LONG QUESTIONS Question 12 External Forces The external forces for change originate in the school's environment.

They include the marketplace, government laws and regulations, technology, labor markets, and economic changes. Marketplace. The marketplace, in recent years, has affected schools by introducing competition both from within a school district in the form of magnet schools, learning choice schools, and the like; and from outside the school district including private schools, store-front schools, and home instruction (Ludvigsen, 2011). Government laws and regulations. Government laws and regulations are a frequent impetus for change. As a case in point, strict enforcement of Equal Employment Opportunity Commission regulations cause many school districts to examine carefully their hiring, promotion, and pay policies for women and minorities (Robinson, 2010). The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (Public Law 107-110) has had a significant impact on the operation of public schools throughout the country. Technology. Technological innovations have created the need for change in schools (DAgustino, 2011). Computers have made possible high-speed data processing and retrieval of information and have created the need for new positions. Labor markets. The fluctuation of labor markets forces school leaders to initiate change. For instance, the education, talents, and attitudes of potential teachers play an important role in a school's effectiveness. Changes in these facets of the labor force can lead to a shortage or a surplus of qualified teachers. Economic changes. Economic changes affect schools as well. During periods of recession, inflation, or downturns in the local or national economy, the attitudes and morale of some staff members suffer, which may hinder school performance (Brimley & Garfield, 2009).

Internal Forces Pressures in the internal environment of the school district/school can also stimulate change. The two most significant internal pressures for change come from administrative processes and people problems. Administrative processes. Processes that act as pressures for change include communications, decision making, leadership, and motivational strategies, to name only a few. Breakdowns or problems in any of these processes can create pressures for change. People problems. Some symptoms of people problems are poor performance levels of teachers and students; high absenteeism of teachers or students; high dropout rates of students; high teacher turnover; poor school-community relations, poor management-union relations; and low levels of staff morale and job satisfaction Question 11 Management consulting is here to stay. According to Industry Canada, the total number of management consulting establishments exceeded 26,000 in 1998, with total revenues approaching CA$5.7 billion (Industry Canada, 2001). Since 1990, overall revenues in management consulting have grown 10-30 percent per year. Thus, the use of management consultants is very widespread. In fact, a US Department of commerce survey conducted in 1998, cited in Industry Canadas report, reported that 70 percent of all businesses and government organizations in Canada have used the services of a management consultant at least once in the last five years. Why Client-Consultant Relationships Go Awry Most client-consultant relationships have problems for largely non-technical reasons, including: Lack of effective communication about how the project will proceed Improperly setting expectations too high or too low Lack of follow through on small yet important details Under estimating project complexity or scope Failing to understand user requirements.

Consultants and clients live if very different worlds and look at a system project in very different ways. The client is usually preoccupied (and rightfully so) with the business side of the project. Will the project meet organizational goals or objectives? Will the return on investment be realized? Will the software be easy for the users to work with? Will the consultant be responsive (or available) for fixes and changes? The consultant is usually preoccupied with technical (and rightfully so) concerns. How can we implement the request for a fancy user interface? How long will it take us to figure out how to query and combine the data for the export that the user has requested? Why are the users concerned with inconsequential interface issues instead of the more complex data relationships that need to be ironed out? Because both sides have different orientations, both sides are blind to each other's issues. The way out of this mess is for both sides to be less blind to each other's concerns. In fact, good client-consultant relationships are sort of like marriages: both sides want the other to be happy. In fact, most problems with client-consultant relationships can be solved if both sides communicate with each other clearly and effectively. But before we look at communicating better, let's explore some of the myths out there. Question 8 Organization development (OD) is a deliberately planned effort to increase an organization's relevance and viability. [Vasudevan] has referred to OD as, future readiness to meet change, thus a systemic learning and development strategy intended to change the basics of beliefs, attitudes and relevance of values, and structure of the current organization to better absorb disruptive technologies, shrinking or exploding market opportunities and ensuing challenges and chaos. OD is the framework for a change process designed to lead to desirable positive impact to all stakeholders and the environment. OD can design interventions with application of several multidisciplinary methods and research besides traditional OD approaches. The purpose of OD is [to address perennial evolving needs of successful organizations] - a concerted collaboration of internal and external experts in the field to discover the process an organization can use to become more stakeholder effective. OD is a life-long, built-in mechanism to improve immunity of organization's health to renew itself inclusive principles, often with the assistance of a change agent or catalyst and the use of enabling appropriate theories and techniques from applied behavioral sciences, anthropology, sociology, and phenomenology. Although behavioral science has provided the basic foundation for the study and practice of OD, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence felt. Experts in systems thinking and organizational learning, mind maps, body mind synchronicity, structure of intuition in decision making, and coaching (to name a few) whose perspective is not steeped in just the behavioral sciences, but a much more multidisciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach have emerged as OD catalysts. These emergent expert perspectives see the organization as the holistic interplay of a number of systems that impact the process and outputs of the entire organization. More importantly, the term change agent or catalyst is synonymous with the notion of a leader who is engaged in leadership a transformative or effectiveness process - as opposed to management, a more incremental or efficiency based change methodology. SHORT NOTES 1.(A) TQM functions on the premise that the quality of products and processes is the responsibility of everyone who is involved with the creation or consumption of the products or services offered by an organization. In other words, TQM capitalizes on the involvement of management, workforce, suppliers, and even customers, in order to meet or exceed customer expectations. There are nine common TQM practices as cross-functional product design, process management, supplier quality management, customer involvement, information and feedback, committed leadership, strategic planning, cross-functional training, and employee involvement. (b) There are 6 phases in grid OD: First phase is concerned with studying the grid as a theoretical knowledge to understand the human behavior in the Organization. Second phase is concerned with team work development. A seminar helps the members in developing each members perception and the insight into the problems faced by various members on the job. Third phase is inter group development. This phase aims at developing the relationships between different departments Fourth phase is concerned with the creation of a strategic model for the organization where Chief Executives and their

