(PANTONE STIRLING GEET SPAD) Thesis - Simple Gas Turbine Engine Design

A Design Study of Single-Rotor Turbomachinery Cycles
by
Manoharan Thiagarajan
A thesis submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
in
Mechanical Engineering
Committee
Dr. Peter King, Chairman

Dr. Walter OBrien, Committee Member
Dr. Clint Dancey, Committee Member
August 12, 2004

Blacksburg, Virginia
Keywords: Auxiliary power unit, single radial rotor, specific power takeoff, compressor, burner, turbine
A Design Study of Single-Rotor Turbomachinery Cycles

by
Manoharan Thiagarajan
Dr. Peter King, Chairman

Dr. Walter OBrien, Committee Member
Dr. Clint Dancey, Committee Member
(ABSTRACT)
Gas turbine engines provide thrust for aircraft engines and supply shaft power for various
applications. They consist of three main components. That is, a compressor followed by a combustion
chamber (burner) and a turbine. Both turbine and compressor components are either axial or centrifugal
(radial) in design. The combustion chamber is stationary on the engine casing. The type of engine that is
of interest here is the gas turbine auxiliary power unit (APU). A typical APU has a centrifugal
compressor, burner and an axial turbine. APUs generate mechanical shaft power to drive equipments such
as small generators and hydraulic pumps. In airplanes, they provide cabin pressurization and ventilation.
They can also supply electrical power to certain airplane systems such as navigation. In comparison to
thrust engines, APUs are usually much smaller in design.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the possibility of combining the three components
of an APU into a single centrifugal rotor. To do this, a set of equations were chosen that would describe
the new turbomachinery cycle. They either were provided or derived using quasi-one-dimensional
compressible flow equations. A MathCAD program developed for the analysis obtained best design
points for various cases with the help of an optimizer called Model Center. These results were then
compared to current machine specifications (gas turbine engine, gasoline and diesel generators). The
result of interest was maximum specific power takeoff. The results showed high specific powers in the
event there was no restriction to the material and did not exhaust at atmospheric pressure. This caused the
rotor to become very large and have a disk thickness that was unrealistic. With the restrictions fully in
place, they severely limited the performance of the rotor. Sample rotor shapes showed all of them to have
unusual designs. They had a combination of unreasonable blade height variations and very large disk
thicknesses. Indications from this study showed that the single radial rotor turbomachinery design might
not be a good idea. Recommendations for continuation of research include secondary flow consideration,
blade height constraints and extending the flow geometry to include the axial direction.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to Dr. Peter King, major professor, for
contributing valuable time, advice, and assistance to the research and to the preparation of this
manuscript. Sincere thanks are due to the members of the authors graduate committee composed of Dr.
Walter OBrien, and Dr. Clint Dancey for their advice and constructive criticism. The author also is
grateful to Phoenix Integration for allowing him to use Model Center for the purpose of optimization to
help in the completion of this research project.
Very special thanks are due to the authors parents for their understanding, patience, and
encouragement throughout the course of this study. Heartiest thanks are also due to Rene Villanueva, An
Song Nguyen, and Kevin Duffy for all their encouragement. Special appreciation goes out to Ms. Lisa
Stables for all her assistance during this research.
To all turbolabbers, warp speed ahead. Space is the final frontier.
iii
Table of contents
TABLE OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................................VII
LIST OF TABLES.................................................................................................................................................... XI
NOMENCLATURE .............................................................................................................................................. XIII
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................1
1.1
ABOUT SMALL GAS TURBINE ENGINES ..........................................................................................................1
1.2
AUXILIARY POWER UNIT (APU) AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH .......................................................................4
CHAPTER 2
2.1
LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................................6
HISTORY OF THE APU...................................................................................................................................6
2.1.1
Project A .........................................................................................................................................6
2.1.2
The Black Box .................................................................................................................................6
2.1.3
The GTC43/44.................................................................................................................................8
2.2
IDEAL BRAYTON CYCLE AND IDEAL JET PROPULSION CYCLE ........................................................................9
2.3
HOW CURRENT APUS WORK .......................................................................................................................11
CHAPTER 3
FORMULAS USED FOR THE APU ........................................................................................15
3.1
GENERAL INFORMATION .............................................................................................................................15
3.2
AMBIENT AIR AND DIFFUSER .......................................................................................................................17
3.3
COMPRESSOR ..............................................................................................................................................18
3.4
BURNER AND TURBINE ................................................................................................................................22
3.4.1
Burner equations...........................................................................................................................23
3.4.2
Burner input parameters and method of solving equations ..........................................................25
3.4.3
Turbine equations .........................................................................................................................28
3.4.4
Turbine input parameters..............................................................................................................29
3.4.4.1
Subsonic turbine............................................................................................................................................ 30
3.4.4.2
Supersonic turbine ........................................................................................................................................ 31
3.4.5
Method of solving turbine equations.............................................................................................32
3.4.6
Burner and turbine output summary .............................................................................................35
3.5
OVERALL APU PROPERTIES ........................................................................................................................37
CHAPTER 4
4.1
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS.........................................................................................................39
SIMPLE ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW ...............................................................................................................39
4.1.1
Burner ...........................................................................................................................................40
4.1.1.1
Constant area flow with drag and heat addition ............................................................................................ 40
4.1.1.2
Constant area flow with only heat addition................................................................................................... 41
iv
4.1.2
4.2
Variable area flow ........................................................................................................................42

SINGLE ROTOR APU RESULTS .....................................................................................................................43
4.2.1
Model Center and input/output constraints ..................................................................................43
4.2.2
Results from Model Center............................................................................................................46
4.2.2.1
Case 1: Without the stress and |(P0-P5)/P5| constraints. ................................................................................. 46
4.2.2.2
Case 2: With the stress constraint but without the |(P0-P5)/P5| constraint...................................................... 48
4.2.2.3
Case 3: Without the stress constraint but with the |(P0-P5)/P5| constraint...................................................... 49
4.2.2.4
Case 4: With the stress and |(P0-P5)/P5| constraints ....................................................................................... 50
4.2.3
Rotor material and size .................................................................................................................51
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................52
5.1
SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................................................52
5.2
RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................................................................................52
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................................................................53
APPENDIX A
COMPRESSOR DERIVATIONS .............................................................................................54
A.1
OUTLET RELATIVE MACH NUMBER .............................................................................................................54
A.2
OUTLET RELATIVE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE .........................................................................................55
APPENDIX B
BURNER AND TURBINE DERIVATIONS ............................................................................56
B.1
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM .................................................................................................56
B.2
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)................................................................56
B.3
EQUATION OF STATE ...................................................................................................................................58
B.4
CONSERVATION OF MASS ............................................................................................................................58
B.5
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM .....................................................................................................58
B.6
RELATIVE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE EQUATION .....................................................................................59
B.7
RELATIVE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE EQUATION .....................................................................................60
B.8
ABSOLUTE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE EQUATION ....................................................................................62
B.9
RELATIVE MACH NUMBER EQUATION .........................................................................................................63
B.10
ABSOLUTE STAGNATION PRESSURE EQUATION ...........................................................................................63
B.11
ENTROPY EQUATION ...................................................................................................................................64
B.12
BURNER ABSOLUTE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION.................................................................64
B.13
BURNER SPECIFIC WORK .............................................................................................................................65
B.14
TURBINE SPECIFIC WORK ............................................................................................................................66
APPENDIX C
TO DETERMINE PERPENDICULAR (ONE-DIMENSIONAL) FLOW AREA
BETWEEN THE VANES .........................................................................................................................................67

APPENDIX D
CURRENT ENGINE DATA......................................................................................................68
APPENDIX E
COMPLETE RESULTS FOR CASE 1.....................................................................................72
E.1
INPUT PARAMETERS ....................................................................................................................................72
E.2
OUTPUT VALUES .........................................................................................................................................74
APPENDIX F
F.1
F.2
OUTPUT VALUES .........................................................................................................................................84
APPENDIX G
G.1
G.2
OUTPUT VALUE ...........................................................................................................................................95
APPENDIX H
COMPLETE RESULTS FOR CASE 4...................................................................................100
H.1
INPUT PARAMETERS ..................................................................................................................................100
H.2
OUTPUT VALUES .......................................................................................................................................102
APPENDIX I
SAMPLE ROTOR FOR CASE 1 WITH CALCULATION PROGRAM ...........................108
APPENDIX J
APPENDIX K
APPENDIX L
VITA .........................................................................................................................................................................116
vi
Table of figures
Figure 1-1: Williams International FJ44 turbofan engine, small gas turbine engine (from [1]). .................. 1
Figure 1-2: Pratt & Whitney J58 turbojet engine, large gas turbine engine (from [2]). ............................... 1
Figure 1-3: Years spent in the small gas turbine engine business (from [1])................................................ 3
Figure 1-4: Turboshaft engine (from [2]). .................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1-5: Auxiliary power unit (from [3]). ................................................................................................ 4
Figure 1-6: APU with exhaust vent at the rear of the aircraft (from [4])...................................................... 5
Figure 1-7: The new rotor with the combined components will look something like this compressor
impeller (from [5]). ............................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 2-1: Garrett Black Box (from [1]). .................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2-2: GTC43/44 first stage backward curved centrifugal compressor (from [1]). .............................. 8
Figure 2-3: Closed gas turbine engine cycle (from [6]).............................................................................. 10
Figure 2-4: Closed cycle T-s diagram (from [6])........................................................................................ 10
Figure 2-5: T-s diagram for an ideal jet propulsion cycle along with a turbojet engine schematic (from
[6]). ..................................................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 2-6: APU centrifugal compressor rotor with inducer vanes (from [3]). .......................................... 11
Figure 2-7: Combustion chambers (from [3])............................................................................................. 12
Figure 2-8: Fuel igniter (from [3]). ............................................................................................................. 13
Figure 2-9: APU turbines (from [3])........................................................................................................... 13
Figure 3-1: Cylindrical coordinate system (from [5])................................................................................. 15
Figure 3-2: Shape of rotor with velocity triangle (from [5])....................................................................... 16
Figure 3-3: Burner and turbine control volume between two vanes across a small step change (from [9]).
............................................................................................................................................................ 22
Figure 3-4: Convergent-divergent nozzle with supersonic exit (from [1]). ................................................ 31
Figure 3-5: Variation of specific rupture strength with service temperature (from [5]). ............................ 38
Figure 4-1: Constant area combustion chamber (from [10]). ..................................................................... 40
Figure 4-2: Constant area flow through a duct with heat addition (from [9])............................................. 41
Figure 4-3: Flow through a duct with variable area (from [9])................................................................... 42
Figure 4-4: Relative Mach number, stagnation temperature (K) and pressure (Pa) according to location in
the rotor (Case 1). ............................................................................................................................... 47
Figure 4-5: Variation of the absolute tangential velocity (m/s), rotor speed (m/s) and flow curvature (deg)
(Case 1). .............................................................................................................................................. 48
Figure D-1: PSFC and specific power comparison between APU cases and current engines.................... 71
Figure E-1: Case 1 relative Mach number. ................................................................................................. 76
vii
Figure E-2: Case 1 relative stagnation temperature (K).............................................................................. 76

Figure E-3: Case 1 relative stagnation pressure (Pa). ................................................................................. 76
Figure E-4: Case 1 stagnation temperature (K). ......................................................................................... 76
Figure E-5: Case 1 stagnation pressure (Case 1). ....................................................................................... 77
Figure E-6: Case 1 temperature (Case 1). ................................................................................................... 77
Figure E-7: Case 1 pressure (Case 1).......................................................................................................... 77
Figure E-8: Case 1 density (Case 1)............................................................................................................ 77
Figure E-9: Case 1 flow curvature (Case 1)................................................................................................ 77
Figure E-10: Case 1 rotor speed (Case 1). .................................................................................................. 77
Figure E-11: Case 1 specific heat (Case 1). ................................................................................................ 78
Figure E-12: Case 1 specific heat ratio (Case 1)......................................................................................... 78
Figure E-13: Case 1 tangential velocity (Case 1). ...................................................................................... 78
Figure E-14: Case 1 To-s diagram (Case 1). ............................................................................................... 78
Figure E-15: Case 1 Po-v diagram (Case 1). ............................................................................................... 78
Figure E-16: Variation of specific power takeoff with compressor pressure ratio (Case 1)....................... 79
Figure E-17: Variation of PSFC with compressor pressure ratio (Case 1). ................................................ 80
Figure E-18: Variation of compressor radius ratio and pressure ratio (Case 1).......................................... 80
Figure E-19: Variation of rotor radius ratio with compressor pressure ratio (Case 1)................................ 81
Figure E-20: Variation of disk thickness with compressor pressure ratio (Case 1). ................................... 81
Figure F-1: Relative Mach number (Case 2). ............................................................................................. 86
Figure F-2: Relative stagnation temperature (Case 2). ............................................................................... 86
Figure F-3: Relative stagnation pressure (Case 2). ..................................................................................... 86
Figure F-4: Stagnation temperature (Case 2). ............................................................................................. 86
Figure F-5: Stagnation pressure (Case 2).................................................................................................... 87
Figure F-6: Temperature (Case 2)............................................................................................................... 87
Figure F-7: Pressure (Case 2)...................................................................................................................... 87
Figure F-8: Density (Case 2)....................................................................................................................... 87
Figure F-9: Flow curvature (Case 2)........................................................................................................... 87
Figure F-10: Rotor speed (Case 2).............................................................................................................. 87
Figure F-11: Specific heat (Case 2). ........................................................................................................... 88
Figure F-12: Specific heat ratio (Case 2). ................................................................................................... 88
Figure F-13: Tangential velocity (Case 2). ................................................................................................. 88
Figure F-14: To-s diagram (Case 2). ........................................................................................................... 88
Figure F-15: Beginning of To-s diagram (Case 2). ..................................................................................... 88
viii
Figure F-16: End of To-s diagram (Case 2)................................................................................................. 88

Figure F-17: Po-s diagram (Case 2)............................................................................................................. 89
Figure F-18: Beginning of Po-s diagram (Case 2)....................................................................................... 89
Figure F-19: Variation of specific power takeoff with compressor pressure ratio (Case 2). ...................... 90
Figure F-20: Variation of PSFC with compressor pressure ratio (Case 2). ................................................ 90
Figure F-21: Variation of compressor radius ratio and pressure ratio (Case 2). ......................................... 91
Figure F-22: Variation of rotor radius ratio with compressor pressure ratio (Case 2)................................ 91
Figure F-23: Variation of disk thickness with compressor pressure ratio (Case 2). ................................... 92
Figure G-1: Relative Mach number (Case 3).............................................................................................. 97
Figure G-2: Relative stagnation temperature (Case 3)................................................................................ 97
Figure G-3: Relative stagnation pressure (Case 3). .................................................................................... 97
Figure G-4: Stagnation temperature (Case 3). ............................................................................................ 97
Figure G-5: Stagnation pressure (Case 3). .................................................................................................. 98
Figure G-6: Temperature (Case 3). ............................................................................................................. 98
Figure G-7: Pressure (Case 3)..................................................................................................................... 98
Figure G-8: Density (Case 3). ..................................................................................................................... 98
Figure G-9: Flow curvature (Case 3). ......................................................................................................... 98
Figure G-10: Rotor speed (Case 3). ............................................................................................................ 98
Figure G-11: Specific heat (Case 3)............................................................................................................ 99
Figure G-12: Specific heat ratio (Case 3). .................................................................................................. 99
Figure G-13: Tangential velocity (Case 3). ................................................................................................ 99
Figure G-14: To-s diagram (Case 3)............................................................................................................ 99
Figure G-15: Po-v diagram (Case 3). .......................................................................................................... 99
Figure H-1: Relative Mach number (Case 4)............................................................................................ 104
Figure H-2: Relative stagnation temperature (Case 4).............................................................................. 104
Figure H-3: Relative stagnation pressure (Case 4). .................................................................................. 104
Figure H-4: Stagnation temperature (Case 4). .......................................................................................... 104
Figure H-5: Stagnation pressure (Case 4). ................................................................................................ 105
Figure H-6: Temperature (Case 4). ........................................................................................................... 105
Figure H-7: Pressure (Case 4)................................................................................................................... 105
Figure H-8: Density (Case 4). ................................................................................................................... 105
Figure H-9: Flow curvature (Case 4). ....................................................................................................... 105
Figure H-10: Rotor speed (Case 4). .......................................................................................................... 105
Figure H-11: Specific heat (Case 4).......................................................................................................... 106
ix
Figure H-12: Specific heat ratio (Case 4). ................................................................................................ 106

Figure H-13: Tangential velocity (Case 4). .............................................................................................. 106
Figure H-14: To-s diagram (Case 4).......................................................................................................... 106
Figure H-15: Beginning of To-s diagram (Case 4).................................................................................... 106
Figure H-16: End of To-s diagram (Case 4). ............................................................................................. 106
Figure H-17: Po-s diagram (Case 4). ......................................................................................................... 107
Figure I-1: Sample rotor for Case 1 with side view (starting at station 3)................................................ 109
Figure J-1: Sample rotor for Case 2 with side view (starting at station 3)................................................ 111
Figure K-1: Sample rotor for Case 3 with side view (starting at station 3) .............................................. 113
Figure L-1: Sample rotor for Case 4 with side view (starting at station 3)............................................... 115
List of tables
Table 3-1: Ambient air equation input parameters. .................................................................................... 17
Table 3-2: Compressor equation input parameters. .................................................................................... 18
Table 3-3: Burner equation input parameters. ............................................................................................ 26
Table 3-4: Turbine equation input parameters. ........................................................................................... 32
Table 3-5: Burner exit flow variables. ........................................................................................................ 35
Table 3-6: Turbine exit flow variables........................................................................................................ 36
Table 4-1: Comparison of burner equations to simple flow example (drag and heat addtion)................... 41
Table 4-2: Comparison of burner equations to simple flow example (heat addition)................................. 42
Table 4-3: Comparison of turbine equations to simple flow example (variable area). ............................... 43
Table 4-4: Model Center input parameters with range limits. .................................................................... 44
Table 4-5: Model Center fixed input values. .............................................................................................. 44
Table 4-6: Model Center output constraints. .............................................................................................. 45
Table 4-7: Overall rotor and other properties (Case 1). .............................................................................. 46
Table 4-10: Overall rotor and other properties (Case 4). ............................................................................ 50
Table D-1: Airplane turboprop engine data. ............................................................................................... 68
Table D-2: Helicopter turboshaft engine data............................................................................................. 68
Table D-3: Aircraft (turboprop) and helicopter (turboshaft) dual-purpose engine data.............................. 69
Table D-4: Four-stroke gasoline generator engine data. ............................................................................. 69
Table D-5: Diesel generator engine data..................................................................................................... 70
Table E-1: Air and diffuser input parameter values (Case 1). .................................................................... 72
Table E-2: Compressor input parameter values (Case 1)............................................................................ 72
Table E-3: Burner input parameter values (Case 1).................................................................................... 73
Table E-4: Turbine input parameter values (Case 1). ................................................................................. 73
Table E-5: Air diffuser output values (Case 1). .......................................................................................... 74
Table E-6: Compressor output values (Case 1). ......................................................................................... 74
Table E-7: Burner output value (Case 1). ................................................................................................... 75
Table E-8: Turbine output value (Case 1)................................................................................................... 75
Table E-9: Rotor overall properties (Case 1). ............................................................................................. 76
Table E-10: Data to show Case 1 configuration is the optimum (Case 1 highlighted below). ................... 79
Table F-1: Air and diffuser input parameter values (Case 2)...................................................................... 82
Table F-2: Compressor input parameter values (Case 2)............................................................................ 82
xi
Table F-3: Burner input parameter values (Case 2). ................................................................................... 83

