13.

REFERENCING
The instruction in this section on referencing systems is applicable for all American Studies students and should be followed for all AM coded modules, including Dissertations. If you are taking a module with a HS, EN, HA or PL code in the second year or final year you should ensure that you are familiar with the expectations of that particular module by asking the module convener and/or with reference to the appropriate departmental handbook. Essay Layout The essential principles to bear in mind are: (i) clarity, (ii) readability, and (iii) ease of reference. In stylistic terms, this means the use of good written English. Care should be taken over grammar and punctuation, and contractions and colloquialisms should be avoided (i.e. its should be it is; wasnt should be was not; look into should be analyse or discuss). There is no merit in long and cumbersome sentences: aim for a writing style that while expressive in using a sophisticated vocabulary remains clear and concise. The text should be properly divided into paragraphs. Dates should be given in a consistent pattern, with day, then month, and then year, e.g. 24 August 1931. Dates of years should always be given in full, as numbers, e.g. 1789. When referring to a decade, the construction - the 1780s is the correct format (but not the 1780s). If referring to a century, this should be given in word form, e.g. the nineteenth century. Names should also follow a consistent pattern. It is permissible to give a full name and title on the first mention (e.g. Martin Luther King, Jr or President Franklin Delano Roosevelt), and subsequently refer to that individual by the surname (or title, e.g. King or Roosevelt) on all subsequent occasions. Foreign words or phrases in your text should be italicised or underlined (but not both): for example, The Pentagon staged a coup d'tat in January 1964. Italics are not needed for foreign language quotations. Note: where the English name for a place differs from the native form, the English version is used in all cases except a direct quotation: e.g. Munich rather than Mnchen Titles of publications, such as newspapers, should be italicised: New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post. Italics can also be used to give emphasis, but in this respect they should be used very sparingly indeed. Spacing: the text should be typed using double-spacing between lines, with indented quotations single-spaced separated 95

from the body of the text by a blank line (see Quotations section below). Paragraphs should either (i) be separated by a blank line (as they are on this page) OR (ii) the first word of each paragraph must be indented from the left margin by at least 10 mm. Margins: Make sure that you leave adequate margins. At least 25 mm (1 inch) should be left clear at the right-hand side of each page, and at the top and bottom. Quotations (see also pp. 70-71) Quotations should be included where they serve to advance your argument, or in support of key elements of your work. It is important to strike a balance between failure to support your analysis with evidence, and a quotation that is excessive in length or frequency. All quotations are included in calculating word-length. Short quotations, taking up not more than two lines of typescript, may remain within the text of a paragraph, placed between either single or double quotations marks: thus or thus. Be consistent with one style or the other though. Any longer extract that you include must not appear within a paragraph, but should stand separately from the text. Such longer quotations should be double indented 10 mm from the left-hand and right-hand margins, and typed in single-spaced lines, for example: Population curves and economic structures are only a part of the ecology of character formation. Interposed between them and the resultant social character are the human agents of character formation: the parents, the teachers, the members of the peer-group, and the storytellers. A blank line must be left above and below each indented quotation, so that it stands out clearly from the text. You are not required to place such quotations between quotation marks. All quotations should correspond exactly with the original in wording, spelling and interior punctuation. Alterations, omissions or insertions must be indicated using the correct conventions (see below). You might wish to shorten a quoted extract by omitting a portion of it. This is acceptable, so long as it does not sacrifice clarity or alter the sense of the original. This is done by means of an ellipsis, represented as three full-stops [] at the point where the omission has taken place: for example:

96

One year, early in October, Indian summer came to a town called Peyton Place. [] The sky was low, of a solidly unbroken blue. [] On the roads and sidewalks of the town there were fallen leaves. Common sense should be used when editing quotations. Too many ellipses in a quotation should be avoided, and it is not normally worthwhile to make omissions of less than 5 words. Ellipses should not be used to link material across a very large omission, and extracts which in the original are widely separated should be given as different and distinct quotations. All quotations, so far as possible, should read grammatically. In order to achieve this, or in order to make a quotation clearer, it may be useful not only to omit sections, but also to insert information. All such interpolations introduced by you, or by any previous editor, must be given in square brackets: i.e. [like this]. This rule applies to short and long quotations. Interpolations may be necessary in order to clarify a name, date, or place, or in order to insert a word clearly omitted in error in the original: for example, the President was of the opinion [that] war should be declared. It is not necessary to alter minor grammatical points, such as the tense, in a quotation. In some cases a quotation may be made less rather than more clear by the use of many such interpolations, and an alternative convention may be used to indicate that your reproduction of the original is not in error. This is done by placing the word sic (meaning as it is written) after the appropriate word or phrase, in square brackets. A further interpolation that you might wish to use is to insert a question mark, again in square brackets, after any word where there is some doubt as to the correct reading, e.g. Jefferson spoke to Adams[?] who said he could [should?] agree... All quotations must be followed by a footnote number, and the exact source of the quotation must be fully and accurately given in the footnote itself. Footnotes and Endnotes Footnote references should be used to acknowledge your direct use of a source (whether quoted or paraphrased), or where you feel a need to provide supporting evidence for crucial or contentious elements of your analysis and argument. References should not be over-used: there is no credit for having extensive references simply for their own sake. It is not necessary to have a reference for every sentence, and certainly do not have more than one footnote number within a sentence, unless that sentence contains two or more short but separate quotations. 97

