain and do not have a large storage structure; they therefore are obliged to sell their paddy to traders or buyers immediately after harvest. They carry out no further processing (drying, cleaning and grading) because of the immediate need for cash, and there is a lack of incentive to dry, as there is no significant difference in price between wet and dried paddy. The paddy is only dried for safe storage, and then only the amount necessary for consumption or a little more for cash conversion or to sell at a better price. The traditional storage structure used by farmers in Asia is a container made of woven bamboo, palm leaves or wood. Problems occurring include: spoilage due to high grain moisture, rain, storms or flooding; dirt contamination; losses due to insects, rodents and even theft; collapse of the structure (Lantin, 1997). The main causes of losses during storage are:

Attack by insects, rodents and birds as a result of inadequate protection.

Long-term storage with 14 percent or higher moisture content, or more than 2 weeks storage with 18 percent moisture. Theft and pilferage in the warehouse.

The paddy retained for storage is sun-dried several times and cleaned before loading into the storage container. The farmer determines the dryness required for storage on the basis of experience. Dryness is measured by pressing a bunch of grains hard into the hand or biting several grains: a fully dried grain is hard. Paddy is usually stored with a moisture content of 14 percent or less. Paddy is normally stored in a 1-tonne-capacity container for 6 to 12 months. Losses in farm storage have been estimated at about 6.2 percent (Ren-Yong et al., 1990). Milling Paddy or the rice grain consist of the hull or husk (18-28%) and the caryopsis or brown rice (7282%). Brown rice consists of: an outer layer (pericarp, tegmen and aleurone layers) called bran (6-7%); the germen or embryo (2-3%); and the edible portion (endosperm 89-94%) (Chen et al., 1998). The rice milling operation is the separation of the husk (dehusking) and the bran (polishing) to produce the edible portion (endosperm) for consumption. Although a theoretical mill recovery would be between 71 and 73 percent, in practical terms it is possible to obtain between 68 and 70 percent from a good variety of paddy. Milling losses can be reduced by adopting small-scale modern rubber roll sheller and introducing parboiling of paddy before milling. Table 2 shows the advantages and disadvantages of parboiled rice. Agronomic impacts of climate variability on rice production in the Philippines F.P. Lansigan a;b; , W.L. de los Santos c , J.O. Coladilla b a Institute of Statistics, University of the Philippines Los Baos, 4031 College, Laguna, Philippines b School of Environmental Science and Management, University of the Philippines Los Baos, 4031 College, Laguna, Philippines c

Department of Agronomy, University of the Philippines Los Baos, 4031 College, Laguna, Philippines Abstract Climate variability is a threat to food production. Typhoons, oods, and droughts caused 82.4% of the total Philippine rice losses from 1970 to 1990. In 1990 alone, domestic losses due to climatic constraints amounted to US$ 39.2 million. Weather aberrations, climatic uctuations such as El Nio, and the growing concern for their effects on agriculture have stimulated academic, public and policy-level interests on the analysis of the impacts of climate variability on agricultural production systems. This paper is presented to discuss the agronomic impacts of climate variability on rice production in the Philippines. Long-term climate variability inuences sowing date, crop duration, crop yield, and the management practices adapted in rice production. Short-term weather episodes can also affect yield by inducing changes in temperature, potential evapotranspiration, and moisture availability. The degree of vulnerability of crops to climate variability depends mainly on the development stage of the crops at the time of weather aberration. The vulnerability and risk of crop production due to weather uctuations and climate variability can be minimized if future weather variation can be adequately predicted and a suitable process-based ecophysiological crop yield forecasting model can be identied to produce realtime yield forecasts. Scientists and farmers must join efforts to further understand cropclimate relationships and formulate viable, locally adapted production technologies that will address critical issues such as climate variability. 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Climate variability; Rice production; Philippines; El Nio 1. Introduction

The concern on past, present and future weather aberrations, climate trends, and their effects on agriculture has continued to stimulate research as well as public and policy-level interests on the analysis of climate variability and agricultural productivity (Matthews et al., 1996; IPCC, 1996). It is well recognized that climate variability has a wide range of direct and indirect impacts on crop production. In the