Table F-4: Turbine and stress input parameter values (Case 2).................................................................. 83
Table F-5: Air diffuser output values (Case 2). .......................................................................................... 84
Table F-6: Compressor output values (Case 2)........................................................................................... 84
Table F-7: Burner output value (Case 2). ................................................................................................... 85
Table F-8: Turbine output value (Case 2). .................................................................................................. 85
Table F-9: Rotor overall properties (Case 2). ............................................................................................. 86
Table F-10: Data to show Case 2 configuration is the optimum (Case 2 highlighted below). ................... 89
Table G-1: Air and diffuser input parameter values (Case 3). .................................................................... 93
Table G-2: Compressor input parameter values (Case 3). .......................................................................... 93
Table G-3: Burner input parameter values (Case 3). .................................................................................. 94
Table G-4: Turbine input parameter values (Case 3).................................................................................. 94
Table G-5: Air diffuser output values (Case 3)........................................................................................... 95
Table G-6: Compressor output values (Case 3). ......................................................................................... 95
Table G-7: Burner output value (Case 3).................................................................................................... 96
Table G-8: Turbine output value (Case 3). ................................................................................................. 96
Table G-9: Rotor overall properties (Case 3).............................................................................................. 97
Table H-1: Air and diffuser input parameter values (Case 4). .................................................................. 100
Table H-2: Compressor input parameter values (Case 4). ........................................................................ 100
Table H-3: Burner input parameter values (Case 4). ................................................................................ 101
Table H-4: Turbine and stress input parameter values (Case 4). .............................................................. 101
Table H-5: Air diffuser output values (Case 4)......................................................................................... 102
Table H-6: Compressor output values (Case 4). ....................................................................................... 102
Table H-7: Burner output value (Case 4).................................................................................................. 103
Table H-8: Turbine output value (Case 4). ............................................................................................... 103
Table H-9: Rotor overall properties (Case 4)............................................................................................ 104
xii
Nomenclature
Variables
Definition
Mrel
Relative Mach number
rel
Relative stagnation temperature ratio
rel
Relative stagnation pressure ratio
Stagnation temperature ratio
Stagnation pressure ratio
Torel
Relative stagnation temperature
Porel
Relative stagnation pressure
To
Stagnation temperature
Po
Stagnation pressure
Relative velocity
Temperature
Pressure
Density
Entropy
Specific volume
Mass flow rate
mf
Fuel mass flow rate
Fuel-to-air ratio
hHV
Fuel heating value
CD
Drag coefficient
Absolute Mach number
Absolute velocity
Blade speed
Impeller rotation speed
Gas constant
Cp
Specific heat
Ratio of specific heats
Heat addition per unit seconds
Work per unit seconds
PTO
Power takeoff per unit seconds
xiii
TH
Thermal efficiency
Area perpendicular to flow between two vanes
Impeller radius
Vane height
Relative flow and blade angle
Absolute flow angle
Nb
Number of blades
Subscripts
Definition
Engine components
d
Diffuser
Compressor
Burner (combustion chamber)
Turbine
Station (location) numbering

0
Ambient air (freestream)
Diffuser entry
Diffuser exit/Compressor entry
2t
Compressor entry at the blade tip
Compressor exit/Burner entry
Burner exit/Turbine entry
4.5
Location close to sonic point
Turbine exit
Cylindrical coordinate system

r
Radial
Tangential
Axial
xiv
Chapter 1
1.1
Introduction
About small gas turbine engines

From the beginning, gas turbine engine manufactures considered large and small engines as two
separate categories with each having different applications. Both had their own unique set of problems
and challenges. With the introduction of large gas turbine engines in the 1940s, military aircrafts followed
by civilian ones, began using them in place of piston engines. Since then, the power and size of these
engines grew significantly compared to piston engines.
Figure 1-1: Williams International FJ44 turbofan engine, small gas turbine engine (from [1]).
Figure 1-2: Pratt & Whitney J58 turbojet engine, large gas turbine engine (from [2]).
The usage of piston engines continued for low power applications. For this reason, the evolution
of small gas turbine engines occurred slowly. Over time, this engine was the power plant of choice for a
variety of applications such as:
a) Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPV) and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
b) Decoy, tactical and strategic missiles
c) Military trainer aircraft
d) Special purpose aircraft such as Vertical Takeoff and Landing (VTOL) aircraft
e) Helicopters
They provided greater operational capabilities in terms of speed, payload, altitude and reliability than
piston engines.
Small gas turbine engines were quite different mechanically from their larger engine counterparts.
There were factors such as manufacturing limitations and mechanical design problems. This prevented
direct scaling of large engine design and performance. For example, internal engine pressures were about
the same for small and large engines [1]. Therefore, it was necessary that the casing of small engines be
approximately as thick as large engine casings. As a result, small engines paid an inherent structural
weight penalty. Another example was the difficulty that came about during the development of smaller
and lighter fuel controls that had the same amount of reliability like larger engines [1]. Small engine fuel
controls had critical accuracy problems because of the lower rates of fuel flow. Gradually, these scaling
issues declined due to aggressive efforts in technology development. The advances produced by these
efforts allowed the small engine to overcome its problems related to size and attain outstanding
performance.
The military turned to the gas turbine engine manufacturers to develop small gas turbine engines.
This attracted manufacturers to the potential of military contracts and a profitable market once they were
developed. By late 1950s, the military had plenty of success with these engines such that civilian aircraft
started using them. Piston engine makers saw a need to get into the small gas turbine engine business to
maintain their market position and profitability level. Established large engine producers seized the
opportunity to expand their business by applying their technical expertise to the development of small gas
turbine engines [1]. These incentives and potentials led to an array of companies that wanted to enter the
small gas turbine engine business.
Next is a chart that shows the North American companies that developed and built small gas
turbine engines from the early 1940s through the present:
Figure 1-3: Years spent in the small gas turbine engine business (from [1]).
After early efforts by Westinghouse, it phased out of the small gas turbine engine market in the
I950s. Other US companies also became active in studying, developing, and manufacturing these engines
for aircraft propulsion in the 1940s. These companies included Fredric Flader, Boeing, Fairchild, and
West Engineering. The military sponsored much of their work, and this led to engines that powered both
piloted and unmanned aircraft. Each of these companies eventually phased out of the small gas turbine
engine business. One company, Williams International, began developing small gas turbine engines using
its own funds with the philosophy that once it had successfully developed an engine, there would be a
market for it [1].
Another relevant activity underway during the 1940s was small gas turbine component and nonaircraft research and development. In 1943, Garrett began work on Project A [1]. This project consisted of
a two-stage compressor for aircraft cabin pressurization, which later led to turbine environmental control
systems, jet engine starters, and auxiliary power units (APU). This made Garrett the first company to
begin developing APUs.
1.2
Auxiliary power unit (APU) and purpose of research

An APU is essentially a small gas turbine engine. It is similar in construction and purpose to a
turboshaft engine, seen in Figure 1-4. A turboshaft engine differs from a turboprop engine primarily in the
function of the engine shaft. Instead of driving a propeller, the turboshaft engine connects to a
transmission system or gearbox to drive a mechanical load. Therefore, shaft power is the desired output.
Figure 1-4: Turboshaft engine (from [2]).
Like the turboshaft engine, an APU consists of three primary components. They are the
compressor, a combustion chamber (burner) and a turbine section. Figure 1-5 shows an example of an
APU. In commercial and military aircraft, shaft power from APUs generate electrical power that are used
for equipments such as lights, onboard computers, televisions, refrigerators, microwave ovens, and coffee
pots. In addition, compressed air supplied by the APU goes for aircraft air-conditioning, heating, and
ventilation. Another use of the shaft power is to run pumps.
Figure 1-5: Auxiliary power unit (from [3]).
Figure 1-6 shows a typical location of an APU on modern jetliners. The opening at the aircraft
rear indicates the APU exhaust vent.
Figure 1-6: APU with exhaust vent at the rear of the aircraft (from [4]).
The purpose of this research is to investigate the possibility of combining the three main
components of an APU into a single centrifugal impeller, similar to the compressor design seen in Figure
1-7. The idea of having a power producing turbomachine with only one rotating component suggests that
the engine could be lighter, cheaper, and smaller. This in turn could allow it to produce high specific
power takeoffs (power takeoff per unit mass flow rate of air). Power takeoff is the amount of mechanical
power extracted from the shaft to run equipment such as a generator or hydraulic pump. A numerical
simulation of the rotor is to take place in this investigation. Chapter 3 in this thesis shows the derivation
of the equations for the analysis. The analysis could apply equally to APUs, turboshaft engines, and so on.
Figure 1-7: The new rotor with the combined components will look something like this compressor impeller
(from [5]).
Chapter 2
2.1
Literature review
History of the APU
2.1.1 Project A
In the spring of 1943, Garrett (today known as AlliedSignal) started to design and develop a twostage compressor for a cabin air compressor. The company called this classified program Project A. Each
stage was a centrifugal compressor rotor. The following are the specifications of each rotor:
a) Mass flow rate of 45 lb/min at a pressure ratio of 1.75
b) 7.25 inch diameter
c) 8 vanes (blades)
d) 30 degree backward curvature (measured from the tangent of the outer diameter)
e) Shrouded cast aluminum impellers
f) Adiabatic efficiency of 78% at the design point
Although the unit was just a laboratory development tool, Project A demonstrated early on that
high efficiencies over broad operating ranges were characteristics of the backward curved compressor
rotor design. This knowledge and experience became an important consideration for aircraft cabin air
conditioning equipment. It was also the foundation for Garretts first small gas turbine design called the
Black Box [1].
2.1.2 The Black Box

Boeing wanted a lightweight, compact, self-powered unit that could furnish AC and DC current
to its Model 377 Stratocruiser aircrafts electrical systems. In addition, it must provide airflow for cabin
pressurization and air conditioning. It should also supply hot air for the wing anti-icing system. Boeing
needed a complete unit in 18 months. Garrett accepted the job and decided to make a small gas turbine
engine. Preliminary work started in the spring of 1945.
As the design progressed, the unit was nicknamed the Black Box due in part to the secrecy of the
project and the fact it had so many gadgets made it look like a magical black box. The engine consisted of
a three stage, backward curved centrifugal compressor, a burner, and a single stage axial turbine. A
geared power takeoff shaft was to run a blower and a generator/alternator. Compressor bleed air routed
through a cooling turbine would generate 40 hp back into the shaft. In addition, the wing anti-icing
system would receive a portion of the exhaust gas. Also in this Black Box were primary and secondary
heat exchangers, automatic controls, regulators, and air ducts [11]. Figure 2-1 shows the Black Box as it
was being assembled.
Figure 2-1: Garrett Black Box (from [1]).
Component testing began by mid 1946 and showed excellent overall compressor efficiency in the
neighborhood of 81 to 82%. The high compressor efficiency was not surprising as the technology flowed
directly from Project A. The Black Box pressure ratio was three as opposed to 1.75 in Project A. A threestage compressor achieved this ratio. The burner also performed well in tests. This was an important
accomplishment for Garrett, as the company had never before built a burner.
The turbine wheel component testing did not occur due to the unavailability of a suitable test rig
with the capacity to absorb its power. Therefore, turbine testing could only occur until the machine was
ready to run. An external power source drove the Black Box after assembly late in the fall of 1946.
However, it could not generate sufficient power to run by itself. After a month of trying to get the Black
Box to self-run, engineers found the untested turbine component to be the problem. With an efficiency of
less than 70%, the turbine engine was on the borderline of being self-supporting. By that time, there was
insufficient time left to redesign the turbine and meet the contract deadline. Subsequently, Garrett had to
cancel the Black Box program at the end of December 1946. The complexity of the unit, low turbine
efficiency, and tight development schedule killed the Black Box project [1].
Despite the cost of the program to Garrett and the problems that it caused with Boeing, there were
some important lessons learned, particularly what not to do. Further work on axial turbines discontinued
at Garrett in favor of the radial inflow turbine. The highly successful backward curved centrifugal
compressor continued in future Garrett projects. The knowledge gained from building a successful
combustor was part of the technology base gained from the program. These efforts produced here carried
on in future Garrett engines especially in the GTC43/44, the companys first successful gas turbine engine
[1].
2.1.3 The GTC43/44

While the Black Box program was still running, the Navy was looking for a 35 hp gas turbine
starter. That was the power needed to start the 5525 hp Allison XT40 turboprop engines in the Navy
sponsored Convair XPSY-1 flying boat. Agreeing to develop such a unit, Garrett received a contract in
early 1947 by the Navy for the starter.
The engine that Garrett ultimately designed was the GTC43/44. The project started after the
termination of the Black Box program. The design work took place between March and April 1947. The
GTC43/44 contained a two-stage backward curved centrifugal compressor (first stage seen in Figure 2-2)
with an overall pressure ratio of three. From the compressor, two outlets connected with elbows led to
two independent tubular steel combustion chambers. This engine would have a single stage radial inflow
turbine. The unit was to deliver 43 lb of air at 44 lb per square inch absolute pressure, hence its name
GTC43/44 [1].
Figure 2-2: GTC43/44 first stage backward curved centrifugal compressor (from [1]).
On July 1, 1947, turbine wheel tests showed 82 to 84% efficiency. Garrett conducted the first
self-sustaining test run of the GTC43/44 on August 23, 1947. On June 2, 1948, the engine passed its 200hour Navy endurance test and it was the first small gas turbine engine to pass such a test. Garrett began
production of the starter in 1948. Its first flight service was on April 18, 1950 in the Convair XPSY-1
flying boat. Two GTC43/44s provided compressed air for starting the main engines and for driving
alternators that powered the XPSY electrical systems. In an effort to further its applications, the North
American A2J used a mobile ground power version. The first commercial use of the GTC43/44 was in a
ground vehicle for starting the Lockheed Electra.
However, the GTC43/44 was not without problems [1]. Automatic fuel controls, designed to
provide fully automatic starting and overload protection, proved unreliable in service. The twin
combustor design also proved to be a problem. The combustor-turbine coupling became extremely hot
and it was difficult to find a suitable fireproof enclosure. The radial inflow turbine also had difficulties
such as cracks on the turbine rims. Considerable engineering effort went into solving such field service,
packaging, and design problems.
The GTC43/44 was however a commercial success and more than 500 units were manufactured
between 1949 and early 1950s for a variety of applications. It was Garrett's first successful gas turbine
engine. It was also the start of a major new product line, the gas turbine auxiliary power unit (APU),
which Garrett dominated the world markets through the 1990s. The GTC43/44 also provided a
technology base for future Garrett prime propulsion engines.
2.2
Ideal Brayton Cycle and ideal jet propulsion cycle