Not all the works or sources that you have consulted will inevitably appear in the references: the Bibliography at the end of the essay or dissertation provides you with the opportunity to display the comprehensiveness of your research. Numbers should be inserted in your text as superscripted numerals to indicate notes (raised by half a line and reduced in size Microsoft Word provides a superscript function in its Insert Footnote or Endnote facilities). It is not necessary to place the number in brackets if it has been superscripted. For example: elections in nineteenth century Massachusetts were marked by widespread mob riots, those at Boston in 1850 being 14 especially violent. After this, public attitudes The numbers should form a single sequence throughout the essay or dissertation starting with the number 1. The notes to which the numbers refer should either be placed at the foot of the relevant page as footnotes, OR collected in a separate section at the end of the essay or dissertation as endnotes, after the text but before the Bibliography. Remember that footnotes/endnotes are included in the calculation of word length. The most important rule in citing references is that you should employ a system that is consistent. Do not refer to a work or source in different ways on different occasions, or use both footnotes and endnotes: this is careless as well as misleading. Whilst abbreviations may be used in references, they should always be clear enough to be readily understandable. In the last resort, clarity is preferable to extreme brevity. The common practice in giving references is that the first mention of any work, source, or document, should be a full description sufficient for the item to be readily traceable: for example, in the case of a book by giving the authors name and initials and the full title, together with useful publication details). Thereafter, further references may be abbreviated, along the lines indicated below. REMEMBER to give precise references: in the case of a book or article to the exact page or pages; in the case of a document to the particular item or, in long documents, part of the item. If a reference contains more than one item, each separate item should be distinguished from the previous one by a semi-colon; a full stop need be placed only at the end of the series.

98

Referencing Conventions References to Books The first reference should be given in the format below: Name(s) of author(s)/editor(s), with first name or initials. Title of work in full in italics. Edition - only given when not the first edition. Place, publisher and year of publication in brackets. (It is useful to give the year of first publication in square brackets before the year of the edition you are using: see example below) Volume - if required. Page(s) referred to. For example: Sara M. Evans, Born for Liberty: A History of Women in America, 2nd edn (New York: Collier Macmillan, 1997), p. 12. E. M. May, Barren in the Promised Land: Childless Americans and the Pursuit of Happiness (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 178-203. Henry Miller, Black Spring (London: Panther, [1965] 1974).

References to Articles These should follow the pattern below: Name(s) of author(s). Title of article, between single quotation marks. Title of periodical, in italics (or underlined). Volume number, and part number, if relevant. Year of publication, in brackets. Pages referred to. For example: Sandra Harris, Doing the American West, Over Here: Reviews in American Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1 (Summer 1992), pp. 86-94. Where the article appears not in a journal, but in an edited collection of essays, the reference follows the format below: Name(s) of author(s) Title of article, between single quotation marks. Name(s) of editor(s) and abbreviation ed. or eds Title of collection, in italics (or underlined). Place and year of publication, in brackets. Pages referred to.

99

For example: Robert Warshow, 'Movie Chronicle: The Westerner,' in Gerald Mast, Marshall Cohen & Leo Braudy (eds) Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings (New York: Oxford U.P., 1992), pp. 45366. Subsequent references to books or articles may be shortened, so long as minimum information is retained and clarity maintained. The author may be referred to by surname, and details of edition, place and date of publication omitted. The title can be shortened, ensuring that there is no ambiguity with other works by the same author. Use the abbreviation ibid. where a reference is identical with the previous one (except the page number). For example: Evans, Born for Liberty, p. 98. ibid., p. 99. Harris, 'Doing the American West,' p. 87. References to Films Name of the film. Name of the director in parenthesis, followed by: Country of origin (e.g. US, UK, Fr, Ger, Jap, Mex) If you are writing an essay in which all the films are made in the same country (e.g. US) then it is not necessary to include US in full reference. Year of release. For example: In the Heat of the Night (Norman Jewison, US, 1968) Taxi Driver (Martin Scorsese, US, 1976) Amores Perros (Alejandro Gonzlez Irritu, Mex, 2000) The film title only is needed in subsequent references (unless more than one film of the same title is being discussed). A particular video release should be cited only where relevant: For example: Gary Ross, Audio Commentary, Pleasantville (Gary Ross, 1998), New Line Home Video, 2004 References to Theses If you have consulted any unpublished theses, references to these should be as follows: Name of the author.