immediate subordinates participate in this activity. Fifth phase is concerned with implementation of strategic model.. Planning teams are formed for each department to know the available resources, required resources, procuring them if required and implementing the model. Sixth Phase is concerned with the critical evaluation of the model and making necessary adjustment for successful implementation. Organizational Change is a structured approach to shifting/transitioning individuals, teams, and organisations from a current state to a desired future state. It is an organisational process aimed at helping employees to accept and embrace changes in their current business environment. In project management, change management refers to a project management process where changes to a project are formally introduced and approved (d) OD interventions aim at improving organizational performance and employees well being. According to Robbins (1994), OD integrates a collection of planned change interventions that relies on humanistic and democratic values, aimed at improving organizational effectiveness, and employees well being. OD interventions rely on the following values: respect for people, trust and support, power equalization, confrontation and participation.Kormanik (2005) proposes a classification of OD interventions in 6 groups: large scale, strategic, technostructural, management and leadership development, team development and group processes, and individual and interpersonal processes. (e) These advantages include the following:

Increased flexibility in skills and abilities More productive than work groups with individual mindset More beneficial in times of organizational change Encourage both individual and team development and improvement Focuses on group goals to accomplish more beneficial tasks

(f) Quality of working life has been differentiated from the broader concept of quality of life. To some degree, this may be overly simplistic, as Elizur and Shye,(1990) concluded that quality of work performance is affected by quality of life as well as quality of working life. However, it will be argued here that the specific attention to work-related aspects of quality of life is valid. Whilst quality of life has been more widely studied, quality of working life, remains relatively unexplored and unexplained. A review of the literature reveals relatively little on quality of working life. Where quality of working life has been explored, writers differ in their views on its core constituents. (g) Parallelism means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more elements in the sentence have the same level of importance. A good writer uses parallelism to create clear and concise sentences, and also to reduce the work that the reader must do to understand the author's meaning. For example, Doris went shopping and bought a pair of high heels, a new CD and a new pair of glasses. (h) Power Political scientists have frequently defined power as "the ability to influence the behaviour of others" with or without resistance. The term authority is often used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to humans as social beings. In the corporate environment, power is often expressed as upward or downward. With downward power, a company's superior influences subordinates. When a company exerts upward power, it is the subordinates who influence the decisions of the leader (Greiner & Schein, 1988). Often, the study of power in a society is referred to as politics.

(i) Reasons for Resistance to Change 1. When the purpose of the change is not made clear. 2. When persons affected by the change are not involved.

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

When an appeal for change is based on personal reasons. When the habit patterns of the individual are ignored. When there is poor communication regarding the change. When there is fear of failure. When excessive pressure is involved. When the cost is too high. Or the reward inadequate. When anxiety over personal security is not allowed. When there is satisfaction with the status quo.

(j) The six-box model is a framework developed by the American analyst Marvin Weisbord to assess the functioning of organizations. It is a generic framework and is intended for use across a wide variety of organizations. It is based mainly on the techniques and assumptions of the field of organizational development. The six-box model is comprised of the following components (boxes): 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Purposes: What 'businesses' are we in? Structure: How do we divide up the work? Relationships: How do we manage conflict (coordinate) among people? With our technologies? Rewards: Is there an incentive for doing all that needs doing? Leadership: Is someone keeping the boxes in balance? Helpful mechanisms: Have we adequate coordinating technologies? (k) In broad terms, contemporary management scholars and practitioners have used three different lenses to study and understand empowerment: (1) the social-structural perspective, (2) the psychological perspective, and (3) the critical perspective. A variety of different antecedents have been examined in relation to empowerment. Several features of organization design -- including a wide span of control (Spreitzer, 1996), enriching job characteristics (Liden et al., 2000), and a supportive/affiliative unit climate/culture (Sparrowe, 1994; Spreitzer, 1996) -- have been found to be related to high levels of employee empowerment. (l) Action research is situational - it is concerned with diagnosing a problem in a specific context and attempting to solve it in that context. Action research is - usually (though not inevitably) collaborative teams of researchers and practitioners work together on a project. - participatory - team members themselves take part directly or indirectly by implementing the research. (m) A T-group or training group (sometimes also referred to as sensitivity-training group, human relations training group or encounter group) is a form of group psychotherapywhere participants themselves (typically, between eight and 15 people) learn about themselves (and about small group processes in general) through their interaction with each other. They use feedback, problem solving, and role play to gain insights into themselves, others, and groups. (n) Every organization makes minor structural adjustments in reaction to changes in its direct action and indirect action environments. A sales form is revised to eliminate customer confusion. Or, the human resources department may create a training program on OSHA-mandated safety programs. What distinguishes planned change from these routine changes is its scope and magnitude. Planned change aims to prepare the entire organization, or a major part of it, to adapt to significant changes in the organizations goals and direction. (o) Organizational politics is the management of influence to obtain ends not sanctioned by the organization or to obtain sanctioned ends through non-sanctioned means. The important point to emphasize about organizational politics is the legitimacy of both the outcomes and the methods used to achieve them. Political Activities may be classified by political outcomes and political methods. Political methods may be divided into organizational approval and organizational disapproval. Political outcomes may be positive or negative.