George Brayton first proposed the Brayton cycle for use in the piston engine that he developed
around 1870 [6]. Today gas turbine engines use it when both the compression and expansion processes
take place in rotating machinery. Ambient air, drawn into a compressor, rises in both temperature and
pressure [7]. Then burning of fuel occurs when the air proceeds into a combustion chamber (burner). The
resulting high-temperature gas then expands in a turbine, and exits the engine. In an APU, this expansion
process produces shaft power. When the exhaust gas simply leaves the engine, this process is called an
open cycle. Gas turbine engines usually operate on an open cycle. Figure 2-3 shows a closed cycle called
the Brayton cycle. This is when a constant-pressure heat rejection process replaces the exhaust air from
the open cycle.
Figure 2-3: Closed gas turbine engine cycle (from
Figure 2-4: Closed cycle T-s diagram (from [6]).
[6]).
Figure 2-4 shows the temperature-entropy (T-s) diagram for a closed cycle. For an ideal Brayton
cycle, the following processes happen:
a) Isentropic compression (2-3)
b) Constant pressure heat addition or combustion (3-4)
c) Isentropic expansion (4-5)
d) Constant pressure heat rejection (5-1)
Figure 2-4 shows the maximum temperature occurring at the end of the combustion process. Material
constraints contribute to this temperature limitation.
Aircraft gas turbine engines operate on an open cycle called a jet propulsion cycle. The ideal jet
propulsion cycle differs from the ideal Brayton cycle simply that the gases do not expand to the ambient
pressure in the turbine [6]. Instead, it expands in the turbine to produce just sufficient power to drive the
compressor and, if any, auxiliary equipment. The equipment could be a small generator or hydraulic
pump. Figure 2-5 shows a turbojet engine and its ideal T-s diagram. Ambient air pressure rises slightly as
it decelerates in the diffuser. Air, compressed in the compressor, mixes and burns with jet fuel in the
combustion chamber at constant pressure. This high pressure-temperature gas then partially expands in
the turbine to produce enough power to run the compressor. For a turbojet, the gas exiting the turbine
expands to ambient pressure in the nozzle to produce thrust. The ideal T-s diagram for an APU will be
similar to the one below.
10
Figure 2-5: T-s diagram for an ideal jet propulsion cycle along with a turbojet engine schematic (from [6]).
2.3
How current APUs work
Figure 2-6: APU centrifugal compressor rotor with inducer vanes (from [3]).
Air drawn into the engine first goes through a centrifugal compressor rotor. Curved vanes at the
compressor intake area, called inducers, guide the air into the compressor. Rotors without inducers are
usually very noisy due to flow separation [5]. As the air passes through the compressor, it accelerates
outward at high speed and slows down in a ring of stationary vanes called the diffuser. This causes the air
pressure to rise. Immediately after the compressor section, an air bleed system is usually present. This
releases a portion of the airflow in the engine. Since this bleed air is very energetic, it can pressurize
aircraft cabins or drive small cold turbines to develop shaft horsepower. Valves or venturis control this air
bleed to within pre-determined limits [3].
11
Figure 2-7: Combustion chambers (from [3]).
The diffuser sends this air to the combustion chamber. The chamber causes it to heat and expand
[3]. Combustion chambers vary in design but they all work in the same way. A metal liner inside the
engine holds a flame in place by injecting air through a number of holes and orifices. One or more nozzles
then spray fuel into the chamber where it burns continuously once ignited. With about a quarter of the air
burned through the APU, the rest mixes with the combustion exhaust to lower its temperature so that it
can pass through the turbine.
Two basic types of combustion chambers exist. They are the can type or the annular type [3]. The
can type is mounted on one side of the engine. Heat resistant ducting guides the combustion gases from
the combustion chamber on to the turbine nozzle. In some cases, there are two combustion chambers on
either side of the APU. It has the advantage of being easy to remove from the APU. An annular
combustion chamber placed around the axis of the engine takes the form of a cylinder. It usually guides
the exhaust gases directly onto the turbine nozzle. This chamber design allows the APU to maintain a
small size.
A mechanical or electronic governing system controls the amount of fuel supplied to the
combustion chamber. The system must ensure that the engine starts and accelerates smoothly without
getting too hot [3]. It must also keep the engine running at constant speed regardless of load. Fuel pumps
normally consist of gear pumps or small piston pumps operated by a rotating plate arrangement. The fuel
pump usually receives power from a separate electric motor.
12
Figure 2-8: Fuel igniter (from [3]).
The ignition of APUs is similar to that of larger engines. High-energy ignition is the most
common ignition. A capacitor, charged to a high voltage (about 3,000V), is discharged into a special
sparkplug [3]. The charge comes from a DC inverter, which steps up a battery supply. The sparkplug
extrudes into the combustion chamber and is close to the fuel nozzle. A cold engine is quite difficult to
light. The energy from the discharged spark is as much as several joules. It occurs across the surface of
the plug at a rate of one to two sparks per second. Some models of engines are equipped with automotive
type ignition. Here a trembler induction coil provides a very high voltage (about 20,000 to 30,000V) but
with a low energy spark [3].
Figure 2-9: APU turbines (from [3]).
The hot gases generated by the combustion process drive one or more turbine wheels that create
shaft power. A single shaft connects the turbine, compressor and an external load (via a gearbox)
13
together. A second mechanically independent turbine can also drive the load. Thus, this engine is
equipped with two shafts. In most APUs, the compressor uses about two thirds of the mechanical power
developed [3].
There are two types of turbines found in APUs. They are the inflow radial (IFR) and axial
turbine. The design of the IFR turbine is similar to a centrifugal compressor rotor but is made of heat
resistant metal. A nozzle ring directs hot gases from the combustion chamber inwards and tangentially on
to the radial blades of the turbine. The gases flow inward and then along the axis of the wheel and out
through an exhaust duct. For axial turbines, a disc is fitted with aerofoil cross-sectional blades around its
circumference. A ring of similar static blades that form a nozzle directs hot gases onto it. The turbine disc
and nozzle are also made of heat resistant metal. Axial turbines can be put together to form multiple
stages. Small engines generally employ a maximum of two turbine stages [3]. Compressor bleed air keep
the turbine and nozzle assembly cool by allowing it to flow around the components.
Twin-shaft APUs are less common than the single-shaft ones. Both normally drive a load via a
reduction gearbox. The same gearbox may also drive engine accessories such as fuel and oil pumps. A
typical load is an electrical generator or a mechanical pump. A single-shaft engine generally cannot
accept any kind of load until it has started and accelerated to operating speed. Most aircraft APUs are of
single-shaft designs. Twin-shaft APUs are especially useful for starting larger engines and are known as
gas turbine starters (GTS). Most of the twin-shaft APUs work as a GTS unit [3].
Lubrication of APU bearings occur in a similar way to larger propulsion engines. That is, by
spraying small oil jets onto them. A pressure pump with a relief valve pressurizes the system feeding the
jets. Oil normally returns to a reservoir under gravity or collected by a second larger capacity pump. The
larger capacity pump is required as the oil picks up a lot of air and can become foamy. The oil circulating
around an APU usually becomes hot such that it passes through some sort of cooling device like a fancooled radiator. Oil pumps are generally gear types. However, compressor air can also pressurize the
lubricating oil. On some models, a separate electric motor circulates the oil around the engine. Oil seals
keep the oil around the bearing assemblies so that it would not enter the combustion process. Carbon seals
are common in APUs. A ring or disc of carbon is spring loaded against a highly polished rotating surface
through which oil cannot escape. APU lubricating oils are synthetic and thinner than the ones used in
piston engines.
APUs are often started by electric motors. A heavy-duty motor can accelerate the APU to light up
speed and assist the engine until it becomes self-sustaining. Most APUs self sustain at about 25 to 30% of
their rated speed [3]. Self-sustaining speed is the point where the compressor begins to develop significant
gauge pressure. When this happens, the mechanical load on the starter motor reduces and its power
automatically cuts off.
14
Chapter 3
3.1
Formulas used for the APU
General information
As mentioned before, the new APU combines a compressor, burner and turbine into a single
centrifugal impeller (rotor). The rotor consists of a number of blades (usually curved), also called vanes,
arranged in a regular pattern around a rotating shaft, as seen in Figure 1-7. First, it is essential to become
familiar with the variables and their accompanying subscripts for this research in the Nomenclature
section. The subscripts describe the following [8]:
a) Rotor components
b) Location within the APU (station number)
c) Coordinate system for the velocities
This rotor will use the cylindrical coordinate system for convenience. There are no axial velocity
components (z-direction) within the rotor since it is radial in design. Figure 3-1 shows the absolute
velocity in this coordinate system.
Figure 3-1: Cylindrical coordinate system (from [5]).
A velocity triangle graphically relates the velocities C, W and U. Figure 3-2 shows the general
shape of the rotor along with the velocity triangle:
15
Figure 3-2: Shape of rotor with velocity triangle (from [5]).
Figure 3-2 indicates a backward leaning configuration. This means the angle here is positive.
The angle of the relative velocity is the same as the blade angle. Equations in this chapter are valid for
any configuration of velocity triangles. Figure 3-1 and Figure 3-2 give the following relationships for the
velocities:
C = U-W
Cr = Wr
Cz = Wz
(1)
C2 = Cr2+C2+Cz2
W2 = Wr2+W2+Wz2
The following sections show the equations needed to analyze the turbomachinery cycle of this new rotor.
Each portion of the rotor has its own set of equations.
The entire analysis in this study ignores the effects of gravity and the gas is continuous (motion of
individual molecules does not have to be considered). In addition, the viscosity of the flow, magnetic and
electrical effects are also negligible.
16
3.2
Ambient air and diffuser
Table 3-1: Ambient air equation input parameters.
Input
Description
M0
Freestream Mach number
T0
Freestream temperature
P0
Freestream pressure
Specific heat ratio
s0
Freestream entropy
Air gas constant
Diffuser stagnation temperature ratio
Diffuser stagnation pressure ratio
Like most gas turbine engines, this APU has a diffuser at the inlet. The diffuser assumptions here
are:
a) Steady flow
b) Calorically perfect
Ambient air first passes through the diffuser before entering the compressor. The equations used to
determine ambient air and diffuser flow properties are:
a) Specific heat of ambient air:
0
R
0 1
Cp0
(2)
b) Ratio of To0 (stagnation temperature at station 0) to T0, r:

r
1+
1 1 2
M
2 0
(3)
c) Ratio of Po0 (stagnation pressure at station 0) to P0, r:

0
0 1
(4)
d) Ambient air density

0
P0
R T0
e) Diffuser exit stagnation temperature:
17
(5)
To2
d r T0
(6)
Po2
d r P0
(7)
f) Diffuser exit stagnation pressure:
3.3
Compressor
Table 3-2: Compressor equation input parameters.
Input
Description
M2rel
Inlet relative Mach number
2t
Inlet tip (blade edge at inlet outer diameter) flow angle
Outlet blade angle
ec
Polytropic efficiency
Inlet hub-to-tip ratio
U3/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
Allowable outlet tip speed ratio
C2t/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
Inlet swirl parameter
Wr3/U3
Outlet flow coefficient
The first portion of the rotor is the centrifugal compressor similar to the one in Figure 1-7.
Assumptions for the compressor are:
a) Steady-flow adiabatic compression
b) Calorically perfect
The Hill and Peterson textbook [5] provided all the following equations necessary to determine the
compressor properties except two that needed derivation as shown in Appendix A:
a) Inlet tip temperature:
2
Cz2t
0 1
T2t To2 1
2 R T
0
o2
C2t
0 R To2
(8)
For Equation (8):

2
C2t
0 1
M 2
cos ( 2t) 1
2rel
2 R T
0 o2
2
Cz2t
0 R To2
1+
0 1
2
( ))2
M 2rel cos 2t
b) Inlet tip pressure:
18
(9)
Po2
P2t
(10)
0 1
To2
T
2t
c) Inlet tip density:
P2t
2t
(11)
R T2t
d) Inlet relative stagnation temperature:

To2rel
0 1
T2t 1 +
M 2rel
(12)
e) Inlet relative stagnation pressure:

0
To2rel
Po2rel P2t
T2t
0 1
(13)
f) Stagnation temperature ratio:
1 + 0 1
2
W r3
U3

1
tan ( 3)
U3
0 R To2

Cz2t
C2t
C2t
+
tan ( 2t)
0 R To2
0 R To2
0 R To2
(14)
2
U3
0 R To2
g) Adiabatic efficiency:
ec
c =
c 1
(15)
c 1
h) Stagnation pressure ratio:

0
i)
1 + c( c 1)
0 1
(16)
Absolute outlet Mach number:

a
M3
1
0 1
2
19
(17)
For Equation (17):
j)
2
W r3
tan ( 3) +
2 1
U3

U3
0 R To2
W r3
U
3
(18)
Relative outlet Mach number (Equation 1 in Appendix A):

U3
Wr3
U3
( )
M 3rel
cos 3
0 R T o2
c
1+
0 1
2
(19)
2
M3
k) Outlet absolute stagnation temperature:
l)
T o3 = c d r T 0
(20)
P o3 = c d r P 0
(21)
Outlet absolute stagnation pressure:
m) Outlet relative stagnation temperature (Equation 2 in Appendix A):

To3rel
0 1
0 1
2
2 1 +
M3
2
To3 1
M 3 M 3rel
(22)
n) Outlet relative stagnation pressure:

Po3
Po3rel
T
o3rel
To3
0 1
(23)
o) Outlet temperature:
To3rel
T3
1+
0 1
2
M 3rel
p) Outlet pressure:
20
(24)
Po3rel
P3
To3rel
T
3
(25)
0 1
q) Outlet relative velocity:
2 Cp0 To3rel T3
W3
(26)
r) Outlet density:
P3
3 =
(27)
R T 3
s) Dimensionless impeller rotation:

1
m3
Po2
t)
2 c
( c R To2) 4
C2t
c R T o2
2
Cz2t

tan 2t
c R T o2

( )
c 1
Cz2t
c R T o2
C2t
2
(2 y )
c R T o2
c 1
Cz2t
c R T o2
C2t
c R T o2
y 1 y dy
(28)
Radius ratio:
U3
0 R T o2
r3
C2t
r2t
0 R To2
Cz2t
0 R To2
(29)
( )
tan 2t
u) Outlet blade height to radius ratio:

1
0 + 1
b3
0 1
2 r3
1 c
r
2t
r3
2 1 +
1 + c
( 0 1)
U3
W r3

1
tan ( 3)
U3
0 R To2
(30)
0 1
v) Outlet rotor speed:

U3
U3
0 R To2
0 R To2
w) Inlet rotor tip speed:
21
(31)
r3
U 2t = U 3
r2t

(32)
x) Mass flow rate to outlet area ratio:

m3
A3
3 W 3
(33)
y) Outlet entropy:
s3
( )
( )
s 0 + Cp0 ln c R ln c
(34)
z) Specific power:
Wc
= C p0 (To3 To 2 )
m3
3.4
(35)
Burner and turbine

After the compressor, the rotor vanes extend to include a burner followed by a turbine. It is
necessary to select the governing equations for both components. The best way is to choose the
generalized quasi-one-dimensional compressible flow equations. In general, these equations are to take
into account the following effects:
a) Flow area change
b) Heat exchange
c) Work done by or on the flow
d) Drag force on the flow
e) Mass addition (fuel) into the flow
Figure 3-3: Burner and turbine control volume between two vanes across a small step change (from [9]).
22
First, define a control volume over a differentially short portion of the flow as seen in Figure 3-3.
The assumptions here are steady flow and that the added fuel does not alter the gas properties
significantly. Then select the governing equations based on the following principles:
a) Conservation of angular momentum
b) Conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics)
c) Equation of state
d) Conservation of mass
e) Conservation of linear momentum
f) Relative stagnation temperature equation
g) Relative stagnation pressure equation
h) Absolute stagnation temperature equation
i)
Relative Mach number equation
j)
Absolute stagnation pressure equation
k) Entropy equation
The textbook by Oosthuizen and Carscallen [9] provides some of the equations while the others required
derivation, as seen in Appendix B. The equations here assumed constant specific heats. By assuming the
change in Cp is very small across the differential step size, it is variable using the following formula [6]:
28.11
kJ
kmol K
+ 0.1967 10
Cp =
kJ
kmol K
T + 0.4802 10
kJ
kmol K
28.97
T 1.966 10
kJ
kmol K
(36)
kg
kmol
Therefore, the burner and turbine equations are thermally perfect. The specific heat ratio is then:
=
Cp
Cp R
(37)
3.4.1 Burner equations

For the new rotor, the flow in the burner is subsonic. This allows the combustion process to take
place since it is difficult to place a flame in the flow to ignite the fuel if the velocities are too fast.
Equations 1 through 9 and 11 from Appendix B describe the flow through the burner vanes. The drag
coefficient seen in the conservation of linear momentum equation represents the flame holder located only
at the beginning of the burner. The equations for this component are:
a) Conservation of energy and angular momentum combination:
23
2 h + U2 W2
2
d( m)
W
d( W) d( T )
U d( U)
HV b
1
2 Cp T
Cp T W
Cp T
T
(38)
b) Equation of state:
d( )
d( T )
d( P)
=0
(39)
c) Conservation of mass:
d( W)
d( )
d( m)
d( A )
(40)
d) Conservation of linear momentum:

d( W)
d( m)
d( P)
P
( )
1
= d CD
2
(41)
e) Relative stagnation temperature equation:
( )
d To
To
T orel d T orel
U W sin( ) d( W)
U d( U) W d( U sin( ) )
=
T orel
W
To
Cp T o
Cp T o
(42)
f) Relative stagnation pressure equation:
d Porel
Porel
M rel
2
d T orel
T orel
+ M rel
d( m)
M rel
( )
d CD
(43)
g) Absolute stagnation temperature equation:
( )
d To
To
T d( T ) W ( W U sin( ) ) d( W)
U d( U ) W d( U sin( ) )
=
To T
W
Cp T o
Cp T o
(44)
h) Relative Mach number equation:

M rel =
i)
Absolute stagnation pressure equation:
To
P o = P orel
T orel
j)
(45)
R T
(46)
Entropy equation:
s
To
Po
s 3 + Cp ln
R ln
To3
Po3
Notice that Equations (38) through (44) are differential equations that require a numerical solution.
24
(47)
3.4.2 Burner input parameters and method of solving equations

In Equations (38) through (47), the specified variables are A, , U, To CD, hHV, and b. The
outline below shows how to deal with these variables:
a) Specify the radius ratio r4/r3 and the number of iteration steps, nb.
b) Next, consider the radius variation along the burner flow to be r = r3+r (r is the difference between r
as it varies along the burner and r3). At the inlet, r (or r3) is zero when r = r3. The equation for r/r3 is:
r
= 1+
r3
(48)
r3
c) At station 4, r/r3 is r4/r3 = (r4/r3)-1. It follows that the small step change is d(r/r3) = (r4/r3)/nb or:
r4
r
d
r3
r3
(49)
nb
d) It is now possible to vary the quantity r/r3 starting with zero in steps of d(r/r3) from index i = 0 to nb
as follows:
r
r3
i d
(50)
r3
This also allows the variation of r/r3 from one to r4/r3.

e) Vary the flow area as the ratio A/A3 using the second order polynomial below:
A
A3
r + Y2 r
r
r3
3
= 1 + Y1
(51)
The variables Y1 and Y2 are specified coefficients.

f) Obtain the variation of angle using the following polynomial:
r + S2 r
= 3 + S1
r
r3
3
(52)
The variables S1 and S2 are specified coefficients. The initial value of is 3.

g) Define the change in rotor speed using:
r
U = U 3
r3
(53)
h) Assuming a linear variation of To (stagnation temperature) with initial value To3 and final value To4
(maximum stagnation temperature in burner) gives:
25
T o = T o3 +
T o4 T o3
r4
r3
(54)
r3
Appendix B shows the derivation of Equation (54).

i)
Specify a drag coefficient, CD for the flame holder along with the fuel heating value, hHV and burner
efficiency, b [10].
The second-order polynomials in Equations (51) and (52) are chosen for convenience; other variations
with r are possible. Table 3-3 summarizes the input parameters for the burner:
Table 3-3: Burner equation input parameters.
Input
Description
r4/r3
Burner radius ratio
Y1, Y2 A/A3 second order polynomial coefficients

S1, S2
second order polynomial coefficients
To4
Maximum burner stagnation temperature
CD
Flame holder drag coefficient
hHV
Fuel heating value
Burner efficiency
nb
Number of iteration steps
With the input parameters established, it is necessary to show how to solve Equations (38)
through (47). For Equations (38) through (44), they give the following form:
2
W
1
Cp T
0
1
1
0
1
0
P
1
0
2
U W sin ( )
0
0
Cp To
0
0
0
T
W ( W U sin ( ) )
0
To
Cp To
2 h HV b + U W
2 Cp T
Torel
To
2
0
0
M rel
2
0
1
0
M rel
0
Inverting the matrix in Equation (55) gives:
26
d ( T)
d ( m)
d( W )
W
d ( P)
P
d( )
d Torel
Torel
d Porel
Porel
U d ( U)
Cp T
d
(A)
1
d ( CD)
d ( To ) U d( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
T +
Cp To
o
2
M rel
d ( CD)
d ( To ) + U d( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
To
Cp To
(55)
d ( T)
d ( m)
d( W )
W
d ( P)
P
d( )
d Torel
Torel
d Porel
Porel
2
W
1
0
Cp T
0
1
1
0
1
0
P
1
0
2
U W sin ( )
0
0
Cp To
0
0
0
T
W ( W U sin ( ) )
To
Cp To
2 h HV b + U W
M rel
Torel
To
2 Cp T
M rel
U d ( U)
Cp T
d
(A)
1
d ( CD)
(56)
d
T
( o) U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
+
T
Cp To
o
2
M rel
d ( CD)
d( To) + U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
To
Cp To
Initial flow values for the burner are the compressor exit properties. Solving Equation (56) numerically
from r/r3 = 1 to r4/r3 in steps of d(r/r3) gives the following flow properties:
T
i 1
i 1
d ( T) T
T
i1
d(W ) W
W i1
d ( P) P
P i1
i 1 +
d( )
i 1

i 1
Porel
+
i 1
Porel
i
To
To
i 1
d ( Porel)
Porel
P
i 1
orel
d ( To )
To
T
o i1
m m + d ( m) m

