International Marketing Review

Emerald Article: A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship Kevin Gwinner

Article information:
To cite this document: Kevin Gwinner, (1997),"A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship", International Marketing Review, Vol. 14 Iss: 3 pp. 145 - 158 Permanent link to this document: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651339710170221 Downloaded on: 19-04-2012 References: This document contains references to 28 other documents Citations: This document has been cited by 13 other documents To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com This document has been downloaded 13639 times.

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES For Authors: If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service. Information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Additional help for authors is available for Emerald subscribers. Please visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information. About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com With over forty years' experience, Emerald Group Publishing is a leading independent publisher of global research with impact in business, society, public policy and education. In total, Emerald publishes over 275 journals and more than 130 book series, as well as an extensive range of online products and services. Emerald is both COUNTER 3 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship

Kevin Gwinner
School of Business, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
Introduction Due to the proliferation of leisure events in todays society, the awareness and opportunity for corporate event sponsorship is at an all time high. Loosely defined, sponsorship can be regarded as the provision of assistance either financial or in-kind to an activity [e.g., sport, musical event, festival, fair, or within the broad definition of the Arts] by a commercial organization for the purpose of achieving commercial objectives (Meenaghan, 1983, p. 9). Until the past decade the majority of firms have viewed event sponsorship as an obligation to the community (Catherwood and Van Kirk, 1992). Sponsorships had been placed on a level somewhere between charitable donations and public relation opportunities. Furthermore, the selection of which events to sponsor was often determined by the current pet project of the firms CEO (Meenaghan, 1991). Today, although still representing a small percentage of the overall promotional budget, the outlay of promotional dollars for sponsorship activities is growing rapidly (Parker, 1991; Sandler and Shani, 1989; Scott and Suchard, 1992). Not only are todays sponsorships more sophisticated (i.e., more than simply the donation of cash for event production), but most firms are expecting a reasonable return on their sponsorship dollar in the form of increased sales (Catherwood and Van Kirk, 1992). While firms enter into sponsorship arrangements with a variety of goals, two of the most important are: to increase brand awareness; and to establish, strengthen, or change brand image (Crowley, 1991; Marshall and Cook, 1992; Meenaghan, 1991; Meerabeau et al., 1991). Recently, these goals have been theorized to be important in the development of customer-based brand equity, defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on the consumers purchase decision (Keller, 1993). In Kellers conceptualization, brand knowledge (which drives customer-based brand equity) is a function of both the consumers awareness of the brand and the image(s) associated with that awareness. In particular, the favorability, strength, and uniqueness of the brand associations play a critical role in determining the differential response (Keller, 1993, p.8). Brand awareness is achieved by exposing the brand to as many potential consumers as possible (Aaker, 1991). Sponsorship activities present multiple opportunities for achieving awareness objectives, and much of the research to

Image creation model

145

International Marketing Review, Vol. 14 No. 3, 1997, pp. 145-158. MCB University Press, 0265-1335