Corresponding author. Fax: C63-49-536-2402. E-mail address: fpl@instat.uplb.edu.ph (F.P. Lansigan). Philippines, typhoons, oods, and droughts caused 82.4% of the total Philippine rice (Oryza sativa L.) losses from 1970 to 1990 (PhilRice-BAS, 1994) (Fig. 1). Weather and climate affect plant growth and development, and the uctuations and occurrences of climatic extremes particularly at critical crop growth stages may reduce yield signicantly (Satake and Yoshida, 1978; Peng et al., 1996). Weather and climate have a direct inuence on cropping systems and plant yield. Thus, weather uctuations and climate variability play a signicant role in crop growth and yield. Occurrence of abnormal weather episodes during the growing season or 0167-8809/00/$ see front matter 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 8 8 0 9 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 2 2 2 - X130 F.P. Lansigan et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 82 (2000) 129137 Fig. 1. Annual losses (000 Mg) in Philippine rice production due to typhoons/oods, droughts, and pests from 1970 to 1990 (adapted

from PhilRice-BAS, 1994). during critical development stages may hamper growth processes resulting in yield reduction. This makes climate variability a threat to food production leading to serious social and economic implications (Geng and Cady, 1991; Hossain, 1997). However, a clear understanding of the vulnerability of food crops as well as the agronomic impacts of climate variability enable one to implement adaptive strategies to mitigate its negative effects. This paper presents the agronomic impacts of climate variability on rice production systems. These impacts are described based on results of systemsbased studies and case examples in the Philippines. Key climate variables and measures of variability are examined. The analysis distinguishes the impacts of long-term weather variability and short-term weather episodes. Some adaptive strategies to climate variability to reduce vulnerability and risk are also presented. Suggestions and recommendations for an efcient and effective analysis of agronomic impacts of climate variability are also discussed.

Rice Facts Did You Know? A Guide to Rice Cookery Measurements and Yields

All About Rice Rice represents 20 percent of the world's per capita caloric consumption. More than 50 percent of the world's population is dependent upon rice for 80 percent of its diet. Rice is cultivated in more than 100 countries and on every continent except Antarctica - from sea level to an altitude of 3,000 meters. To keep pace with demand, technological advances in production are occurring rapidly. However, much of the world's rice crop is still dependent upon annual rainfall patterns, such as occur during the Asian monsoon season. Changes in world weather patterns can easily alter the delicate balance between world supply and demand, dramatically affecting world rice trade patterns and price levels. World rice trade represents only about 5 percent of world consumption. However, this relatively small amount traded (worth roughly $5.0 billion annually) has a major impact on world economic and political policies. Well over a hundred countries in the world import rice annually. Trade in rice is stratified according to rice types. More than three-fourths of the total rice traded in the world is long grain (Indica) rice. Most of the remainder is medium or short grain (Japonica) rice. About two-and-one-halfmillion tons of aromatic rice, and up to 100,000 tons of glutinous rice, are traded annually. For exporting nations, meeting market needs entails supplying the type, form, class and quality of rice that satisfy local taste preferences. The United States is unique as a major exporter of all rice types. The U.S. rice industry is able to provide rice in whatever form desired (i.e. brown, milled, parboiled) and according to the shipment basis required (packaged, bagged, bulk, destination bagging, f.a.s., f.o.b., c.i.f., etc.). Quality standards for USA rice are closely adhered to and, in addition, are continually reviewed and updated. Thus the U.S. rice industry offers product diversity, availability, reliability, and service unsurpassed in the world. Did You Know? 1. Rice is the staple food for two-thirds of the world's population. The simple grain has been a popular life-sustaining food for thousands of years because it is nutritious, versatile, economical, easy to prepare and tastes good! 2. Rice is a complex carbohydrate. Humans need complex carbohydrates in their diet because they fuel the body. Complex carbohydrates are stored in muscles and released as energy as needed. 3. Rice protein, when compared to that of other grains, is considered one of the highest quality proteins. It has all eight of the essential amino acids, necessary building blocks for strong muscles. Rice is also a good source of other essential nutrients -- thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, phosphorus, iron and potassium. Rice contains no fat, no cholesterol and no sodium. This along with being nonallergenic and gluten free, makes rice especially well suited for

persons with special dietary needs. 4. Rice offers versatility unsurpassed by an other food. It can be made part of any meal in recipes for soups, salads, main dishes and desserts. 5. In Asia rice is considered sacred. In Japan there are shrines to the god of rice. 6. Honda means "main rice field." Toyota means " bountiful rice field." 7. Arkansas is the largest rice producing state in the U. S. 8. Rice can be indefinitely cropped in irrigated fields. Some rice fields are believed to have been continously cropped for more than 2,000 years. 9. There are over 29,000 grains of rice in one pound (based on long grain white rice). 10. In Japan, rice grains are affectionately called "little buddhas," to encourage children to eat rice for the rest of their lives. 11. The Greek poet, Sophocles, in 495 BC mentioned rice in the Tragedies. 12. Louis Armstrong signed his autograph "Red Beans and Ricely Yours..." 13. In China, the typical greeting is "Have you had your rice today?" The typical answer is "Yes." 14. In India, it is said the grains of rice should be like two brothers: close but not stuck together. 15. In Thailand when you call your family to a meal you say, "Eat Rice." 16. The Japan word for cooked rice is the same as the word for meal.