A A
3 i 3 i1 m A 3 i1
W
M rel
i R T
i
i
Po
i
To
i
Porel
i Torel
i
i1
To i
Poi
s 3 + Cp ln
R ln
P
i
To3
o3
27
(57)
The subscripts i-1 and i refer to the index before and after the differential control volume seen in Figure
3-3. All the variables on the right hand side of Equation (56) are at index i-1 (except the constants) and it
follows that:
d( A )
A A
A

3 i A3 i 1
A
A
3 i 1
( )
d ( U sin ( ) )
U sin i U sin i 1
i
i 1
(58)
U U
d ( U)
i 1
( )
To To
i
i 1
d To
At the exit, the burner flow variables in Equation (57) will use the subscript four. Knowing that the
amount of fuel added is mf = m4-m3 gives the burner fuel-to-air ratio defined as f = mf/m3 or:
m4
m3
(59)
The ratio m4/m3 = (m4/A3)/(m3/A3). In the event f is an input, then the To distribution would require
calculation. Next, using the definition of angular momentum [12] from Appendix B and C = UW*sin(), the specific power of the burner is:
m
Wb
= 4 U 4 ( U 4 W4 sin( 4 )) U 3 ( U 3 W3 sin( 3 ))
m3
m3
(60)
3.4.3 Turbine equations

To produce as much power as possible, the flow will have to exit at high relative Mach numbers
to help spin the rotor. Like the burner, Equations 1 through 8 along with 10 and 12 in Appendix B
describe the flow through the turbine but without the heat addition, mass addition and drag force terms.
They are:
a) Conservation of energy and angular momentum combination:
Cp T
d(W )
W
d ( T)
U d ( U)
Cp T
(61)
b) Equation of state:
d( )
d ( T)
T
d ( P)
28
(62)
c) Conservation of mass:
d(W )
W
d( )
d( A )
(63)
d) Conservation of linear momentum:

d(W )
W
d ( P)
P
(64)
e) Relative stagnation temperature equation:
( )
d To
To
Torel d Torel
U W sin ( ) d ( W )
Cp To
W
To
Torel
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
Cp To
(65)
f) Relative stagnation pressure equation:
d Porel
Porel
M rel
2
d Torel
Torel
(66)
g) Absolute stagnation temperature equation:
( )
d To
To
W ( W U sin ( ) ) d ( W )
T d ( T)
To T
Cp To
W
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
Cp To
(67)
h) Relative Mach number equation:

M rel =
i)
(68)
R T
Absolute stagnation pressure equation:
To
Po Po4
To4
j)
(69)
Entropy equation
s
To
Po
s 4 + Cp ln
R ln
To4
Po4
(70)
Notice that Equations (61) through (67) are differential equations that require a numerical solution.
3.4.4 Turbine input parameters

The turbine flow will initially be subsonic. It can then proceed to a supersonic flow region. If the
subsonic flow approaches the sonic point and needs to go supersonic, the calculations must terminate and
cannot continuously cross the sonic point. The chosen termination point is when Mrel = 0.99 (station
number 4.5). In Equations (61) through (70), the specified variables are A, , and U.
29
3.4.4.1
Subsonic turbine
Assuming first that the sonic point does not occur, perform the following steps to obtain the input
parameters:
a) Specify the radius ratio r5/r4 and the number of iterations steps, nt.
b) Next, consider the radius along the turbine flow to be r = r4+r (r is the difference between r as it
varies along the burner and r4). At the inlet, r (or r4) is zero when r = r4. The variation of r/r4 is:
r
1+
r4
(71)
r4
c) At station 5, r/r4 is r5/r4 = (r5/r4)-1. It follows that the small step change is d(r/r4) = (r5/r4)/nt or:
r5
r
d
r4
r4
(72)
nt
d) It is now possible to vary the quantity r/r4 starting with zero in steps of d(r/r4) from index i = 0 to nt
as follows:
i d
(73)
r4
r4
This then allows the variation of r/r4.

e) For the flow to accelerate, decrease the area as the ratio A/A4 using the second order polynomial
below:
A
A4
r + K2 r
r
r4
4
1 + K1
(74)
The variables K1 and K2 are specified coefficients.

f) Obtain the variation of angle using the following polynomial:
r + B2 r
r
r4
4
4 + B1
(75)
The variables B1 and B2 are specified coefficients. The initial value of is 4.

g) Define the change in rotor speed using:
U
r
U4
r4
(76)
The second-order polynomials in Equations (74) and (75) are chosen for convenience; other variations
with r are possible. They are variable using any type of functions.
30
3.4.4.2
Supersonic turbine
If the turbine reaches station 4.5, it can only go supersonic if it satisfies the condition P0/Po4.5rel <
0.528. Otherwise, the flow stops at station 4.5 and r5/r4 is shorter than the one specified in 3.4.4.1. Figure
3-4 from the Anderson textbook [11] provides the basis for this condition:
Figure 3-4: Convergent-divergent nozzle with supersonic exit (from [1]).
For the input parameters, repeat the steps in Section 3.4.4.1 by changing the subscripts 4 to 4.5.
This means r5/r4 in Step a) becomes r5/r4.5. However, r5/r4.5 needs to be calculated. First, obtain the ratio
r4.5/r4, which is the final value of r/r4. Now, the ratio r5/r4.5 is:
r5 r4.5
r r
r4.5
4 4
r5
31
(77)
This ensures that by the end of the turbine calculations, the radius ratio is the specified r5/r4. For the flow
to accelerate, the area will have to increase. Replace Equation (74) in Step e) with the supersonic area
ratio A/A4.5 polynomial:
r + KK2 r
1 + KK1
r
A 4.5
r4.5
4.5
A
(78)
The variables KK1 and KK2 are specified coefficients. The decreasing flow area in the subsonic region
and increasing flow area in the supersonic region means the turbine resembles a convergent-divergent
nozzle. The overall turbine area ratio is then:
A5
A4
A 4.5 A 5
A A
4 4.5
(79)
The ratio A4.5/A4 is the value of Equation (74) at station 4.5.
3.4.5 Method of solving turbine equations

Table 3-4 summarizes the input parameters for both the subsonic and supersonic turbine.
Table 3-4: Turbine equation input parameters.
Input
Description
r5/r4
Turbine radius ratio
K1,K2
A/A4 second order polynomial coefficients
KK1,KK2 A/A4.5 second order polynomial coefficients

B1,B2
second order polynomial coefficients
nt
number of iteration steps
With the input parameters established, it is necessary to show how to solve Equations (61)
through (70). For Equations (61) through (67), they give the following form:
32
W
1
0
Cp T
1
1
0
0
1
0
P
1
0
2
W
U W sin ( )
0
0
Cp To
0
0
0
T
W ( W U sin ( ) )
0
T
Cp To
o
Torel
To
M rel
2
0
1
0
d ( T)
T
d( W )
W
d ( P)
P
d( )
d Torel
Torel
d Porel
Porel
( )
d To
To
U d ( U)
Cp T
d( A )
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
Cp To
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
Cp To
(80)
Inverting the matrix in Equation (80) gives:
d To
( )
To
d ( T)
T
d(W )
W
d ( P)
P
d( )
d Torel
Torel
d Porel
Porel
W
1
0
Cp T
1
0
1
1
0
0
P
1
0
2
U W sin ( )
0
0
Cp To
0
0
0
T
W ( W U sin ( ) )
0
T
Cp To
o
Torel
To
M rel
2
1
0
U d ( U)
Cp T
d( A )
U d( U) W d( U sin ( ) )
Cp To
U d( U) W d( U sin ( ) )
Cp To
(81)
Initial flow values for the turbine are the burner exit properties. For the supersonic flow, the initial values
are the ones at station 4.5 except for T, W, P, , and Mrel. Modify them according to the following steps:
a) If P0/Po4.5rel < 0.528, then Mrel = 1.01.
b) Calculate the others using:
33
To4.5rel
4.5 1
1+
M rel
M rel 4.5 R T
Po4.5rel
(82)
4.5
4.5 1
2
1 +
M rel
2
4.5 1
P
R T
Solving Equation (81) numerically across the subsonic and supersonic flows until the turbine radius ratio
is the specified r5/r4 gives the following flow properties:
T
i 1
i 1
d ( T) T
T
i1
d(W ) W
W
i1
d ( P) P
P
i1
i 1 +
d( )
i 1

i 1
Porel
+
i 1
Porel
i
To
To
i 1
d ( Porel)
Porel
P
i 1
orel
d ( To )
To
T
o i1
W
M rel
(83)
i R T
i
i
Po
i
To i
Po4
To4
i1
To i
s 4 + Cp ln
R ln
i To4
Po
i
Po4
All the variables on the right hand side of Equation (81) are at index i-1 (except the constants) and it
follows that:
34
subsonic:
d( A)
A
A A
A
4 i A 4 i1

A
4 i1
A
, supersonic:
( )
d ( U sin ( ) )
d(A)
A A
A
4.5 i A4.5 i1
A
A
4.5 i1
U sin i U sin i 1
i
i 1
d ( U)
(84)
U U
i
i 1
At the exit, the turbine flow variables in Equation (83) will carry the subscript five. Using the definition
of angular momentum [12] from Appendix B and C = U-W*sin(), the specific power of the turbine is:
Wt
= (1 + f ) [U 5 ( U 5 W5 sin( 5 )) U 4 ( U 4 W4 sin( 4 ))]
m3
3.4.6 Burner and turbine output summary

In summary, the burner exit variables are:
Table 3-5: Burner exit flow variables.
Output
Description
M4rel
Exit relative Mach number
brel
Relative stagnation temperature ratio (To4rel/To3rel)
brel
Relative stagnation pressure ratio (Po4rel/Po3rel)
Absolute stagnation temperature ratio (To4/To3)
Absolute stagnation pressure ratio (Po4/Po3)
To4rel
Po4rel
Po4
Absolute stagnation pressure
W4
Outlet relative velocity
T4
Outlet temperature
P4
Outlet pressure
Outlet density
s4
Outlet entropy
m4/m3
Mass flow rate ratio
A4/A3
Area ratio
35
(85)
Output
Description
Outlet flow angle
U4
Outlet rotor speed
Fuel-to-air ratio
Cp4
Outlet specific heat
Outlet specific heat ratio
Wb/m3
Burner specific power
For the turbine:

Table 3-6: Turbine exit flow variables.
Output
Description
M5rel
Exit relative Mach number
trel
Relative stagnation temperature ratio (To5rel/To4rel)
trel
Relative stagnation pressure ratio (Po5rel/Po4rel)
Absolute stagnation temperature ratio (To5/To5)
Absolute stagnation pressure ratio (Po5/Po4)
To5rel
Po5rel
To5
Po5
W5
Outlet relative velocity
T5
Outlet temperature
P5
Outlet pressure
Outlet density
s5
Outlet entropy
A5/A4
Area ratio
Outlet flow angle
U5
Outlet rotor speed
Cp5
Outlet specific heat
Outlet specific heat ratio
Wt/m3
Turbine specific power
36
The output variables above are the important ones. It is still possible to obtain other output properties not
mentioned in this chapter by using a combination of variables seen in Table 3-5 and Table 3-6. Plotting
the burner and turbine results show how they vary throughout the flow.
3.5
Overall APU properties

With the flow properties now known at each component, it is necessary to determine the overall
performance of the rotor. This is important when comparing the new APU to other engines currently in
service. Here are the important parameters that describe the overall performance:
a) Rotor specific power takeoff:
PTO W t Wb Wc
=
+
+
mc
mc mc mc
(86)
b) Power takeoff coefficient:
CTO
PTO
m
c
(87)
Cpc T0
c) Power specific fuel consumption (PSFC):

mf
PTO
PTO
m
c
(88)
d) Thermal efficiency:
TH
CTO
f hHV
(89)
Cpc T 0
e) Rotor radius-to-compressor inlet tip ratio:

r5
r2t
r3 r4 r5
r r r
2t 3 4
(90)
In most cases, the specific power takeoff and PSFC are the two parameters used when comparing the
rotor with other engines.
In order to limit the impeller size, it is important to introduce the concept of centrifugal stress. To
make this analysis as simple as possible, the assumptions are:
a) The rotor bottom is a relatively flat disk.
b) The disk thickness is tapered in such a way that its centrifugal stress is uniform everywhere.
First, calculate the ratio r5/r2h:
37
r5
r2h
r3 r4 r5
r2t r3 r4
(91)
The disk hub-to-rim thickness ratio, z2h/z5 from the Hill and Petersen textbook [5] is:
z2h
z5
exp
2
r5
r2h

U5 material
Use Figure 3-5 to select an appropriate value of /material (also called specific rupture strength):
Figure 3-5: Variation of specific rupture strength with service temperature (from [5]).
It is thicker at the hub than at the rim.
38
(92)
Chapter 4
Results of analysis
A MathCAD program created to carry out the new rotor analysis consisted of an input parameters
section and an equations/results section. In the equations/results section, the program performed the
analysis according to the following steps:
a) Air and diffuser
b) Compressor
c) Burner
d) Turbine
e) Overall APU properties
The turbine portion evaluates only the subsonic flow if the supersonic region does not occur.
Before continuing with the rotor analysis, it was important to validate the burner and turbine
equations by comparing them with simple flow problems. The purpose was to provide confidence in the
usage of the burner and turbine equations.
4.1
Simple one-dimensional flow

A simple flow involves no curvature ( does not change) and rotation along with constant
specific heats. For convenience, the equations in this section will use relative frame variables (absolute
and relative frames are the same for simple flows). Simple cases for the burner are:
a) Flow in a constant area duct with drag and heat addition.
b) Flow in a constant area duct with only heat addition.
For both cases above, mf is extremely small compared to m3. As for the turbine, the chosen simple case is
the variable area duct flow.
39
4.1.1 Burner
4.1.1.1
Constant area flow with drag and heat addition
Figure 4-1: Constant area combustion chamber (from [10]).
Consider a constant area duct with flame holders at the beginning that contribute a drag force to
the flow as seen in Figure 4-1. The equation for M4rel in terms of the upstream variables and a prescribed
brel [10] is:

2
M 4rel
1 2 b + 1 2 b + 1
(93)
where:
c 1
2
2
M 3rel
c M 3rel 1 +
2
2 brel
b
C
D
1 + c M3rel2 1
(94)
Next, the equation for brel [10] is:

b
CD
b 1
2
1 + c M 3rel 1
1 +
M 4rel
2
2
b 1
brel
1 + b M 4rel
c 1
2
1 +
M 3rel
2
(95)
c 1
In this section, the input parameters for the burner equations in the program are for a simple case.
This allows the comparison of the quantities M4rel and brel in Equations (93) and (95) with its respective
values in the program. Table 4-1 summarizes this comparison:
40
Table 4-1: Comparison of burner equations to simple flow example (drag and heat addtion).
Burner
To4
input
(K)
brel
M4rel
brel
Burner
Equation
Burner
Equation
equations
(93)
equations
(95)
M3rel = 0.2
T3 = 500K
600
1.190476
0.231116
0.230973
0.952213
0.952305
900
1.785714
0.297083
0.294143
0.93304
0.934004
1200
2.380952
0.362688
0.355036
0.911921
0.914513
P3 = 500kPa
CD = 1.5
hHV = 18,000 BTU/lbm
b = 0.98
R = 0.287 kJ/(kg*K)
0 = 4 = 1.4
r4/r3 = 2
nb = 1000
4.1.1.2
Constant area flow with only heat addition
Figure 4-2: Constant area flow through a duct with heat addition (from [9]).
Consider the heat addition flow thorough the control volume shown in Figure 4-2. The same
equations in Section 4.1.1.1 are applicable for the above control volume but with CD = 0. Once again, the
input parameters for the burner equations are such that it is a simple case for this section. Table 4-2
summarizes the program results and the ones from Equations (93) and (95):
41
Table 4-2: Comparison of burner equations to simple flow example (heat addition).
Burner
To4
input
(K)
brel
M4rel
brel
Burner
Equation
Burner
Equation
equations
(93)
equations
(95)
M3rel = 0.2
T3 = 500K
600
1.190476
0.221122
0.220526
0.994463
0.994625
900
1.785714
0.283147
0.27976
0.976184
0.97725
1200
2.380952
0.343898
0.336013
0.956187
0.958871
P3 = 500kPa
CD = 0
hHV = 18,000 BTU/lbm
b = 0.98
R = 0.287 kJ/(kg*K)
0 = 4 = 1.4
r4/r3 = 2
nb = 1000
4.1.2 Variable area flow
Figure 4-3: Flow through a duct with variable area (from [9]).
Consider the flow shown in Figure 4-3. At any two points in the flow, the area ratio [9] is:
42
t+ 1
A5
A4
1+
M
4rel
M
5rel 1 +
t 1
2
t 1
2
2 t 1
M 5rel
(96)
M 4rel
Equation (96) also works for convergent-divergent ducts. This type of nozzle can generate a supersonic
flow.
The turbine input parameters in the program are such that both a subsonic and supersonic region
exists for a simple case. That means the turbine is a convergent-divergent nozzle just like in Figure 4-3.
Equation (96) uses the values of M4rel and M5rel from the turbine calculations to determine A5/A4. Table
4-3 summarizes the results:
Table 4-3: Comparison of turbine equations to simple flow example (variable area).
Turbine
input
A5/A4
4rel
5rel
Turbine
equations
Equation (96)
T4 = 500K
P4 = 500kPa
0.5
2.013896
1.273793
1.274185
0.7
2.426491
2.249443
2.250246
0.9
2.583947
2.826604
2.827483
Cpt = 1.008123 kJ/(kg*K)

R = 0.287005 kJ/(kg*K)
4 = 1.4
r5/r4 = 2
nt = 8000
4.2
Single rotor APU results
4.2.1 Model Center and input/output constraints

In order to implement the MathCAD program for the new rotor, it was preferable to optimize it
using Model Center (created by Phoenix Integration Inc.). Unlike other optimizers, Model Center has a
specially created plug-in that easily wraps Mathcad programs into it.
With the wrapping completed, Model Center needed a range of values for all or just a selected
number of input parameters to perform the optimization. For the compressor input parameters, they were
obtainable using typical values from the Hill and Petersen textbook. As for the burner and turbine, the
43
range of values was as wide as possible but within reasonable limits. The objective of the optimizer in this
study was to maximize the specific power takeoff. Model Center then chose the best values for the input
parameters when the optimizing process ended. Table 4-4 summarizes these input parameters:
Table 4-4: Model Center input parameters with range limits.
Range of values
Input parameters
Lower limit Upper limit