International Marketing Review 14,3 146

date in the sponsorship literature has focused on awareness issues such as sponsor recall (e.g. McDaniel and Kinney, 1996). Regrettably, less attention has been given to event and brand image issues. A number of questions exist regarding the effect of sponsorship promotional activities on brand and event image. For example: What factors contribute to an events image? Do consumers associate an events image with sponsoring brands? If there is an image association between event and sponsor, is there a theoretical explanation that can be used to understand this linkage? If there is an image association between event and sponsor, what factors moderate (strengthen or weaken) this relationship? How does event image influence attitude towards the brand? Although attempts at measuring the return on the sponsorship investment have been made (e.g., total event attendance, exit polls, sales following the event, and number of media mentions), an understanding of how sponsorship works has yet to be developed (Catherwood and Van Kirk, 1992; Javalgi et al., 1994; Meerabeau et al., 1991; Parker, 1991). The purpose of this article is to present a model explaining the mechanisms by which brand image may be impacted through sponsorship activities. Specifically, drawing on the theory of meaning transfer from the celebrity endorsement literature, a model is presented which suggests the factors involved in creating an events image and the subsequent transfer of that image to the sponsoring brand. Furthermore, several factors are identified that may moderate the relationship between event image and brand image. While the focus of this article is on the conceptual development of image transfer in sponsorship, a variety of research propositions are offered to guide future empirical inquiry. A framework for the transfer of event image Model conceptualization and overview Brand image has been defined as perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in memory (Keller, 1993, p. 3). Keller suggests that the favourability, uniqueness, and strength of the associations are critical to a brands success. Brand associations are developed from a variety of sources including product use, informational sources (e.g., advertising, packaging, word-of-mouth), and association with other entities. The association with other entities source is of particular relevance to sponsorship activity. Keller has suggested that when a brand becomes associated with an event, some of the associations linked with the event (e.g., youthful, relaxing, enjoyable, disappointing, sophisticated, lite, etc.) may become linked in memory with the brand. This transfer of associations is consistent with research in the celebrity endorsement process. Initial research regarding celebrity endorsement focused on the credibility and attractiveness of the message source (i.e., celebrity) to explain the persuasive nature of endorsers. That is, more credible and attractive

endorsers were viewed as more persuasive. However, McCracken (1989), pointing to conflicting research results, suggested that endorsement effectiveness is better explained by the meanings consumers associate with the celebrity endorser and subsequently transfer to the brand. McCraken uses the term meaning to describe consumers overall assessments of what a celebrity represents based on characteristics such as social class, gender, age, personality, and lifestyle. Thus, individual characteristics (e.g., regal, trashy, maleness, strong, caring, sexual, irreverent, wise) are integrated to define the meaning of the celebrity. Meaning which has been accumulated through their roles in television, movies, military, athletics, and other careers is thought to reside in celebrities (McCracken, 1989, p. 315). According to McCracken, the meaning attributed to celebrities moves from the celebrity endorser to the product when the two are paired in an advertisement. That is, meanings associated with the celebrity become associated with the product in the mind of the consumer. To complete the meaning transfer process, consumers acquire the meaning in the product through consumption. This process is illustrated in Figure 1.

Image creation model

147

Figure 1. Meaning movement in the endorsement process

McCrackens (1989) meaning in celebrities is analogous to Kellers (1993) event associations. Following the convention set forward by Keller with reference to brand image, this article uses the term event image to represent the cumulative interpretation of meanings or associations attributed to events by consumers. A comparison can be drawn between celebrity endorsers and events. Just as consumers associate celebrities with certain meanings, so too are events associated with particular attributes and attitudes. It is suggested here that these associations are derived from the events type, event characteristics, and several individual consumer factors. This is not unlike the meaning attributed to a celebrity being formed by the various roles he or she occupies. For example, event associations attributed to the annual Chicago Blues Festival (a food and musical extravaganza drawing over 500,000 people) might include tradition, celebration and civic pride. Extending this concept of meaning transfer from the celebrity endorser literature, it is suggested that events act in a manner analogous to endorsers in the transfer of image to sponsoring brands. The framework presented in Figure 2 theorizes from McCrackens celebrity endorsement model to suggest that

International Marketing Review 14,3 148

Figure 2. A model of image creation and image transfer in event sponsorship

event image is formed from a number of external and internal factors. Through sponsorship, an events image, which may be relatively distinct for different consumer groups, may be transferred through association to the sponsoring product. As indicated in the figure, several factors may moderate the strength of this image transfer. This discussion leads to the offering of the first research proposition: P1: Through sponsorship, an events image will become associated with the sponsoring brands image. Determinants of event image An events image is represented by a particular market segments overall subjective perceptions of the activity. The proposed framework suggests three factors that may impact ones perception of a particular event: event type, event characteristics, and individual factors. Event type. In accordance with the earlier definition, event type can be categorized into at least five areas: sports related, music related, festival/fair related, fine arts related (e.g., ballet, art exhibit, theatre, etc.), and professional meeting/trade show related. The type of event impacts event image in a variety of ways. First, it conjures up image associations in the mind of the consumer. That is, most individuals, through past patronage or other forms of exposure (word-of-mouth, television, etc.) will develop some attitudes (i.e., positive or negative predispositions towards an event) regarding particular events. These attitudes will serve to frame the image of the particular event type. Note however, that ones attitude towards an event is only one part of an events image. Ones attitude towards an event represents a summary of experiences resulting in some general predisposition to respond to an event in a consistently