100

Title of the thesis, in single quotation marks (not in italics, which would imply a published work). University and degree for which it was submitted. Year of submission. Pages referred to. For example: Lana Ruegamer, 'The Paradise of Exceptional Women: Chicago Women Reformers, 1863-1893,' (Indiana University, Ph.D, 1982), pp. 1-10.

References to Documents These should indicate clearly the following information: Description of the document. Date of the document (so far as it is known). Location of the document. The description will vary according to period and type of document, but you should indicate the authorship and nature of the document (its title if any), the recipient if it is a letter or despatch. Where a document has been found in a published edition or collection, the location consists of the full details of the work in which it appeared, following the pattern set out above. For example: Nixon to Henry Kissinger, 12 November 1971, in Bruce Oudes (ed.) From: The President: Richard Nixon's Secret Files, (New York: HarperCollins, 1988), p. 335. Where you have consulted the document in the original, the location consists of the name of the collection in which it may be found, the precise reference numbers (if any), and the place where the collection of documents may be consulted. Chamberlain to Collings, 29 July 1886, Chamberlain MSS, JC/5/16/116, Birmingham University Library. The following standard abbreviations might be useful: MS Vol. fo. P.R.O. B.L. Manuscript (plural MSS) Volume Folio(s): sheet number, when referring to a manuscript source in which sheets are numbered on the front face only Public Records Office British Library

Further references to the same collection need not include the place where it is held. 101

References to Web Sites You may well consult sites on the Internet. Below are some guidelines for you to follow. Useful sources on the Internet include scholarly projects, reference databases; the texts of books; articles in periodicals; and professional and personal sites. If you have consulted any of these, references should be cited as follows: 1. Name of author, editor, compiler, or translator of the source. 2. Title of a poem, short story or article within a scholarly project, database or periodical (in quotation marks); or title of a posting to a discussion list or forum, followed by the description Online posting, or title of a book (in italics). 3. Title of the scholarly project, database, periodical, or professional or personal site (underlined); or for a professional or personal site with no title, a description such as Home Page. 4. Date of electronic publication, of the latest update, or of posting. 5. The number of pages, or other sections (if they are numbered). 6. Name of any institution or organisation sponsoring or associated with the Web site 7. Date on which you viewed the site (e.g. 1 August 2006). 8. Electronic address, or URL, of the source (angle brackets). For example: Scholarly project: Victorian Women Writers Project, ed. Perry Willett, April 1997. Indiana University, 26 April 2004 <http://www.indiana.edu/~letrs/vwwp/> Professional Site: Portuguese Language Page, University of Chicago, 1 August 2009 <http://rll.uchicago.edu/undergraduate/portuguese.shtml> Be careful to use the Internet carefully, discriminating between well-documented sites and badly written ones with poor references. Speak to your tutor if you are unclear.

Bibliography This consists of a list of all the sources, both primary and secondary, that you have consulted during your research. It is divided into a number of sections, which should appear in the following order (omitting any inapplicable sections):

102

Primary Sources Unpublished Manuscript Collections (a) (b) Government Records Private Collections

Published Editions of Documents Contemporary Published Sources (a) (b) Official Publications Newspapers

Memoirs and Autobiographies NOTE: If you are writing a LITERATURE essay the Primary Sources section include the core literary texts you are discussing. In a FILM essay the Primary Sources would include the main films to which your essay or dissertation is responding. Secondary Sources Books Articles Theses Within each sub-section items should be listed in alphabetical order: in sections 4 to 7 by the surname of the author. Thus: Terence Ball, The Politics of Social Science in Postwar America, in Lary May (ed.) Recasting America: Culture and Politics in the Age of Cold War, (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1989), pp. 7692 Barry Goldwater, The Conscience of a Conservative (New York: Hillman, 1960) Paul Goodman, Growing Up Absurd (New York: Vintage, 1960) Arthur M. Schlesinger, The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom (Boston: Houghton & Mifflin, [1949] 1962) Films should be listed in chronological or alphabetical order, title first: On the Waterfront (Elia Kazan, US, 1954) The Age of Innocence (Martin Scorsese, US, 1993) Good Night, and Good Luck (George Clooney, US, 2005)

103