M2rel
0.3
0.9
2t (deg)
10
50
0.15
0.4
U3/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
0.45
2.5
C2t/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
0.4
Wr3/U3
0.1
0.6
Y1
-15
15
S1
50
r4/r3
K1
-50
-1
K2
1.5
KK1
50
B1
50
r5/r4
/material (kPa/kg/m3)
15
30
The input parameters that have fixed values were:

Table 4-5: Model Center fixed input values.
Input parameters
Values
Input parameters
Values
Input parameters
Values
M0
0.99
hHV (BTU/lbm)
18000
T0 (K)
300
0.99
nb
2000
P0 (kPa)
101.325
Y2
CD
1.5
1.398
S2
KK2
s0 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.70203
To4 (K)
1200
B2
R (kJ/(kg*K))
0.287005
0.98
nt
8000
44
Setting a limit on /material allowed the selection of an appropriate material from Figure 3-5 at the end of
the optimizer run.
To obtain the best results, it was preferable to set constraints on some of the output variables.
This eventually helped speed up the optimization process. Table 4-6 shows the chosen variables along
with their given constraints:
Table 4-6: Model Center output constraints.
Output
variables
M3rel
Constraints
maximum of 0.7
between 1.1 and
30
r3/r2t
at least 1.1
Output
variables
4 (deg)
Output
Constraints
variables
maximum of 90
deg
Constraints
maximum of 90
deg
A5/A4.5
maximum of 4
z2h/z5
between 1 and 3
M4rel
maximum of 0.8
|(P0-P5)/P5|
less than 0.005
The limit placed on A5/A4.5 ensured the relative Mach number did not become too large in the event the
flow goes supersonic. In addition, the limit |(P0-P5)/P5| (for backpressure matching consideration) being
less than 0.005 means the rotor flow exits close to atmospheric pressure. Limits placed on the compressor,
burner and turbine size prevented them from becoming too small or big. With the information in Table
4-4 and Table 4-6, Model Center found the maximum specific power takeoff for the cases mentioned in
Section 4.2.2.
There were three available optimizing methods in Model Center:
a) Method of feasible directions (MFD).
b) Sequential linear programming (SLP).
c) Sequential quadratic programming (SQP).
Of the three, SQP was the newest algorithm. Before starting the optimizer, it required initial values for the
variables listed in Table 4-4 along with the constraints mentioned in Table 4-6. MFD was found not to
reach the maximum point for the given constraints and limitations. For this reason, it was the quickest
among the three. However, the results from this run served as the initial values for the SLP method.
According to Model Center, SLP had the most efficient algorithm. To make sure SLP found a true
optimum, it was necessary to restart the calculation using initial values from the previous run. Usually, it
took SLP as much as two times to find the true optimum point. The downside with using the SLP method
was it took between one and a half to two hours to complete a run. The entire optimization procedure
45
needed repeating using different initial values to make sure the true optimum point did indeed occur. SQP
was capable of reaching a maximum point close to the one achieved by SLP but required many repeated
runs.
4.2.2 Results from Model Center

The Model Center analysis consisted of four different cases:
a) Without the stress (z2h/z5) and |(P0-P5)/P5| constraints.
b) With the stress constraint but without the |(P0-P5)/P5| constraint.
c) Without the stress constraint but with the |(P0-P5)/P5| constraints.
d) With the stress and |(P0-P5)/P5| constraints.
The rest of the limitation in Table 4-4 and Table 4-6 stayed the same.
4.2.2.1
Case 1: Without the stress and |(P0-P5)/P5| constraints.

This case was necessary to investigate how large the rotor will get without the limitation of
material (stress) or whether the flow exited at atmospheric pressure. Model Center then provided the
following results (complete results in Appendix E):
Table 4-7: Overall rotor and other properties (Case 1).
PTO/m3
mf/PTO
(W/kg/s)
(kg/s/W)
412218.499688
c
6.061594
TH
r5/r2h
z2h/z5
5.256221E-8
0.454406
65.390339
1.748837E+4
Wc/m3
Wb/m3
Wt/m3
(deg)
(W/kg/s)
(W/kg/s)
(W/kg/s)
89.433445
-228368.78268
124301.705278 516285.577093
The optimizer stopped when A5/A4.5 reached a value of 4.012, which limited the turbine size. Figure E-16
through Figure E-20 (all created by only varying U3/(0*R*To2)1/2) shows that this configuration was the
optimum point based on the given constraints and limitations in Section 4.2.1. The optimum occurred
when the compressor pressure ratio was just enough to satisfy the P0/Po4.5rel < 0.528 condition and allowed
the flow to go past the sonic point into the supersonic region (refer to Figure 4-4). In Figure D-1, Case 1
clearly competed very well with the other gas turbine engines. The high specific power takeoff resulted
due to both the burner and turbine producing a large amount of specific power. Figure E-14 showed how
this configuration compared to the Brayton cycle.
46
1500
r3 r4

r2t r2t
2
Mrel
To
500
r3 r4

r2t r2t
1000
10
20
30

r
2t
10
20
30

r
2t
6
1 .10
r3 r4

r2t r2t
P o 5 .105
10
20
30
r
r
2t
Figure 4-4: Relative Mach number, stagnation temperature (K) and pressure (Pa) according to location in the
rotor (Case 1).
The plots in Figure 4-4 show that the rotor went supersonic which in turn caused the stagnation
temperature and pressure to drop considerably in the turbine. There was an unavoidable stagnation
pressure drop in the burner that was consistent with the concept of burning at finite relative Mach
numbers. This would occur in the burner for all the other cases.
47
500
1000
r3 r4

r2t r2t
0
C
r3 r4

r2t r2t
500
500
1000
10
20
30

r
2t
10
20
30

r
2t
100
deg
r3 r4

r2t r2t
50
10
20
30
r
r
2t
Figure 4-5: Variation of the absolute tangential velocity (m/s), rotor speed (m/s) and flow curvature (deg)
(Case 1).
Figure 4-5 indicates that U and achieved high values that contributed to a large negative drop in
the value of C for the turbine. This permitted it to achieve a high specific power value. The drop in C in
the burner made it act like a turbine and produced specific power. The burner would act like a turbine in
all the subsequent cases.
However, Table 4-7 showed a huge value for z2h/z5 making this rotor unrealistic. A r5/r2h value of
65.390339, which resulted in U5 being 765.698776 m/s, made the rotor become as strong as possible to
withstand the amount of stress associated with this configuration.
4.2.2.2
Case 2: With the stress constraint but without the |(P0-P5)/P5| constraint
The analysis now included material limitation but still without taking into account the
backpressure. Table 4-8 shows some of the results from Model Center with the complete set located in
Appendix F:
48
PTO/m3
mf/PTO
(W/kg/s)
(kg/s/W)
127884.924331
TH
r5/r2h
z2h/z5
2.053457E-7
0.116314
3.211841
2.932721
Wc/m3
Wb/m3
Wt/m3
(deg)
(W/kg/s)
(W/kg/s)
(W/kg/s)
81.378184
-16268.094656
81713.818746
62439.200241
c
1.183161
Comparing the results in Appendix E and Appendix F showed similar patterns in the flow characteristics.
This would be the situation for all the subsequent cases. The exception here was there was no supersonic
flow region, as seen in Figure F-1. The compressor pressure ratio was not high enough to satisfy the
condition P0/Po4.5rel < 0.528 and caused the flow to cutoff at station 4.5. From Case 1, it was known that
the compressor pressure ratio had to be around six and higher to go past the sonic point. In this case, the
optimizer halted when r3/r2t came close to its minimum value. Figure F-19 through Figure F-23 (all
created by only varying M2rel) indicated that Case 2 was indeed an optimum. In fact, all the points in
Figure F-19 through Figure F-23 had their flow end at station 4.5. The plots also showed that more
specific power takeoff was possible but only when r3/r2t became smaller than one. Like in Case 1, Figure
F-14 showed how this case compared to the Brayton cycle (to view the compressor and turbine
temperature change in Figure F-14, see Figure F-15 and Figure F-16).
In Figure F-13, the size limitation affected the range at which C could drop in the burner and
turbine. The value of U5 was definitely a lot smaller than in Case 1. This made the burner and turbine
each produce specific power that was not as high as in the previous case. Therefore, the stress limitation
clearly prevented the rotor from achieving a high specific power takeoff. When placed into Figure D-1,
this case was close to the other gas turbine engines but could not compete very well in terms of specific
power takeoff and PSFC.
Unlike Case 1, the value of z2h/z5 here was more realistic. This was due to a smaller rotor size and
exit rotor speed. Figure F-23 showed the disk thickness would continue to become larger with increasing
compressor pressure ratio and specific power takeoff.
4.2.2.3
Case 3: Without the stress constraint but with the |(P0-P5)/P5| constraint
It was now necessary to determine the rotor characteristics using the backpressure as a constraint
but without any stress limitations. This gave the following selected results in Table 4-9 (complete results
in Appendix G):
49
PTO/m3
mf/PTO
(W/kg/s)
(kg/s/W)
132248.596648
TH
r5/r2h
z2h/z5
1.57612E-7
0.15154
19.533881
1.292149E+4
Wc/m3
Wb/m3
Wt/m3
(deg)
(W/kg/s)
(W/kg/s)
(W/kg/s)
88.76084
-436026.78374
310579.14829
257696.232095
c
17.4036
There was an obvious improvement in the results compared to Case 2. From Figure G-1, the flow
managed to get into the supersonic region. This meant it satisfied the P0/Po4.5rel < 0.528 condition and at
the same time had an exit pressure close to atmospheric. To accomplish this, the compressor pressure
ratio had to be very large.
However, this large compressor had a negative effect on the specific power takeoff. Table 4-9
showed that the burner and turbine together produced a significant amount of specific power. This was
due to the large C drop seen in Figure G-12 with high 5 and U5 values. Nevertheless, the compressor
power demand took up most of this specific power leaving a specific power takeoff a little more than in
Case 2. In Figure D-1, Case 3 and Case 2 were close together but compared not very well to the other gas
turbine engines.
With no material limitation, the rotor size behaved similar to Case 1 and the disk thickness went
as large as possible. The plots in Appendix G showed that the major portion of the rotor was in fact the
compressor. Therefore, a z2h/z5 value of 1.292149E+4 made the manufacturing of this rotor impossible.
4.2.2.4
Case 4: With the stress and |(P0-P5)/P5| constraints

In this case, Model Center used all the constraints and limitations mentioned in Table 4-4 and
Table 4-6 to give the selected results in Table 4-10:

PTO/m3
mf/PTO
(W/kg/s)
(kg/s/W)
17641.820934
c
1.572254
TH
r5/r2h
z2h/z5
1.357239E-6
0.017598
3.495073
2.489291
Wc/m3
Wb/m3
Wt/m3
(deg)
(W/kg/s)
(W/kg/s)
(W/kg/s)
84.535271
-45803.940205
19140.007112
44305.754028
50
When completely constrained, this case produced the lowest specific power takeoff and highest PSFC
among the four cases. Part of this reason was that the flow ended at M5rel equal to 0.476262371. Figure
H-13 showed there was not much of a drop in C between the burner inlet and turbine exit to significantly
power the compressor and produce specific power takeoff at the same time. Like in Case 3, the
compressor absorbed most of the specific power generated. Placing this case into Figure D-1 showed that
it was far from the gas turbine engine points in terms of both specific power takeoff and PSFC. Appendix
H shows the rest of the results for this case.
4.2.3 Rotor material and size

The specific strength for this rotor (including all the other cases) ended at its highest given limit
of 30 kPa/kg/m3. This once again indicated that the rotor required the strongest material possible. Using
Figure 3-5 (with To4 as the service temperature), a possible material was molybdenum alloy stainless
steel.
Next, it was important to illustrate how the rotor for each case would look like. Appendix I
through Appendix L shows how this took place. All four cases had eight vanes and r2t = 2 inches.
Appendix I showed Case 1 had an unusual blade height distribution. It was very small at the compressor
outlet but took on a very large value at the rotor exit. In Case 2, the compressor exit blade height started
out at 0.934 inches but when it reached the burner outlet, the height was 9.738 inches. Both the first two
cases obviously had unusual rotor designs. This also occurred in Cases 3 and 4. The value of b5 equal to
1.159 inches in Case 3 made this rotor seem reasonable. However, both the ratio b5/b3 = 53.131 and z2h/z5
= 1.292149E+4 in Case 3 made this rotor unrealistic. As for Case 4, b4 = 0.743 inches and b5 = 4.312
inches. Each rotor design had geometries that made their manufacturing not practical. A general
observation was the compressor always had the largest size compared to the other components.
51
Chapter 5
5.1
Conclusion
Summary
The idea of this study was to combine the compressor, burner and turbine of a gas turbine engine
into a single radial rotor and simulate it mathematically according to the principles of quasi-onedimensional flow. The simulations consisted of four different cases with each producing a unique set of
results. An optimizer maximized the specific power takeoff for each case using a set of design constraints
placed on the input parameters and output variables. The results from the first case indicated that with no
restrictions on the type of material and exit backpressure matching, the rotor size became as large as
possible with high supersonic exit relative Mach numbers. This allowed a large specific power takeoff
that was able to compete very well with current gas turbine engines in service. Stress analysis indicated
this rotor had an unrealistic disk thickness distribution. With the rotor fully constrained, as in the last
case, it was unable to achieve supersonic exit velocities and produced a very low specific power takeoff.
This made it compare poorly with current gas turbine engine performance. Constraining the rotor size
prevented a large absolute tangential velocity change. This in turn affected the specific powers produced
by the burner and turbine components. Each case also had the disadvantage of having large compressors
(compared to the other components). However, all the gas turbine engines (including the four cases)
compared badly with the gasoline and diesel power generators. These generators usually do not have any
weight limitations since they are ground-based. This allows them to have extra components such as
regenerators, intercoolers and so on giving them high efficiencies. Each case investigated had a sample
rotor drawn to help visualize their shapes. The pictures indicated that all four rotors had an unusual
combination of blade heights and disk thicknesses making their construction difficult. Therefore, the
results in general suggest that the single radial rotor concept may not be such a good idea, at least for
large PTO/m3.
5.2
Recommendations
With the study now complete, some recommendations for continuation of this research are:
a) Optimize the PSFC, not just the specific power takeoff.

b) Consider secondary flows to analyze the rotor with loss terms such as friction.
c) Provide constraints for the blade height variation to make rotor shape more practical.
d) Perform a combined burner and turbine analysis.
e) Provide more degrees of freedom to the analysis by extending the rotor geometry to allow flow in the
axial direction (z-direction).
52
References
[1]
Fleming, William A., and Richard A. Leyes II. The History of North American Small Gas Turbine
Aircraft Engines. Reston: AIAA, 1999.
[2]
Turboprop, Turboshaft, Ramjet, Scramjet and Turbojet/Ramjet;

[http://www.aircraftenginedesign.com/abe_right4.html].
[3]
How it Works: Small Gas Turbine Engine (APU);

[http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~spurr/sec.htm].
[4]
Auxiliary Power Unit: The APU described; 1999;

[http://www.b737.org.uk/apu.htm]
[5]
Hill, Philip G., and Carl R. Peterson. Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Propulsion. 2nd ed.
Reading: Addison-Wesley, 1992.
[6]
Boles, Michael A., and Yunus A. Cengel. Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach. Boston:
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
[7]
Bloch, Heinz P. A Practical Guide to Compressor Technology. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1995.
[8]
Daley, Daniel H., William H. Heiser, and Jack D. Mattingly. Aircraft Engine Design. Washington:
AIAA, 1987
[9]
Carscallen, William E., and Patrick H. Oosthuizen. Compressible Fluid Flow. New York: McGraw,
1997.
[10] Oates, Gordon C. Aerothermodynamics of Gas Turbine and Rocket Propulsion. 3rd ed. Reston:
AIAA, 1984.
[11] Anderson Jr., John D. Modern Compressible Flow: With Historical Perspective. New York:
McGraw, 1982
[12] Dixon, S. L. Fluid Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Turbomachinery. 4th ed. Boston: BH, 1998.
53
Appendix A
A.1
M 3rel
M 3rel
Compressor Derivations
Outlet relative Mach number

W3
0 R T3
W r3
( )
cos 3
<----- W 3
0 R T3
W r3
( )
cos 3
Wr3
M 3rel
U3
( )
cos 3
U3
0 R T3
Wr3
M 3rel
U3
( )
cos 3
U3
0 R To3
1+
0 1
To3
<----- T3
1+
0 1
M3
Wr3
M 3rel
U3
( )
cos 3
U3
0 R To2
1+
0 1
To3
To2
2
M3
Wr3
M 3rel
U3
( )
cos 3
U3
0 R To2 c
1+
U3
( )
cos 3
0 1
To3
To2
M3
U3
Wr3
M 3rel
<----- c
0 R T o2
<-----Equation 1
1+
0 1
M3
54
M3
A.2
Outlet relative stagnation temperature

2
C3
since Cp0 T3
and Cp0 T3
Cp0 To3
2
2
Cp0 To3rel
Cp0 To3
2
C3
Cp0 To3
+
2
To3
C3
To3rel
W3
Cp0 To3rel
Cp0 To3rel
W3
W3
2
C3 W 3
2 Cp0
2
2
C3 W 3
To3rel To3 1
2 Cp0 To3
2
2
W 3
0 R T3 C3
To3rel To3 1
2 Cp0 To3 0 R T3 0 R T3
0 R
2
2
To3rel To3 1
M 3 M 3rel
To3
C
p0 T
To3rel
To3rel
To3 1
0 0 1
0 1
2 0 1 +
M3
0 1
0 1
2 1 +
M3
2
To3 1
<-----M 3rel
M 3 M 3rel
2
M 3 M 3rel
W3
55
<-----
0 R T3
0 1
Cp0
<-----Equation 2
and
and M 3
To3
T3
C3
0 R T3
1+
0 1
2
M3
Appendix B
B.1
Burner and turbine derivations
Conservation of angular momentum
W = ( m U C ) out ( m U C ) in
B.2
Conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics)
Q W = ( m h o ) out ( m h o ) in
2
h+
since h o

C 2
C 2
m h +
Q W = m h +
2
2

out
in
)out (m U C )in
)out
Q + m U C
Q + m U C
Q + m U C
2
2

m h + C m h + C
2 out
2 in

m U C
out
)in
+ m
in
( m h )
out
<-----place conservation of angular

momentum here
( m h )
in
2

m U C C
( m h )
( m h )
out
in
2 out
2 in
2
C
:
for U C
2
2
U C
U C
U C
U C
2
2
(
(
U C
)
)
U U W
U C
U U W
U C
U U W
2
2
2
<----- C
U U W
Cr + C
Wr + U W
)2
2
2
Cr + C
U W and W r
<-----C
W r + U 2 U W + W
2
2
W + U 2 U W
<----- W
2
W
2
+ U W
56
Wr + W
Cr (both from velocity triangle)
C
place U C
2
into the first law equation:
U2 W 2
U2 W 2
Q + m
( m h )
( m h )
out
in
2 out 2
2 in
2
2
Q + m
Q + m
out
in
out
out
in
in
+ m
(m Cp T)out (m Cp T)in
2 in
out
<----- h
Cp T
(m Cp T)out (m Cp T)in
convert equation above into differential form:

2
d ( Q) + d m
U2
U2
2
h HV b
d ( m)
h HV b
d ( m)
+ d
d ( Q) + m d
d ( Q)
d m
2
2
W2
d ( m) m d
2
2
U2
W2
d ( m)
+ d
d m Cp T
d ( m)
m
W
2
d ( m)
m
2
W
2
W
2
2
d ( m)
m
d ( m)
m Cp d ( T) + Cp T d ( m)
d ( m)
Cp d ( T) + Cp T
m
d ( m)
W2
W
2
<-----divide by m
d ( m)
Cp d ( T) + Cp T
m
d ( m)
m
2
U
d ( m)
Cp T
+ d
m
2
W2
Cp d ( T)
<----- d ( Q)
2
2
2 2
hHV b + U W Cp T d ( m) + d U d W Cp d ( T) 0
2
2
m
2 2
2 h HV b U2 W 2
d( m)
Cp T
+ U d ( U) W d ( W ) Cp d ( T) 0
2
2
2
m
2 h + U2 W 2
U d ( U)
W d( W )
d ( T)
HV b
d ( m)
1
+
2 Cp T
Cp T
Cp T
T
m
2 h + U2 W 2
2
W d( W )
d ( T)
HV b
d ( m)
1
2 Cp T
T
Cp T W
57
U d ( U)
Cp T
<-----divide by Cp T
<-----Equation 1
h HV b d ( m)
B.3
Equation of state
d( )
d ( T)
B.4
<-----Equation 2
Conservation of mass
d( W )
d( )
W
d( W )
d( )
B.5
d(A)
d ( m)
d ( m)
d( A )
<-----Equation 3
Conservation of linear momentum

P
d ( P)
d ( P)
d( W )
( )
d FD
for
d ( m)
m
( )
d FD
2
W A
W A
1
( )
d FD
2
1
W A
( )
d FD
( )
d FD
2
W A
( )
d FD
2 1
W A
( )
d FD
d FD
( )
P
W
<----- d CD
( )
d FD
1
2
W A
( )
( )
d CD
2
W A
place
W A
W A
( )
d CD into the linear momentum equation:
d ( P)
d( W )
d ( m)
m
1
2
( )
d CD
58
d( W )
d ( m)
B.6
d ( P)
P
( )
1
d CD
2
Relative stagnation temperature equation

2
C
Cp To
2
W
Cp Torel
2
W
Cp Torel
+
2
2
Cp To
Cp Torel +
C W
2
C W
2
:
2
2
2
<-----C
C W
Wr + U W
)2 W r2 W 2
C W
U 2 U W + W W
Cr + C and W
<-----C
Wr + W
U W and W r
C W
2
2
C W
2
U W
U W sin ( )
<-----W
W sin ( ) (from velocity triangle)
U W sin ( ) into Cp To
2
Cp Torel +
Cp To
U
Cp Torel +
U W sin ( )
2
59
C W
2
C W
place
Cr + C W r W
W
:
Cp Torel
2
Cp To
C W
C
and Cp T
Cp To
2
since Cp T
for
<-----Equation 4
Cp d Torel +
( )
Cp d Torel + U d ( U) U sin ( ) d ( W ) W d ( U sin ( ) )
Cp d To
( )
( 2) d(UW sin ( ))
( )
Cp d To
d U
2
Cp d To Cp d Torel + U sin ( ) d ( W )
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
d Torel
d( W )
Cp d To Cp Torel
+ U W sin ( )
Torel
W
( )
( )
d To
To
B.7
Torel d Torel
U W sin ( ) d ( W )
To
Torel
Cp To
W
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
<-----divide by Cp To
Cp To
Relative stagnation temperature equation

2
M rel
d Porel
d ( P)
Porel
d M rel
1+
2
2
M rel
M rel
from the the conservation of linear momentum equation:

d( W )
W
d( W )
W
d( W )
W
d ( m)
m
P
W
d ( m)
m
d ( m)
m
1
d CD
2
P
W
( )
d ( P)
1
2
d ( P)
d ( P)
( )
1
d CD
2
M rel
( )
1
d CD
2
<----- M rel
2
2 d(W )
M rel
2 d ( m)
+ M rel
d ( P)
P
M rel
2
d ( P)
P
2 d(W )
M rel
2 d ( m)
M rel
M rel
2
place
2 d( W )
M rel
2 d ( m)
M rel
( )
d CD
( )
d CD
d ( P)
M rel
2
( )
d CD into the
60
d Porel
Porel
equation:
<-----Equation 5
d Porel
2 d(W )
M rel
Porel
d M rel
2 d ( m)
M rel
M rel
2
M rel
( )
d M rel
d CD +
1+
1
2
M rel
M rel
from definition of
M rel
d M rel
d(W )
W
M rel
d ( T)
T
d M 2
rel
d ( T)
+
2
2
T
M rel
d( W )
place
d M 2
d ( Porel)
d ( T)
rel
into the
equation:
+
2
Porel
2
T
Mrel
d(W )
W
d Porel
Porel
M rel
2
M rel
2
2
d M 2
M rel
d M rel
rel
2
d ( T)
2 d ( m)
+
M rel
d ( CD) +
m
M 2
2
2
T
1
2
M rel
1+
M rel
rel
by definition, the relative stagnation temperature is:
d Torel
d ( T)
Torel
+
1+
d ( T)
d Torel
Torel
place
1
2
1
2
1+
d ( T)
d Torel
Torel
d M rel
M rel
M rel
2
1+
M rel
2
d M rel
M rel
1
2
M rel
M rel
d M rel
M rel
M rel
into the d ( Porel) equation:

Porel
M rel
61
2
2
M rel
1
2
2
2
2
2
M rel
M rel d M rel
d ( Torel)
d M rel
d M rel
2
d
(
m
)
rel
2
M 2
d
C
+
(
)
rel m
D
2
2
Torel
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
M rel
M rel
M rel
1+
M rel
1+
M rel
2
2
d Porel
Porel
M rel
2
2
2
M rel d ( Torel)
d M rel
d M rel
M rel
1
2
2 d ( m)
M rel
d ( CD) +
T
2
2
2
2
m
1
2
2
M rel
M rel
1+
M rel
1+
M rel
orel
2
2
d Porel
Porel
d Porel
Porel
Porel
Porel
B.8
d Torel
M rel
M rel
1+
Torel
Mrel
M rel
M 2 d ( m) Mrel d C +
( D)
rel
+ M rel
M rel
d Mrel
1+
1
2
Mrel
( )
d CD
2 d ( m)
M rel
Mrel
2 d ( m)
Torel
d Torel
d Torel
d Mrel
Torel
d Porel
d Porel
Mrel
M rel
M rel
( )
d CD
<-----Equation 6
Absolute stagnation temperature equation

2
Cp To
C
Cp T +
2
Cp To
Cp T +
Cr + C
Cp T +
Cp T +
Cp T +
Cp To
Cp T +
)2
Cr + C
<-----C
W r + U 2 U W + W
U W and W r
2
2
Cp To
Wr + U W
Cp To
<----- C
2
2
Cp To
W + U 2 U W
<----- W
2
W + U 2 U W sin ( )
2
<-----W
62
Wr + W
W sin ( ) (from velocity triangle)
Mrel
W
U
Cp T +
+
U W sin ( )
2
2
Cp To
( 2) + d(U2) d(UW sin ( ))
( )
Cp d ( T) +
( )
Cp d ( T) + W d ( W ) + U d ( U) U sin ( ) d ( W ) W d ( U sin ( ) )
( )
Cp d ( T) + ( W U sin ( ) ) d ( W ) + U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
( )
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
Cp d To
Cp d To
Cp d To
d W
2
Cp d To Cp d ( T) ( W U sin ( ) ) d ( W )
( )
d ( T)
d(W )
Cp d To Cp T
W ( W U sin ( ) )
T
W
( )
d To
To
B.9
T d ( T)
W ( W U sin ( ) ) d ( W )
To T
Cp To
W
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
U d ( U) W d ( U sin ( ) )
Cp To
Relative Mach number equation

W
M rel
<-----Equation 8
R T
B.10 Absolute stagnation pressure equation

burner:
since
Po
P
To
and
Porel
P
Torel
Po
P
To
Porel
P
Torel
63
<-----divide by Cp To
<-----Equation 7
Po
To
Porel
Torel
To
Po Porel
Torel
<-----Equation 9
turbine:
To
Po Po4
To4
<-----Equation 10
B.11 Entropy equation

burner:
To
Po
R ln
s 3 + Cp ln
To3
Po3
<-----Equation 11
turbine:
To
Po
R ln
s 4 + Cp ln
To4
Po4
<-----Equation 12
B.12 Burner absolute stagnation temperature distribution

the To distribution is linear:
To
a + b
at the inlet,
<-----
r3
r
r3
1, which means
r3
r3
r3
r3
0 and To
To3:
64
To3
a
r3
a + b
r3
To3
at the outlet,
r4
r3
r3
To3 + b
To4
To3 + b
r4
r3
r3
1 and To
To4:
r3
r4
r3
To4 To3
r4
r3
place a
To3 and b
To4 To3
r4
r3
To
r4
r4
To4
, which means
To3 +
To4 To3
r4
r3
in the To distribution equation:
<-----Equation 13
r3
B.13 Burner specific work

W b = ( m U C ) 4 ( m U C ) 3
<-----from the definition of angular momentum
W b = m 3 4 U 4 ( U 4 W4 ) U 3 ( U 3 W3 )
m3
<-----C
Wb = m 3 4 U 4 ( U 4 W4 sin( 4 )) U 3 ( U 3 W3 sin( 3 ))
m3
Wb
= 4 U 4 ( U 4 W4 sin( 4 )) U 3 ( U 3 W3 sin( 3 ))
m3
m3
65
U W
<-----W
W sin ( )
<-----Equation 14
B.14 Turbine specific work

W t = m 4 [U 5 C 5 U 4 C 4 ]
<-----from the definition of angular momentum
W t = ( m 3 + m f ) [U 5 ( U 5 W5 ) U 4 ( U 4 W4 )]
W t = m 3 (1 +
<-----C
U W
mf
) [U 5 ( U 5 W5 sin( 5 )) U 4 ( U 4 W4 sin( 4 ))]
m3
W t = m 3 (1 + f ) [U 5 ( U 5 W5 sin( 5 )) U 4 ( U 4 W4 sin( 4 ))]

Wt
= (1 + f ) [U 5 ( U 5 W5 sin( 5 )) U 4 ( U 4 W4 sin( 4 ))]
m3
66
<-----W
W sin ( )
<-----f = m f / m 3
<-----Equation 15
Appendix C
To determine perpendicular (one-dimensional) flow

area between the vanes
mass flow rate associated with the circular area between two vanes:

(
)
C n 2 b dr
Nb
2 r b C cos ( )
Nb
2 r b Cr
<----- Cr C cos ( )
Nb
2 r b W r
<----- W r Cr
Nb
2 r b W cos ( )
Nb
<----- W r W cos ( )
mass flow rateassociated with area perpendicular to flow between two vane
W n dA
WA
since the mass flow rates are the same:
WA
2 r b W cos ( )
Nb
2 r b cos ( )
Nb
67
Appendix D
Current engine data
Table D-1: Airplane turboprop engine data.
PTO
mf/PTO
m3
(shp)
(lbm/h/shp)
(lbm/s)
TPE 331-5
710
0.602
7.75
TPE 331-T76
577
0.6
6.17
Klimov Corporation
TV7-117
2466
0.397
17.53
NK
NK-12MV
14795
0.501
143
OEDB
TVD-20-01
1380
0.506
11.9
P&WC
PT6A-27
680
0.633
6.8
AE 2100J
4591
0.41
16.33
Allison T56-A15
4591
0.536
32.4
Turbomeca
Bastan VIC
798
0.773
10
Walter
M602B
2012
0.498
16.6
Honeywell
TPE 331-5
710
0.602
7.75
Company
Model
Honeywell
Rolls Royce
Table D-2: Helicopter turboshaft engine data.
PTO
mf/PTO
m3
(shp)
(lbm/h/shp)
(lbm/s)
T58 (GE-10)
1400
0.6
13.7
CT58-110
1250
0.64
12.7
T700-401C
1800
0.459
10
Ivchenko Prog. ZMKB
D-136
10000
0.436
79.4
JSC 'Aviadvigatel
D-25V
5500
0.639
57.8
TV2-117
1500
0.606
18.5
TV3-117
2190
0.507
19.84
LHTEC
CTS-800-4
1362
0.465
7.8
MTR
MTR 390
1285
0.46
7.05
PZL Rzeszow
GTD-350
394
0.84
4.83
Company
General Electric
Klimov Corporation
Model
68
Company
PTO
mf/PTO
m3
(shp)
(lbm/h/shp)
(lbm/s)
Gazelle
1400
0.68
17
GEM-42
1000
0.65
7.52
Gnome (H-1400)
1250
0.608
13.7
Turbomeca RM 322
2241
0.442
12.69
Makila (1A2)
1845
0.551
12.1
Turmo (IIIC3)
1480
0.603
13
Model
Rolls Royce
Turbomeca
Table D-3: Aircraft (turboprop) and helicopter (turboshaft) dual-purpose engine data.
PTO
mf/PTO
m3
(shp)
(lbm/h/shp)
(lbm/s)
T64 (GE-413)
3925
0.47
29.4
LTC1, T53 (T5313B, L-13B)
1400
0.58
10.5
LTC4, T55 (GA-714)
4868
0.503
29.08
LTS/LTP 101 (750B-1)
550
0.577
5.1
TVD-1500/RD 600 (1500 S)
1300
0.454
8.8
Company
Model
General Electric
Honeywell
Table D-4: Four-stroke gasoline generator engine data.
Generator
cylinders
model
(hp)
(ft3/min)
5ERKM
11.5
19
0.78
Onan
Microquiet 4000
9.5
19
0.71
Kohler
7ER
16
24
0.94
CME 5500
12.9
17.2
0.95
CMM 7000
14
18.9
1.22
10CCE
13
35
5.6
12CCE
17
35
5.6
Company
Kohler
Onan
Kohler
Power Air intake
Fuel
Number of
consumption
(gal/hr)
69
Table D-5: Diesel generator engine data.
Company
Generac
Number of Generator Power Air intake

cylinders
Kohler
Fuel
consumption
model
(hp)
(ft3/min)
GR8
11
22
0.67
10EOR/Z
17.7
36
0.97
GR25
31
87
1.4
GR50
58
94
2.6
GR70
85
150
3.5
GR85
93
178
3.8
15EOR/Z
26.1
54
1.4
20EOR/Z
36.1
70
1.67
GR125
144
283
5.7
GR160
175
283
7.4
GR190
206
283
8.6
GR210
220
283
9.8
(gal/hr)
Generac
4
Kohler
Generac
70
Figure D-1: PSFC and specific power comparison between APU cases and current engines.
71
Appendix E
E.1
Complete results for Case 1
Input parameters
Table E-1: Air and diffuser input parameter values (Case 1).
Input
Values
M0
T0 (K)
300
P0 (kPa)
101.325
1.398
s0 (kJ/(kg*K)) 1.70203
R (kJ/(kg*K))
0.287
0.99
0.99
Table E-2: Compressor input parameter values (Case 1).
Input
Values
2t (deg)
10
3 (deg)
ec
0.905
M2rel
0.5
0.4
U3/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
1.384337
C2t/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
Wr3/U3
0.251381
72
Table E-3: Burner input parameter values (Case 1).
Input
Values
Y1
0.692596
Y2
S1
3.323625
S2
To4 (K)
1200
0.98
CD
1.5
hHV (BTU/lbm)
18000
r4/r3
1.349041
nb
2000
Table E-4: Turbine input parameter values (Case 1).
Input
Values
K1
-10.024377
K2
1.350002
KK1
16.430168
KK2
B1
2.142985
B2
r5/r4
1.187721
nt
8000
30
73
E.2
Output values
Table E-5: Air diffuser output values (Case 1).
Output
Values
Cp0 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.00812309
0 (kg/m3)
1.176808766
To2 (K)
297
Po2 (kPa)
100.31175
Table E-6: Compressor output values (Case 1).
Output
Values
Output
Values
T2t (K)
283.3293979
Po3 (kPa)
2
608.0490906
P2t (kPa)
85.00958077
m3/A3 (kg/(m *s))
252.0767384
2t (kg/m )
1.045410296
W3 (m/s)
120.1298177
U2t (m/s)
29.27415519
T3 (K)
403.1068889
To2rel (kPa)
297.4250355
P3 (kPa)
242.7681092
Po2rel (kPa)
100.8169058
3 (kg/m )
2.098369441
M3rel
0.29870493
(m3/ Po2)1/2*/(0*R* To2)1/4
0.106466006
M3
1.22522507
r3/r2t
16.32427858
1.762722794
b3/r3
0.000639812
6.061593887
U3 (m/s)
477.8794646
To3rel (K)
410.2643349
0.878835559
Po3rel (kPa)
258.2498426
s3 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.756319109
To3 (K)
523.5286698
Wc/m3 (W/kg/s)
-228368.7827
74
Table E-7: Burner output value (Case 1).
Output
Values
Output
Values
M4rel
0.799978645
P4 (kPa)
128.1908667
brel
3.126086403
4 (kg/m3)
0.386067689
brel
0.743665982
s4 (kJ/(kg*K))
3.131401637
2.29213808
m4/m3
1.021667114
0.241091813
A4/A3
1.2417444
To4rel (K)
1282.521759
4 (deg)
66.467768
Po4rel (kPa)
192.0516227
Cp4 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.165537217
To4 (K)
1200
1.326686938
Po4 (kPa)
146.5956577
U4 (m/s)
644.6789908
W4 (m/s)
530.8233787
0.021667114
T4 (K)
1156.33955
Wb/m3 (W/kg/s)
124301.7053
Table E-8: Turbine output value (Case 1).
Output
Values
Output
Values
M5rel
2.630817867
P5 (kPa)
7.205425768
trel
1.061557783
5 (kg/m3)
0.04096135
trel
0.817183228
s5 (kJ/(kg*K))
3.131401637
0.628156809
A5/A4
3.863164912
0.179957283
A5/A4.5
4.012205168
To5rel (K)
1361.470956
r5/r4
1.187721
Po5rel (kPa)
156.941365
5 (deg)
89.433445
To5 (K)
753.7881702
Cp5 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.058624556
Po5 (kPa)
26.3809563
1.371951433
W5 (m/s)
1292.700693
U5 (m/s)
765.6987756
T5 (K)
613.1774811
Wt/m3 (W/kg/s)
516285.5771
75
Table E-9: Rotor overall properties (Case 1).
Output
Values
PTO/m3 (W/kg/s) 412218.4997

CTO
1.362989975
mf/PTO (kg/s/W)
5.25622E-08
TH
0.45440614
r5/r2h
65.39033925
z2h/z5
17488.37489
1500
r3 r4

r2t r2t
2
Mrel
T orel
500
r3 r4

r2t r2t
1000
10
20
30
10
r
r
2t
20
30
r
r
2t
Figure E-1: Case 1 relative Mach number.
Figure E-2: Case 1 relative stagnation temperature

(K).
3 .10
1500
r3 r4

r2t r2t
P orel2 .105
r3 r4

r2t r2t
1000
To
500
1 .10
5
0
10
20
30
r
r
2t
10
20
30
r
r
2t
Figure E-3: Case 1 relative stagnation pressure (Pa).
Figure E-4: Case 1 stagnation temperature (K).
76
1 .10
1500
r3 r4

r2t r2t
P o 5 .105
r3 r4

r2t r2t
1000
T
500
10
20
30
10

r
2t
Figure E-6: Case 1 temperature (Case 1).
3 .10
r3 r4

r2t r2t
2 .10
r3 r4

r2t r2t
5
1 .10
10
20
30
10
r
r
2t
30
Figure E-8: Case 1 density (Case 1).
100
1000
r3 r4

r2t r2t
50
20
r
r
2t
Figure E-7: Case 1 pressure (Case 1).
30
Figure E-5: Case 1 stagnation pressure (Case 1).
deg
20

r
2t
10
20
500
30
r
r
2t
r3 r4

r2t r2t
10
20
30
r
r
2t
Figure E-9: Case 1 flow curvature (Case 1).
Figure E-10: Case 1 rotor speed (Case 1).
77
1200
1.4
r3 r4

r2t r2t
Cp 1100
1000
10
20
1.35
1.3
30
r3 r4

r2t r2t
10

r
2t
20
30

r
2t
Figure E-11: Case 1 specific heat (Case 1).
Figure E-12: Case 1 specific heat ratio (Case 1).
500
1500
r3 r4

r2t r2t
0
C
s3
s4
1000
To
500
1000
500
10
20
0
1500
30
r
r
2t
2000
2500
3000
3500
Figure E-14: Case 1 To-s diagram (Case 1).
Figure E-13: Case 1 tangential velocity (Case 1).