favourable or unfavourable manner. Thus, event attitude is an enduring evaluation (Cohen, 1990). While an events image will be strongly influenced by ones attitude towards the event, event image will also be impacted by non-evaluative perceptions of an event that are formed through associations held in the consumers memory (Keller, 1993). In this sense, event image reflects the meaning of the event for an individual, and can be characterized using descriptive labels that represent a summation of ones perceptions. These labels, termed image associations, would include: youthful, mature, carefree, adventurous, educational, social, traditional, exclusive, common, liberal, conservative, high class, family oriented, children oriented, cerebral, athletic, artistic, pride, political, etc. Thus, event image can be thought of as a collection of image associations. In addition to past experiences and other indirect exposures, it is likely that new experiences will shape ones perception of event image. In fact, image perceptions formed from the most recent event experiences will likely be the most influential in shaping ones overall event image perceptions (Bagozzi and Warshaw, 1990). New experiences can be divided into two types: the specific activities engaged in or observed; and all interactions with other event attendees/participants and event staff. It is through these two experiences that past event images may be changed or modified and new image associations can be added. The specific activities engaged in or observed may be the same for all participants[1] (e.g., attendees at a soccer match) or quite varied (e.g., the individual rides and attractions selected at a local festival), depending on the type of event. Regardless of the similarity of experiences, the essential issue is that a given consumers specific event experiences or observations will shape their perceptions of event image. It is also argued here that the number and type of other participants will have an impact on ones evaluation of the events image. For example, the number of spectators may impact ones assessment of the success of the event. Perhaps events may be viewed as more successful when they draw more attendees. In addition, the number of participants may impact perceptions of crowding, event availability, and wait times. Type of participant represents the demographic and psychographic characteristics of others attending the event. The attendees at some events represent relatively homogeneous market segments in terms of social class, family life cycle, age, gender, political affiliation, etc. For example, spectators of professional golf tournaments may be middle aged, white males, with above median incomes. In other cases, events draw heterogeneous types of participants. Just as other customers can have a substantial impact on consumers perceptions of service firms, so too can other participants have an impact on ones event experiences and subsequent assessment of event image (Bitner et al., 1994). These factors, perceptions based on past experiences, event activities, and the number and type of spectator/participant, constitute one aspect that will serve to shape consumers overall subjective perceptions of a given event. Based on the above discussion, several research propositions are suggested:

Image creation model

149

International Marketing Review 14,3 150

P2a: Direct experience and/or indirect information (word-of-mouth, advertising, etc.) with an event type will influence event image. P2b: The specific activities experienced or observed during an event will influence event image. P2c: The number and type of other spectators/participants will influence event image. Event characteristics. Within a given event type (e.g., music concert series, trade show, etc.), a number of characteristics will vary from event to event. The level of the following five event characteristics will likely influence consumers perceptions of an events overall image: event size, professional status of participants (professional or amateur), tradition/history associated with the event, event venue, and promotional appearance. Event size can be considered along a number of dimensions, including length of event, level of media exposure (local, regional, national, international), number of performers (if applicable), and amount of physical space occupied. The same type of event, for example electronic industry trade shows, can vary along all of these dimensions, creating different images for the same event type. Likewise, other event characteristics such as the professional status of performers (professional versus amateur) or the venue in which the event is staged (e.g., temperature, convenience, physical condition, etc.) will impact ones overall assessment of the events image. One could theorize that, in most cases, perceptions of quality, legitimacy, and attendance desirability will be higher with long running, large, elaborately staged events, featuring professionals in attractive and convenient venues. The perceived promotional appearance of a brands sponsorship activities may appear anywhere along a spectrum from advertiser to benefactor. A perception towards the benefactor end of the spectrum may lead to increased feelings of goodwill towards the brand because it is perceived as donating funds to make the event possible (McDonald, 1991). Conversely, there may be a negative reaction to the commercialization of events that have not been sponsored in the past. These events may be perceived as selling out to the corporate world. This has become especially true in the Arts, where some individuals feel that sponsorship (corporate or governmental) of the Arts leads to censorship (Jacobson, 1993; Wood, 1996) . However, due to increasing costs, it has become even more critical for events to obtain outside sponsors in order to continue to exist. To take full advantage of the goodwill aspects, the sponsoring brand may need to educate attendees regarding the beneficial role sponsorship plays in event production. Due to its association with the event, a sponsoring brands promotional claims can be legitimized, which serves to increase the believability of the promotional message (McDonald, 1991). Additionally, a sponsoring firm may be perceived as making an event possible for the consumer (Chew, 1992; McDonald, 1991). The perception may be especially strong for small events which often have difficulty securing financial support. In this sense, the consumer does not view the sponsorship as a form of promotion, but rather the

sponsoring brand is seen as providing a service to the attendee and a level of goodwill is generated by the firm. Again, the scepticism that can be associated with traditional advertising may be circumvented. Brands that are viewed as benefactors will be seen in a more favourable light. The consumer may even feel the need or desire to reciprocate by purchasing the brand. Following from the above discussion, the following research propositions are suggested: P3a: Event size will influence event image. P3b: Professional status of participants will influence event image. P3c: Tradition/history associated with the event will influence event image. P3d: Event venue will influence event image. P3e: Promotional appearance will influence event image. Individual factors. Because of the large number of factors influencing event image and the unique manner in which participants may interpret those factors, an event may have different images for different individuals. Qualitative research has revealed each sport to have its own individual image, and sponsors will tend to benefit from image transfer accordingly (Parker, 1991, p. 26). Three individual factors are suggested here that may impact event image: the number of images an individual associates with an event; the strength of the particular image; and the past history one has with a specific event. This last factor differs from the past experience factor discussed under event type. Past history refers to the unique experiences associated with a specific event, whereas past experiences refers to encounters with a general event type. Events that consumers perceive as having multiple images will be more difficult to associate with a single identity. This will be compounded when the meanings are of a conflicting nature. Thus, an individual with many event associations may have a shifting image of the event, depending on which association is currently most salient. Related to this is that images can be very strong or relatively weak. It is likely that a single strong image will dominate over several weaker ones. This will cause an event image to be consistent over time, but limits the richness that multiple image associations would confer. Finally, an individuals personal history with a particular event may have an impact on ones perception of an events image. A long history will typically lead to a more ingrained and consistent image. An individual that has attended or has been associated with an event for a substantial time period may also have nostalgic feelings that become associated with the events image. Events that have multiple or vague images pose problems for a firms sponsorship selection decision because it becomes more difficult to predict the image that may become associated with the event, and ultimately transferred to the product. The above discussion leads to the following research propositions: P4a: Individuals associating an event with a large number of images will have difficulty identifying a consistent event image.

Image creation model

151

International Marketing Review 14,3 152

P4b: Individuals with a single, strong image association will have consistent event images over time. P4c: Individuals with a single, strong image association will have less rich event images. P4d: Individuals with long-term participation in an event will hold a consistent event image for that event. This section has identified three broad areas (event type, event characteristics, and individual factors) that influence the creation of an events image, although there may be some event image determinants not explicitly discussed in the previous section. It is likely that any unrepresented factors could be accommodated within the proposed areas. The next section discusses constructs that may moderate the relationship between event image and brand image. Moderating variables in the model Potential moderating variables presented in the model are discussed in two sections. In the first section variables potentially impacting the strength of the image transfer from event to brand are discussed. As such, variables pertaining to the formation of strong memory associations (degree of similarity) and exposure to the sponsors message (level of sponsorship and event frequency) are discussed. The second section on moderating variables examines how ones involvement with a product may moderate the impact of the events image on brand attitude. Attitude towards the event and attitude towards the brand are conceptualized and discussed as being components of event image and brand image, respectively. Although not illustrated in Figure 2, these attitude components should be considered as a part of each of the respective image boxes in the figure. Moderators between event image and brand image This section will discuss three moderating variables impacting the strength of the transfer between an events image and the image of a sponsoring brand. As indicated above, the basis of the relationship is the meaning transfer between these constructs and it is this process that the moderating variables are proposed to influence. The first moderating factor to be discussed in the image transfer process is the degree of similarity between the event and the sponsor. A product can have either functional or image related similarity with an event. Functional similarity occurs when a sponsoring product is actually used by participants during the event. An example of this type of similarity is Valvolines sponsorship of automobile racing. The link is established because, apart from being a sponsor, Valvolines motor oil products are actually used by many of the participants during the event. The second type of similarity is termed image related, and occurs when the image of the event is related to the image of the brand. An example of this type of linkage is Pepsis sponsorship of the 1993 Michael Jackson World Concert Tour. Here the similarity comes from the youth and

excitement orientation of both the music and the product. Interestingly, some sponsors do not appear to be linked to the events they sponsor. For example, the USF&G Sugar Bowl combined a large insurance firm with a collegiate football game. It is suggested here that either functional or image based similarities forge stronger ties and help the consumer to link the event image with the brand. Thus, sponsor-event similarity (functional or image based) will enhance image transfer by more firmly anchoring the relationship in the consumers mind. This assertion is consistent with some celebrity endorsement literature which suggests that mis-matches between endorser and brand decrease the effectiveness of the endorsement (Kaikati, 1987). A second factor that may moderate the image transfer from event to sponsoring brand is the level of sponsorship. Sponsorship arrangements can run the gamut from a single sponsor to hundreds of sponsors at many different levels. Multiple sponsors for a given event lessens the probability that a particular brand will be associated with the event, due to the additional stimuli each consumer must attend to and recall (Hutchinson and Alba, 1991). Often, events allowing multiple sponsors will offer different levels of sponsorship. By contributing different dollar amounts to the event, the sponsor can buy enhanced packages. These enhancements include better sign/banner location, more frequent media mentions, and premium ticket and hospitality packages. Exclusive sponsorship, or at least a dominant position, will increase the likelihood of meaning transfer from the event to the sponsoring brand by more firmly establishing the link between event and brand. The frequency of the event will also have an impact on the image transfer process. Events may be on either a one-time or recurring basis. Although a onetime event does not allow recurring event-sponsor associations to be developed over time, some events may be of such a unique nature that they attract a great deal of media attention (e.g., Hands-Across-America). However, an ongoing event (annual, semi-annual, monthly, etc.) should have the benefit of more firmly establishing a link between the event and the brand due to repeated exposures (MacInnis et al., 1991). The above discussion leads to the following research propositions: P5a: The higher the degree of similarity (image or functional based) between event and sponsoring brand, the more effective the image transfer between event and brand. P5b: The more exclusive the level of sponsorship, the more effective the image transfer between event and brand. P5c: The more frequent the event, the more effective the image transfer between event and brand. Moderators between event image and attitude towards the brand As discussed previously, ones attitude towards the event will help to shape ones image of the event. Thus, event attitude is a component of event image. Likewise, attitude towards the brand is considered under this framework as a