1 .10
P o 5 .105
1 1
3 4
10
20
30
Figure E-15: Case 1 Po-v diagram (Case 1).
78
Table E-10: Data to show Case 1 configuration is the optimum (Case 1 highlighted below).
U3/(0*R*To2)1/2
r3/r2t
0.5
1.35193
5.896064
89465.712 2.69E-07
0.7
1.761836
8.254489
0.9
1
PTO/m3
mf/PTO
r5/r2h
z2h/z5
A5/A4.5
21.16218
2.776372
88795.587 2.64E-07 29.233796
7.033892
2.430948 10.612915 69279.005 3.28E-07 37.102533 23.187477
2.901004 11.792128 53339.868 4.18E-07 40.966537
46.20024
1.05
3.178761 12.381734
43761.26
5.04E-07 42.881601 66.682409
1.1
3.489095
12.97134
32332.3
6.76E-07
97.638476
6.061594 16.324279
412218.5
5.26E-08 65.390339
1.75E+04
4.012205
6.130212 16.391057 416331.58 5.27E-08 65.657836
1.89E+04
4.033592
1.384337
1.39
44.785
450000
400000
PTO/m3 (W/kg/s)
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
0
Figure E-16: Variation of specific power takeoff with compressor pressure ratio (Case 1).
79
8.00E-07
7.00E-07
mf /PTO (kg/s/W)
6.00E-07
5.00E-07
4.00E-07
3.00E-07
2.00E-07
1.00E-07
0.00E+00
0
Figure E-17: Variation of PSFC with compressor pressure ratio (Case 1).
18
16
14
r3 /r2t
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
Figure E-18: Variation of compressor radius ratio and pressure ratio (Case 1).
80
70
60
r5 /r2h
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
Figure E-19: Variation of rotor radius ratio with compressor pressure ratio (Case 1).
20000
15000
z2h/z5
10000
5000
0
0
-5000
c
Figure E-20: Variation of disk thickness with compressor pressure ratio (Case 1).
81
Appendix F
F.1
Input parameters
Table F-1: Air and diffuser input parameter values (Case 2).
Input
Values
M0
T0 (K)
300
P0 (kPa)
101.325
1.398
s0 (kJ/(kg*K)) 1.70203
R (kJ/(kg*K))
0.287
0.99
0.99
Table F-2: Compressor input parameter values (Case 2).
Input
Values
2t (deg)
19.585342
3 (deg)
ec
0.905
M2rel
0.64997
0.398559
U3/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
0.614369
C2t/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
0.398209
Wr3/U3
0.536858
82
Table F-3: Burner input parameter values (Case 2).
Input
Values
Y1
3.99312
Y2
S1
5.537262
S2
To4 (K)
1200
0.98
CD
1.5
hHV (BTU/lbm)
18000
r4/r3
1.255677
nb
2000
Table F-4: Turbine and stress input parameter values (Case 2).
Input
Values
K1
-41.638544
K2
1.287858
KK1
13.058003
KK2
B1
1.147403
B2
r5/r4
1.995009
nt
8000
/material (kPa/kg/m ) -41.638544

3
83
F.2
Output values
Table F-5: Air diffuser output values (Case 2).
Output
Values
Cp0 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.00812309
0 (kg/m3)
1.176808766
To2 (K)
297
Po2 (kPa)
100.31175
Table F-6: Compressor output values (Case 2).
Output
Values
Output
Values
T2t (K)
267.6547712
Po3 (kPa)
2
118.6849691
P2t (kPa)
69.60638697
m3/A3 (kg/(m *s))
118.0581585
2t (kg/m )
0.906117753
W3 (m/s)
113.8584493
U2t (m/s)
208.863337
T3 (K)
284.3989835
To2rel (kPa)
290.1564381
P3 (kPa)
84.63465782
Po2rel (kPa)
92.42506928
3 (kg/m )
1.036885354
M3rel
0.337056672
(m3/ Po2)1/2*/(0*R* To2)1/4
0.827809062
M3
0.712587056
r3/r2t
1.015415114
1.054333375
b3/r3
0.460075489
1.183161186
U3 (m/s)
212.082989
To3rel (K)
290.8286281
0.902709389
Po3rel (kPa)
91.54868673
s3 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.707097155
To3 (K)
313.1370122
Wc/m3 (W/kg/s)
-16268.09466
84
Table F-7: Burner output value (Case 2).
Output
Values
Output
Values
M4rel
0.603615629
P4 (kPa)
49.41581802
brel
4.344274537
4 (kg/m3)
0.144872207
brel
0.683366737
s4 (kJ/(kg*K))
3.524437467
3.832188317
m4/m3
1.026260618
0.427190894
A4/A3
2.020948942
To4rel (K)
1263.439404
4 (deg)
81.116531
Po4rel (kPa)
62.56132736
Cp4 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.171053612
To4 (K)
1200
1.324648437
Po4 (kPa)
50.70113808
U4 (m/s)
266.3077314
W4 (m/s)
405.5837271
0.026260618
T4 (K)
1187.544785
Wb/m3 (W/kg/s)
81713.81875
Table F-8: Turbine output value (Case 2).
Output
Values
Output
Values
M5rel
0.987347437
P5 (kPa)
34.23796475
trel
1.00019199
5 (kg/m3)
0.109959882
trel
0.999932428
s5 (kJ/(kg*K))
3.524437467
0.956413596
A5/A4
0.834297496
0.836135196
A5/A4.5
To5rel (K)
1263.681971
r5/r4
1.003980036
Po5rel (kPa)
62.55709997
5 (deg)
81.378184
To5 (K)
1147.696315
Cp5 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.152564501
Po5 (kPa)
42.39300603
1.331583213
W5 (m/s)
635.9900172
U5 (m/s)
267.3676458
T5 (K)
1085.68245
Wt/m3 (W/kg/s)
62439.20024
85
Table F-9: Rotor overall properties (Case 2).
Output
Values
PTO/m3 (W/kg/s) 127884.9243

CTO
0.422848247
mf/PTO (kg/s/W)
2.05346E-07
TH
0.116314054
r5/r2h
3.211840863
z2h/z5
2.932720727
1500
r3

r2t
Mrel 0.5
r4

r2t
r3

r2t
1000
T orel
r4

r2t
500
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
0.9

r
2t
1.1
1.2
1.3

r
2t
Figure F-1: Relative Mach number (Case 2).
Figure F-2: Relative stagnation temperature (Case 2).
1 .10
1500
r3

r2t
P orel8 .104
r4

r2t
1000
To
r3

r2t
r4

r2t
500
6 .10
4
0.9
1.1
1.2
0
0.9
1.3
r
r
2t
1.1
1.2
1.3
r
r
2t
Figure F-3: Relative stagnation pressure (Case 2).
Figure F-4: Stagnation temperature (Case 2).
86
1.5 .10
1500
r3

r2t
1 .10
Po
r4

r2t
r3

r2t
1000
T
5 .10
500
0
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
0.9

r
2t
1.1
1.2
1.3

r
2t
Figure F-5: Stagnation pressure (Case 2).
Figure F-6: Temperature (Case 2).
1 .10
r4

r2t
1.5
r3

r2t
5 .10
r4

r2t
r3

r2t
r4

r2t
0.5
0
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
0.9
r
r
2t
Figure F-7: Pressure (Case 2).
1.3
300
r3

r2t
50
1.2
Figure F-8: Density (Case 2).
100
deg
1.1
r
r
2t
0.9
r4

r2t
1.1
1.2
250
200
1.3
r
r
2t
r3

r2t
0.9
r4

r2t
1.1
1.2
r
r
2t
Figure F-9: Flow curvature (Case 2).
Figure F-10: Rotor speed (Case 2).
87
1.3
1200
r3

r2t
Cp 1100
r4

r2t
r3

r2t
1.4
r4

r2t
1.35
1000
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3
0.9

r
2t
1.2
1.3
Figure F-11: Specific heat (Case 2).
Figure F-12: Specific heat ratio (Case 2).
500
1.1

r
2t
1500
r3

r2t
r4

r2t
s3
s4
1000
To
500
500
0.9
1.1
1.2
0
1000
1.3
r
r
2t
2000
3000
4000
Figure F-14: To-s diagram (Case 2).
Figure F-13: Tangential velocity (Case 2).

350
s3
s4
T o 1200
To
300
1700
1750
3400
3600
s
Figure F-15: Beginning of To-s diagram (Case 2).
Figure F-16: End of To-s diagram (Case 2).
88
1.5 .10
5
1
4
1
3
1 .10
1.2 .10
Po
1
3
Po
4
5 .10
1 .10
10
Figure F-17: Po-s diagram (Case 2).
Figure F-18: Beginning of Po-s diagram (Case 2).
Table F-10: Data to show Case 2 configuration is the optimum (Case 2 highlighted below).
M2rel
r3/r2t
PTO/m3
mf/PTO
r5/r2h
z2h/z5
A5/A4.5
0.3
1.245687 1.237661 122769.28 2.11E-07 3.917246
3.050059
0.35
1.236315 1.198915 122186.45 2.13E-07 3.794145
3.03363
0.4
1.227077 1.162841 121858.95 2.14E-07 3.679526
3.016945
0.45
1.217979 1.129212 121724.06 2.14E-07 3.572674
3.000041
0.5
1.209031 1.097826 121739.93 2.15E-07 3.472944
2.982956
0.55
1.200241 1.068503 121877.15 2.15E-07 3.379761
2.965726
0.6
1.191614 1.041077 122114.24 2.15E-07 3.292602 2.95E+00
0.64997 1.183161 1.015415 122430.27 2.14E-07 3.211045 2.93E+00
0.7
1.174873 0.991339 122827.23 2.14E-07 3.134521 2.91E+00
0.8
1.158849 0.947586 123789.87 2.13E-07 2.995435
2.878672
0.9
1.143564 0.908966 124950.45 2.12E-07 2.872641
2.844053
1.129034
2.809908
0.87477
126283.75 2.10E-07 2.763883
89
127000
PTO/m3 (W/kg/s)
126000
125000
124000
123000
122000
121000
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.2
1.22
1.24
1.26
Figure F-19: Variation of specific power takeoff with compressor pressure ratio (Case 2).
2.15E-07
2.15E-07
2.14E-07
mf /PTO (kg/s/W)
2.14E-07
2.13E-07
2.13E-07
2.12E-07
2.12E-07
2.11E-07
2.11E-07
2.10E-07
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.2
1.22
1.24
Figure F-20: Variation of PSFC with compressor pressure ratio (Case 2).
90
1.26
1.4
1.2
r3 /r2t
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.2
1.22
1.24
1.26
Figure F-21: Variation of compressor radius ratio and pressure ratio (Case 2).
4.5
4
3.5
r5 /r2h
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.2
1.22
1.24
Figure F-22: Variation of rotor radius ratio with compressor pressure ratio (Case 2).
91
1.26
3.1
3.05
z2h/z5
2.95
2.9
2.85
2.8
2.75
1.12
1.14
1.16
1.18
1.2
1.22
1.24
Figure F-23: Variation of disk thickness with compressor pressure ratio (Case 2).
92
1.26
Appendix G
G.1
Input parameters
Table G-1: Air and diffuser input parameter values (Case 3).
Input
Values
M0
T0 (K)
300
P0 (kPa)
101.325
1.398
s0 (kJ/(kg*K)) 1.70203
R (kJ/(kg*K))
0.287
0.99
0.99
Table G-2: Compressor input parameter values (Case 3).
Input
Values
2t (deg)
10.158584
3 (deg)
ec
0.905
M2rel
0.368845
0.4
U3/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
1.928568
C2t/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
0.215862
Wr3/U3
0.203182
93
Table G-3: Burner input parameter values (Case 3).
Input
Values
Y1
1.335502
Y2
S1
21.227624
S2
To4 (K)
1200
0.98
CD
1.5
hHV (BTU/lbm)
18000
r4/r3
1.069184
nb
2000
Table G-4: Turbine input parameter values (Case 3).
Input
Values
K1
-3.524361
K2
1.350092
KK1
4.724029
KK2
B1
1.349654
B2
r5/r4
1.06018
nt
8000
30
94
G.2
Output value
Table G-5: Air diffuser output values (Case 3).
Output
Values
Cp0 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.00812309
0 (kg/m3)
1.176808766
To2 (K)
297
Po2 (kPa)
100.31175
Table G-6: Compressor output values (Case 3).
Output
Values
Output
Values
T2t (K)
286.7249039
Po3 (kPa)
2
1745.785.622
P2t (kPa)
88.64231542
m3/A3 (kg/(m *s))
437.905847
2t (kg/m )
1.07717487
W3 (m/s)
135.2685171
U2t (m/s)
96.5817412
T3 (K)
500.6121768
To2rel (kPa)
294.4874876
P3 (kPa)
465.1305732
Po2rel (kPa)
97.36252913
3 (kg/m )
3.237307959
M3rel
0.301819786
(m3/ Po2)1/2*/(0*R* To2)1/4
0.326260951
M3
1.515817267
r3/r2t
6.893129974
2.456274202
b3/r3
0.001581712
17.40360049
U3 (m/s)
665.7504952
To3rel (K)
509.6872451
0.861980802
Po3rel (kPa)
495.4286911
s3 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.788094816
To3 (K)
729.513438
Wc/m3 (W/kg/s)
-436026.7837
95
Table G-7: Burner output value (Case 3).
Output
Values
Output
Values
M4rel
0.799710092
P4 (kPa)
253.6339543
brel
2.529142176
4 (kg/m3)
0.75986289
brel
0.766859421
s4 (kJ/(kg*K))
2.889971791
1.644932002
m4/m3
1.020843961
0.162667148
A4/A3
1.09239537
To4rel (K)
1289.071508
4 (deg)
84.145266
Po4rel (kPa)
379.9241592
Cp4 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.166692558
To4 (K)
1200
1.326257883
Po4 (kPa)
283.9819685
U4 (m/s)
711.8097775
W4 (m/s)
532.0416408
0.020843961
T4 (K)
1162.809722
Wb/m3 (W/kg/s)
310579.1483
Table G-8: Turbine output value (Case 3).
Output
Values
Output
Values
M5rel
1.51580327
P5 (kPa)
100.820663
trel
1.021361317
5 (kg/m3)
0.369539251
trel
0.97683752
s5 (kJ/(kg*K))
2.889971791
0.823512255
A5/A4
1.192265289
0.466709557
A5/A4.5
1.235197655
To5rel (K)
1316.607773
r5/r4
1.06018
Po5rel (kPa)
371.1241734
5 (deg)
88.76084
To5 (K)
988.2147063
Cp5 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.126352764
Po5 (kPa)
132.5370987
1.341938124
W5 (m/s)
917.1864066
U5 (m/s)
754.6464899
T5 (K)
950.6213979
Wt/m3 (W/kg/s)
257696.2321
96
Table G-9: Rotor overall properties (Case 3).
Output
Values
PTO/m3 (W/kg/s) 132248.5966

CTO
0.437276618
mf/PTO (kg/s/W)
1.57612E-07
TH
0.151540461
r5/r2h
19.53388085
z2h/z5
12921.49295
1500
r3 r4
r2tr2t
1.5
Mrel
r3 r4
r2tr2t
1000
T orel
500
0.5
0
10
r
r
2t
10
r
r
2t
Figure G-1: Relative Mach number (Case 3).
Figure G-2: Relative stagnation temperature (Case

3).
6 .10
1500
r3 r4

r2t r2t
4 .10
P orel
r3 r4
r2tr2t
1000
To
5
2 .10
500
10
r
r
2t
10
r
r
2t
Figure G-3: Relative stagnation pressure (Case 3).
Figure G-4: Stagnation temperature (Case 3).
97
2 .10
1500
r3 r4

r2t r2t
P o 1 .106
r3 r4
r2tr2t
1000
T
500
10

r
2t
10

r
2t
Figure G-5: Stagnation pressure (Case 3).
Figure G-6: Temperature (Case 3).
6 .10
r3 r4

r2t r2t
4 .10
r3 r4
r2tr2t
5
2 .10
10
r
r
2t
Figure G-7: Pressure (Case 3).
1000
r3 r4
r2tr2t
50
10
Figure G-8: Density (Case 3).
100
deg
r
r
2t
500
10
r
r
2t
r3 r4
r2tr2t
r
r
2t
Figure G-9: Flow curvature (Case 3).
Figure G-10: Rotor speed (Case 3).
98
10
1200
1.4
r3 r4
r2tr2t
Cp 1100
1000
1.35
1.3
10
r3 r4
r2tr2t

r
2t
10

r
2t
Figure G-11: Specific heat (Case 3).
Figure G-12: Specific heat ratio (Case 3).
1000
1500
r3 r4
r2tr2t
500
C
s3
s4
1000
To
500
500
0
1500
10
r
r
2t
2000
2500
3000
Figure G-14: To-s diagram (Case 3).
Figure G-13: Tangential velocity (Case 3).