Image creation model

153

International Marketing Review 14,3 154

component of brand image. Indeed, recent conceptualizations of brand image include an attitude component (Keller, 1993). As such, the model presented in Figure 2 suggests that event image will have an impact on attitude towards the brand. However, might there be situations in which this relationship is moderated by another factor? Advertising research with endorsers has demonstrated that product involvement level (defined as the level of personal relevance a product has to a consumer, resulting from the perceived level of risk associated with the products consumption or non-consumption) can impact the attitude formation process (Petty et al., 1983). Specifically, we have shown that when an advertisement concerned a product of low involvement, the celebrity status of the product endorsers was a very potent determinant of attitudes about the product. When the advertisement concerned a product of high involvement, however, the celebrity status of the product endorsers had no effect on attitudes, but the cogency of the information about the product contained in the ad was a powerful determinant of product evaluations (Petty et al., 1983, p. 143). Following from this research, level of product involvement should moderate the relationship between event image and attitude towards the brand, such that event image will have a larger impact on brand attitude for a low involvement product. The influence of event image on brand attitude can be understood further by considering the type of persuasion process likely to occur. Petty and Cacioppos (1986) elaboration likelihood model (ELM) suggests that persuasion can occur along two routes. The central route to persuasion occurs when an individual bases product evaluation on diligent consideration of information that a person feels is central to the true merits of an issue or product (Petty et al., 1983, p. 144). The second route to attitude change, peripheral, suggests that change may also occur through the association of the object with positive or negative cues (e.g., expert source, pleasant surroundings, forceful presentation, etc.). This conceptualization of the peripheral persuasion route is consistent with Kellers (1993) position of links in memory being established between an event and the sponsor. One characteristic of sponsorship that distinguishes it from some other promotional methods is its indirect nature (McDonald, 1991). That is, the sponsorship is, at best, a secondary concern (behind the actual event) for the participant. Furthermore, other than the brands name and/or logo, seldom is any type of commercial message associated with the firms products. Thus, sponsorship would appear to operate along Petty and Cacioppos peripheral persuasion route due to this indirect nature, and lack of available cognizant information. Empirical tests of the ELM model suggest that the central route to persuasion is more effective for high involvement goods, while the peripheral route has a higher impact on low involvement goods (Petty et al., 1983). Theorizing from the ELM, one could conclude that when the sponsoring brand is a low involvement product, event image will be a potent force in determining brand attitude. Conversely, the promotional benefit, in terms of attitude change, for high involvement products appears to be small. Product

involvement is only likely to be applicable when the sponsorship is focused at the brand level, as opposed to the sponsorship focus being at the firm level. The discussion in this section gives rise to the following research propositions: P6a: Brand attitudes of low involvement goods will be strongly influenced by event image. P6b: Brand attitudes of high involvement goods will be weakly influenced by event image. P6c: Persuasion processes from event sponsorship take place on the peripheral route. Implications for practice and research Implications for practice Several implications for marketing practice can be drawn from the proposed model. First, firms should consider more than simply the number of potential customers their sponsorship signage and other identifiers will reach. It is important to consider the image of the event, as this image may become associated with the brand. An events image can be assessed through a variety of methods. However, given its potentially ambiguous and transitory nature, qualitative methods in the form of depth interviews, focus groups, and projective techniques, are likely to provide the best view of how consumers perceive a given event. Event organizers might take it on themselves to conduct such studies and use the results to recruit potential sponsors. In the course of such research, event organizers may find that the image of their event is not what they thought. Furthermore, it would be wise for event image studies to take place on a regular basis to assess changes in event image over time. This would allow event organizers to take corrective action in a timely manner. The proposed model suggests a variety of event image determinants that could be manipulated to position a given event in a different light. In terms of the sponsoring brand, the model suggests several aspects of sponsorship that should be considered when deciding on potential event affiliations. One aspect that should be considered, in light of image transfer benefits, is the degree of similarity between the event and the brand. Brand awareness benefits are likely to accrue regardless of similarity levels, but it has been argued here that image associations will be more likely when some link exists, either image or functional, in the consumers mind. Firms looking to add sponsorship activities to their promotional mix should also consider the level of sponsorship and frequency of the event. Although most firms will look at these aspects with an eye towards the total dollar commitment, it may also be wise to consider the meaning transfer implications. As discussed previously, exclusive sponsorships in events occurring on a frequent basis will likely maximize the image transfer potential of the sponsorship purchase. Finally, firms should consider whether image transfer benefits will actually have any influence on consumers attitudes towards their brand and ultimately their purchase intention. The model suggests that, in terms of impacting a

Image creation model

155

International Marketing Review 14,3 156

consumers attitude towards a brand, low involvement products will be more effective in sponsorship promotions due to the peripheral nature of persuasion taking place. However, brand attitude represents only one part of brand image. Other image associations are likely to occur, regardless of product involvement level. As such, firms of high involvement products should carefully consider their promotional goals to determine if event sponsorship is the best use of their promotional budget. Implications for research This article has set forward a number of research propositions that are suggested by the proposed model. Although the propositions are in need of empirical validation, in terms of research priorities, those dealing with image transfer (P1) and product involvement (P6a-P6c) stand out as needing the most immediate attention due to their potential importance to marketing managers. The biggest challenge in the empirical testing of these propositions will likely be in the measurement development of the event image construct and the assessment of image transfer. Event image measures might be developed that consist of a series of semantic differentials (e.g., young-old, exclusive-common, adult oriented-family oriented, etc.). An event typology might then be constructed using cluster analysis techniques to identify common image groups. Such a typology would have significant implications for sponsorship selection activities. Another fruitful area of future empirical research might focus on the event image determinants identified in the model. No predications were made with regard to the relative strength of these image determinants. However, it is likely that some determinants (e.g., event size) will have a stronger impact on the formation of an events image. These determinants should be assessed to see which explain the most variance in event image and to identify possible interactions existing between the determinants. Of course, research attempting to validate the image transfer process and the presence or absence of moderating effects would represent a substantial contribution to the sponsorship literature. Here researchers might consider the use of experimental designs. Following such a research programme, investigators could vary levels of similarity (both functional and image), sponsorship level and frequency, and product involvement. Pre- and postmeasures of brand image could be compared in relationship to each of the treatment level combinations (cf. McDaniel, 1997). Another interesting area for further study would be to expand the event image transfer model by examining the influence of sponsorship on brand image creation as compared to other more traditional promotional activities (e.g., television and magazine advertising, packaging, etc.). Furthermore, it would be useful to examine the effect on brand image when the brand sponsors multiple events. Will some events have a larger impact on brand image than others? If so, can specific event determinants be identified for driving this differential effect?

In addition, how do consumers sort out the meaning transfer from event to brand, when brands sponsor multiple event with conflicting images? Event image transfer is perhaps an even more critical issue in the ever growing global community. Sponsors of events with international television audiences, such as the Olympic Games, may need to consider the image of the global event in relationship to the image goals of local markets. Cultural and social norms may vary across national boundaries, such that a given events image would not be appropriate for all consumer groups. It may also be possible that culture will moderate the image transfer process. Perhaps in cultures where an individuals self-concept is more closely tied to consumption activities (e.g., the type of clothing worn, the model of car driven), the transfer of image from event to brand may proceed more effectively. In such cultures consumers are more active in looking for meaning in products that can be used to change or reinforce their concept of self. As a result of its growing importance and lack of attention, more research in the area of event marketing, and specifically the image transfer process is needed. This article has put forward several theoretical arguments to explain the mechanisms by which brand image may be influenced through various sponsorship activities. Past research in the area of event marketing has tended to focus on brand awareness issues and has been mostly descriptive in nature. If this field of inquiry is to progress, we must have theoretical explanations from which to build. This article represents a first step in the discussion of how sponsorship actually works.
Note 1. Individuals consuming an event can be referred to using a variety of terms depending on the specific event type. These labels include participant, attendee, spectator and observer. All of these terms are used in this article to reflect the varied nature of event types, but these terms should be regarded as synonyms. References Aaker, D.A. (1991), Managing Brand Equity, The Free Press, New York, NY. Bagozzi, R.P. and Warshaw P.R. (1990), Trying to consume, Journal of Consumer Behavior, Vol. 17, September, pp. 127-40. Bitner, M., Booms, B.H. and Mohr, L.A. (1994), Critical service encounters: the employees viewpoint, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 58, October, pp. 95-106. Catherwood, D.W. and Van Kirk, R.L. (1992), The Complete Guide to Special Event Management, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. Chew, F. (1992), The advertising value of making possible a public television program, Journal of Advertising Research, November-December, pp. 47-52. Cohen, J.B. (1990), Attitude, affect, and consumer behavior, in Moore, B.S. and Isen, A.M. (Eds), Affect and Social Behavior, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, pp. 152-206. Crowley, M.G. (1991), Prioritizing the sponsorship audience, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 25 No.11, pp. 11-21. Hutchinson, J.W. and Alba, J.A. (1991), Ignoring irrelevant information: situational determinants of consumer learning, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 18, December, pp. 325-45.