2 .10
6
1
4
1
3
P o 1 .106
2
1
Figure G-15: Po-v diagram (Case 3).
99
Appendix H
H.1
Input parameters
Table H-1: Air and diffuser input parameter values (Case 4).
Input
Values
M0
T0 (K)
300
P0 (kPa)
101.325
1.398
s0 (kJ/(kg*K)) 1.70203
R (kJ/(kg*K))
0.287
0.99
0.99
Table H-2: Compressor input parameter values (Case 4).
Input
Values
2t (deg)
49.999979
3 (deg)
ec
0.905
M2rel
0.672518
0.399999
U3/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
0.619976
C2t/(0*R*To2)^(1/2)
Wr3/U3
0.2
100
Table H-3: Burner input parameter values (Case 4).
Input
Values
Y1
-1.434396
Y2
S1
6.332654
S2
To4 (K)
1200
0.98
CD
1.5
hHV (BTU/lbm)
18000
r4/r3
1.1
nb
2000
Table H-4: Turbine and stress input parameter values (Case 4).
Input
Values
K1
-7.855414
K2
1.196379
KK1
1.7
KK2
B1
22.766825
B2
r5/r4
1.036995
nt
8000
/material (kPa/kg/m )
3
30
101
H.2
Output values
Table H-5: Air diffuser output values (Case 4).
Output
Values
Cp0 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.00812309
0 (kg/m3)
1.176808766
To2 (K)
297
Po2 (kPa)
100.31175
Table H-6: Compressor output values (Case 4).
Output
Values
Output
Values
T2t (K)
286.3513274
Po3 (kPa)
2
157.7155002
P2t (kPa)
88.23730292
m3/A3 (kg/(m *s))
57.39563798
2t (kg/m )
1.07365206
W3 (m/s)
42.80371022
U2t (m/s)
174.624696
T3 (K)
318.808737
To2rel (kPa)
312.1240383
P3 (kPa)
122.6922554
Po2rel (kPa)
119.4319393
3 (kg/m )
1.34090334
M3rel
0.119679011
(m3/ Po2)1/2*/(0*R* To2)1/4
0.604641308
M3
0.610245611
r3/r2t
1.225591545
1.152979356
b3/r3
0.31377556
1.572253502
U3 (m/s)
214.0185511
To3rel (K)
319.7174343
0.898764101
Po3rel (kPa)
123.9250334
s3 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.715663037
To3 (K)
342.4348687
Wc/m3 (W/kg/s)
-45803.94021
102
Table H-7: Burner output value (Case 4).
Output
Values
Output
Values
M4rel
0.314921598
P4 (kPa)
110.0527876
brel
3.751173898
4 (kg/m3)
0.324832124
brel
0.947802185
s4 (kJ/(kg*K))
3.266250485
3.504316032
m4/m3
1.023944159
0.746469231
A4/A3
0.8565604
To4rel (K)
1199.315694
4 (deg)
36.283435
Po4rel (kPa)
117.4564174
Cp4 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.169595183
To4 (K)
1200
1.325184899
Po4 (kPa)
117.7297682
U4 (m/s)
235.4204062
W4 (m/s)
210.9026514
0.023944159
T4 (K)
1179.215682
Wb/m3 (W/kg/s)
19140.00711
Table H-8: Turbine output value (Case 4).
Output
Values
Output
Values
Output
Values
M5rel
0.476262371
To5 (K)
1162.957271
A5/A4
0.711062276
trel
1.00149048
Po5 (kPa)
103.6519401
r5/r4
1.036995
trel
0.99985241
W5 (m/s)
316.1401293
5 (deg)
84.535271
0.969131059
T5 (K)
1157.254069
Cp5 (kJ/(kg*K))
1.165700874
0.880422528
P5 (kPa)
101.3265771
1.326626093
To5rel (K)
1201.103251
5 (kg/m3)
0.304751534
U5 (m/s)
244.1286954
Po5rel (kPa)
117.439082
s5 (kJ/(kg*K))
3.266250485
Wt/m3 (W/kg/s)
44305.75403
103
Table H-9: Rotor overall properties (Case 4).
Output
Values
PTO/m3 (W/kg/s) 17641.82093

CTO
0.058332232
mf/PTO (kg/s/W)
1.35724E-06
TH
0.017597931
r5/r2h
3.495072575
z2h/z5
2.489291269
1500
r3

r2t
Mrel 0.5
r4

r2t
r3

r2t
1000
T orel
r4

r2t
500
1.2
1.4
1.2

r
2t
1.4

r
2t
Figure H-1: Relative Mach number (Case 4).
Figure H-2: Relative stagnation temperature (Case

4).
1.25 .10
1500
r3

r2t
P orel 1.2 .105
r4

r2t
r3

r2t
1000
To
r4

r2t
500
1.15 .10
5
1
1.2
1.4

r
2t
1.2
1.4

r
2t
Figure H-3: Relative stagnation pressure (Case 4).
Figure H-4: Stagnation temperature (Case 4).
104
2 .10
1500
r3

r2t
P o 1.5 .105
r4

r2t
r3

r2t
1000
T
r4

r2t
500
1 .10
5
1
1.2
1.4

r
2t
1.5
r3

r2t
1.2 .10
r4

r2t
r3

r2t
5
1 .10
1.2
1.4
r
r
2t
1.2
1.4
r
r
2t
Figure H-7: Pressure (Case 4).
Figure H-8: Density (Case 4).
100
250
r3

r2t
50
r4

r2t
0.5
1.4
Figure H-6: Temperature (Case 4).
1.4 .10
deg
1.2
r
Figure H-5: Stagnation pressure (Case 4).
8 .10

r
2t
1.2
r4

r2t
200
150
1.4
r
r
2t
r3

r2t
r4

r2t
1.2
r
r
2t
Figure H-9: Flow curvature (Case 4).
Figure H-10: Rotor speed (Case 4).
105
1.4
1200
1.4
r3

r2t
Cp 1100
1000
r4

r2t
1.2
1.35
1.3
1.4
r3

r2t
r4

r2t
1.2

r
2t
1.4

r
2t
Figure H-11: Specific heat (Case 4).
Figure H-12: Specific heat ratio (Case 4).
400
1500
r3

r2t
200
C
r4

r2t
s3
s4
1000
To
200
500
1.2
0
1500
1.4
r
r
2t
2000
2500
3000
3500
Figure H-14: To-s diagram (Case 4).
Figure H-13: Tangential velocity (Case 4).
1300
s3
s4
400
T o 1200
To
1100
1600
1700
1800
3200
3300
s
Figure H-15: Beginning of To-s diagram (Case 4).
Figure H-16: End of To-s diagram (Case 4).
106
2 .10
P o 1.5 .105
1 .10
1
4
1
3
5
0
Figure H-17: Po-s diagram (Case 4).
107
Appendix I
Sample rotor for Case 1 with calculation program
A 4
A := 1.241744
3
A4
A := 1.03858
4.5
b3
4
r := 6.39812 10
3
r3
r := 16.324279
2t
3 := 0 deg
4 := 66.467768deg
c := 0.4
r2t := 2 in
r5
r5 := r4
r4
d 2h := 2 r2h
b3
r3
b 3 := r3
A4
A 4.5 := A 4
A 4.5
A 3 :=
d 2t := 2 r2t
( )
2 r3 b 3 cos 3
b 4.5 :=
r4
r := 1.349041
3
4.5 := 66.922988deg
r2h := r2t c
Nb
A5
A := 4.012205
4.5
r4.5
r := 1.003707
4
5 := 89.433445deg
r3
r3 := r2t
r2t
d 3 := 2 r3
A 4
A 3
d 5 := 2 r5
Nb A 4
b 4 :=
( )
2 r4 cos 4
A5
A 4.5
A 5 := A 4.5
( )
r4.5
r4.5 := r4
r4
d 4.5 := 2 r4.5
A 4 := A 3
2 r4.5 cos 4.5
Nb := 8
r4
r4 := r3
r3
d 4 := 2 r4
Nb A 4.5
r5
r := 1.187721
4
b 5 :=
Nb A 5
( )
2 r5 cos 5
r2h = 0.8in
r3 = 32.649in
r4 = 44.044in
r4.5 = 44.208in
r5 = 52.312in
d 2h = 1.6in
d 2t = 4 in
d 3 = 65.297in
d 4 = 88.088in
d 4.5 = 88.415in
d 5 = 104.625in
b 3 = 0.021in
b 4 = 0.048in
b 4.5 = 0.047in
b 5 = 6.325in
A 4 = 0.665in
A 3 = 0.536in
A 4.5 = 0.64in
108
A 5 = 2.569in
89.4= 5
67.0 = 4.5
104.624 = d5
88.416 = d4.5
4.000 = d2t
1.600 = d2h
88.088 = d4
65.298 = d3
b4 = .048
.047 = b4.5
b3 = .021
b5 = 6.325
Figure I-1: Sample rotor for Case 1 with side view (starting at station 3).
109
Appendix J
A 4
A := 2.020949
3
A 5
A := 0.834297
4
r3
:= 1.015415
r2t
b3
r := 0.460075
3
r4
r := 1.255677
3
r5
r := 1.00398
4
3 := 0 deg
4 := 81.116531deg
5 := 81.378184deg
Nb := 8
c := 0.4
r2t := 2 in
d 2h := 2 r2h
r2h := r2t c
d 2t := 2 r2t
b3
r3
b 3 := r3
A 5
A 4
A 3 :=
d 3 := 2 r3
( )
2 r3 b 3 cos 3
Nb
r3
r3 := r2t
r2t
d 4 := 2 r4
r4
r4 := r3
r3
d 5 := 2 r5
A 4
A 3
A 4 := A 3
b 4 :=
Nb A 4
( )
2 r4 cos 4
Nb A 5
A 5 := A 4
b 5 :=
r2h = 0.8in
r3 = 2.031in
r4 = 2.55in
r5 = 2.56in
d 2h = 1.6in
d 2t = 4 in
d 3 = 4.062in
d 4 = 5.1in
b 3 = 0.934in
b 4 = 9.738in
b 5 = 8.336in
A 4 = 3.012in
A 3 = 1.49in
r5
r5 := r4
r4
( )
2 r5 cos 5
A 5 = 2.513in
110
d 5 = 5.12in
81.3= 5
5.120 = d5
5.100 = d4
4.062 = d3
4.000 = d2t
1.594 = d2h
9.738 =b4
8.336 =b5
b3 = .934
Figure J-1: Sample rotor for Case 2 with side view (starting at station 3).
111
Appendix K
A 4
A := 1.092395
3
A4
A := 1.036009
4.5
r3
r := 6.89313
2t
3 := 0 deg
b3
3
r := 1.581712 10
3
4 := 84.145266deg
c := 0.4
r2t := 2 in
r5
r5 := r4
r4
b3
r3
b 3 := r3
A4
A 4.5 := A 4
A 4.5
A 3 :=
( )
2 r3 b 3 cos 3
b 4.5 :=
d 3 := 2 r3
r4.5
r := 1.0099
4
r4
r4 := r3
r3
d 4 := 2 r4
A 4
A 3
d 5 := 2 r5
( )
2 r4 cos 4
A5
A 4.5
( )
r4.5
r4.5 := r4
r4
Nb A 4
b 4 :=
A 5 := A 4.5
2 r4.5 cos 4.5
Nb := 8
d 4.5 := 2 r4.5
A 4 := A 3
Nb A 4.5
r5
r := 1.06018
4
5 := 88.76084deg
r3
r3 := r2t
r2t
d 2t := 2 r2t
Nb
r4
r := 1.069184
3
4.5 := 84.910798deg
r2h := r2t c
d 2h := 2 r2h
A5
A := 1.235198
4.5
b 5 :=
Nb A 5
( )
2 r5 cos 5
r2h = 0.8in
r3 = 13.786in
r4 = 14.74in
r4.5 = 14.886in
r5 = 15.627in
d 2h = 1.6in
d 2t = 4 in
d 3 = 27.573in
d 4 = 29.48in
d 4.5 = 29.772in
d 5 = 31.254in
b 3 = 0.022in
b 4 = 0.218in
b 4.5 = 0.24in
b 5 = 1.159in
A 4 = 0.258in
A 3 = 0.236in
A 4.5 = 0.249in
112
A 5 = 0.308in
84.1 = 4
88.8 = 5
29.772 = d4.5
31.254 = d5
29.480 = d4
27.572 = d3
4.000 = d2t
1.600 = d2h
r
b4 = .218
.240 = b4.5
b3 = .022
1.159 = b5
Figure K-1: Sample rotor for Case 3 with side view (starting at station 3)
113
Appendix L
A 4
A := 0.85656
3
A 5
A := 0.711062
4
r3
r := 1.225592
2t
b3
r := 0.313776
3
r4
r := 1.1
3
3 := 0 deg
4 := 36.283435deg
5 := 84.535271deg
c := 0.4
r2t := 2 in
d 2h := 2 r2h
r2h := r2t c
d 2t := 2 r2t
b3
r3
b 3 := r3
A 5
A 4
A 5 := A 4
A 3 :=
b 5 :=
d 3 := 2 r3
( )
2 r3 b 3 cos 3
Nb
r3
r3 := r2t
r2t
r5
r5 := r4
r4
d 5 := 2 r5
A 4
A 3
A 4 := A 3
b 4 :=
Nb A 4
( )
2 r4 cos 4
Nb A 5
( )
2 r5 cos 5
r4 = 2.696in
r5 = 2.796in
d 2h = 1.6in
d 2t = 4 in
d 3 = 4.902in
b 3 = 0.769in
b 4 = 0.743in
b 5 = 4.312in
Nb := 8
r4
r4 := r3
r3
d 4 := 2 r4
r3 = 2.451in
A 3 = 1.481in
r5
r := 1.036995
4
A 4 = 1.268in
d 4 = 5.393in
A 5 = 0.902in
114
d 5 = 5.592in
4 = 36
85 = 5
5.592 = d5
5.392 = d4
4.902 = d3
1.600 = d2t
4.000 = d2h
4.312= b4
.743 = b5
b3 = .769
Figure L-1: Sample rotor for Case 4 with side view (starting at station 3).
115
Vita
Manoharan Thiagarajan was born to Malaysian parents in Baton Rouge, Louisiana on August 23,
1977. His early education up until high school was in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. After completing high
school at Cochrane Road Secondary School (Malaysia), he enrolled in McNeese State University at Lake
Charles, Louisiana from 1995 to 1996. He then transferred to Louisiana State University and completed
his B.S. in Mechanical Engineering in Fall of 2000.
His father, R. Thiagarajan and mother, G. Easwari are Malaysian Government employees. They
both served as an agricultural officer and teacher, respectively. In the Fall of 2001, he enrolled at the
Mechanical Engineering Department of Virginia Tech as a M.S. graduate student and completed his
defense in Summer II. He plans to continue with his studies by pursuing a PhD degree in Aerospace
Engineering.
116

(PANTONE STIRLING GEET SPAD) Thesis - Simple Gas Turbine Engine Design

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A Design Study of Single-Rotor Turbomachinery Cycles

Dr. Peter King, Chairman

August 12, 2004

A Design Study of Single-Rotor Turbomachinery Cycles

Dr. Peter King, Chairman

ABOUT SMALL GAS TURBINE ENGINES ..........................................................................................................1

AUXILIARY POWER UNIT (APU) AND PURPOSE OF RESEARCH .......................................................................4

HISTORY OF THE APU...................................................................................................................................6

The Black Box .................................................................................................................................6

IDEAL BRAYTON CYCLE AND IDEAL JET PROPULSION CYCLE ........................................................................9

HOW CURRENT APUS WORK .......................................................................................................................11

FORMULAS USED FOR THE APU ........................................................................................15

GENERAL INFORMATION .............................................................................................................................15

AMBIENT AIR AND DIFFUSER .......................................................................................................................17

BURNER AND TURBINE ................................................................................................................................22

Burner input parameters and method of solving equations ..........................................................25

Turbine equations .........................................................................................................................28

Turbine input parameters..............................................................................................................29

Supersonic turbine ........................................................................................................................................ 31

Method of solving turbine equations.............................................................................................32

Burner and turbine output summary .............................................................................................35

OVERALL APU PROPERTIES ........................................................................................................................37

SIMPLE ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW ...............................................................................................................39

Constant area flow with drag and heat addition ............................................................................................ 40

Constant area flow with only heat addition................................................................................................... 41

Variable area flow ........................................................................................................................42

Model Center and input/output constraints ..................................................................................43

Results from Model Center............................................................................................................46

Case 1: Without the stress and |(P0-P5)/P5| constraints. ................................................................................. 46

Case 4: With the stress and |(P0-P5)/P5| constraints ....................................................................................... 50

Rotor material and size .................................................................................................................51

COMPRESSOR DERIVATIONS .............................................................................................54

OUTLET RELATIVE MACH NUMBER .............................................................................................................54

OUTLET RELATIVE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE .........................................................................................55

BURNER AND TURBINE DERIVATIONS ............................................................................56

CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM .................................................................................................56

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY (FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS)................................................................56

EQUATION OF STATE ...................................................................................................................................58

CONSERVATION OF MASS ............................................................................................................................58

CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM .....................................................................................................58

RELATIVE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE EQUATION .....................................................................................59

RELATIVE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE EQUATION .....................................................................................60

ABSOLUTE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE EQUATION ....................................................................................62

RELATIVE MACH NUMBER EQUATION .........................................................................................................63

ABSOLUTE STAGNATION PRESSURE EQUATION ...........................................................................................63

ENTROPY EQUATION ...................................................................................................................................64

BURNER ABSOLUTE STAGNATION TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION.................................................................64

BURNER SPECIFIC WORK .............................................................................................................................65

TURBINE SPECIFIC WORK ............................................................................................................................66

TO DETERMINE PERPENDICULAR (ONE-DIMENSIONAL) FLOW AREA

BETWEEN THE VANES .........................................................................................................................................67

CURRENT ENGINE DATA......................................................................................................68

COMPLETE RESULTS FOR CASE 1.....................................................................................72

INPUT PARAMETERS ....................................................................................................................................72

OUTPUT VALUES .........................................................................................................................................74

COMPLETE RESULTS FOR CASE 2.....................................................................................82

INPUT PARAMETERS ....................................................................................................................................82

OUTPUT VALUES .........................................................................................................................................84

COMPLETE RESULTS FOR CASE 3.....................................................................................93

INPUT PARAMETERS ....................................................................................................................................93

OUTPUT VALUE ...........................................................................................................................................95

COMPLETE RESULTS FOR CASE 4...................................................................................100