Image creation model

157

International Marketing Review 14,3 158

Jacobson, M. (1993), Museums that put corporations on display, Business and Society Review, Vol. 86, Summer, pp. 24-7. Javalgi, R.G., Traylor, M.B., Gross, A.C. and Lampman, E. (1994), Awareness of sponsorship and corporate image: an empirical investigation, Journal of Advertising, Vol. 23, December, pp. 47-58. Kaikati, J.G. (1987), Celebrity advertising: a review and synthesis, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 93-105. Keller, K.L. (1993), Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 57, January, pp. 1-22. Levin, G. (1993), Sponsors put pressure on for accountability, Advertising Age, 21 June, pp. S1-S4. MacInnis, D.J., Mooreman, C. and Jaworski, B.J. (1991), Enhancing and measuring consumers motivation, opportunity, and ability to process brand information from ads, Journal of Marketing, Vol. 55, October, pp. 32-53. Marshall, D.W. and Cook, G. (1992), The corporate (sports) sponsor, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 11, pp. 307-24. McCracken, G. (1989), Who is the celebrity endorser? Cultural foundations of the endorsement process, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 16 December, pp. 310-21. McDaniel, S.R. (1997), An investigation of match-up effects in event sponsorship advertising: the implications of consumer advertising schemas, Paper presented at the American Marketing Association Winter Educators Meeting, St Petersburg, FL. McDaniel, S.R. and Kinney, L. (1996), Ambush marketing revisited: an experimental study of perceived sponsorship effects on brand awareness, attitude toward the brand and purchase intention, Journal of Promotion Management, Vol. 3, pp. 141-67. McDonald, C. (1991), Sponsorship and the image of the sponsor, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 25 No. 11, pp. 31-8. Meenaghan, J.A. (1983), Commercial sponsorship, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 7 No. 7, pp. 5-73. Meenaghan, J.A. (1991), Sponsorship legitimizing the medium, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 25 No. 11, pp. 5-10. Meerabeau, E., Gillett, R., Kennedy, M., Adeoba, J., Byass, M. and Tabi, K. (1991), Sponsorship and the drinks industry in the 1990s, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 25 No. 11, pp. 3956. Parker, K. (1991), Sponsorship: the research contribution, European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 25 No. 11, pp. 22-30. Petty, R.E. and Cacioppo, J.T. (1986), Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY. Petty, R.E., Cacioppo, J.T. and Schumann, D. (1983), Central and peripheral routes to advertising effectiveness: the moderating role of involvement, Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 10, September, pp. 135-46. Sandler, D.M. and Shani, D. (1989), Olympic sponsorship vs. ambush marketing: who gets the gold, Journal of Advertising Research, August-September, pp. 9-14. Scott, D.R. and Suchard, H.T. (1992), Motivations for Australian expenditure on sponsorship an analysis, International Journal of Advertising, Vol. 11, pp. 325-32. Wood, J. (1996), Sold out, The New Republic, Vol. 215 No. 2, p. 9.