WHAT IS A SPICE?

The name spice is derived from the word species, which was applied to groups of exotic foodstuffs in the Middle Ages. Aromatically scented herbal products have been used since ancient times to flavor foods and for preparing incenses and perfumes. Exotic imports obtained from Asia were particularly appealing to Greeks and Romans, who spent vast fortunes on trade with Arabia, which was the center of the spice trade. Rare spices were utilized in cooking as a sign of wealth in Rome, and later in Medieval and Renaissance times, and the privileged developed an exaggerated taste for spicy foods. The need to supply European markets spurred explorations, culminating in the extraordinary voyages that resulted in the discovery of the New World and demonstrated that the globe could be circumnavigated by sea. The fabled Spice Islands of Indonesia became the site of horrendous colonial practices by competing European powers. The desire to control spice sources took the British to India, the Portuguese to Brazil, the Spanish to Central and South America and to the Philippines, the French to Africa, and the Dutch to Indonesia. However, each country feuded with others to establish a monopolistic control over the spice-growing regions and the major trade routes. Today, many of the valued old spices, such as nutmeg, have lost their fabulous attraction, while the more lowly garlic, peppers and other commonplace kitchen herbs have become, paradoxically, increasingly popular. It is now impossible to give a strict definition of a spice: the word suggests an imported tropical herbal plant or some part of it that is valued for providing color and aromatic flavoring along with stimulating odor for use in cooking and in condiments, as well as in candies, cosmetics, fragrances and medications. A host of such products utilize spicy herbs varying from ajowan and aniseed to wasabi and zedoary. Indeed, the term spice could include chocolate, coffee, kola nuts, tea, wine and olive oil, since these mouthwatering delicacies are generally imported from tropical or sunny countries into the more temperate countries of northern Europe and North America to give a zestful taste to food products and beverages. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness.

WHY WERE SPICES IMPORTANT?

Spices can improve the palatability and the appeal of dull diets or spoiled food. Piquant flavors stimulate salivation and promote digestion. Pungent spices can cause sweating, which may even cause a cooling sensation in tropical climates; on the other hand they can add a sense of inner warmth when present in cooked foods used in cold climates. Local and inexpensive herbs and flavors, such as garlic, onion and horseradish, sufficed for the poorer people of old Europe, but influential, rich hosts would wish to impress or politically intimidate their guests with the liberal use of rare exotic spices. These expensive imports could be added in large amounts and in complex mixtures to each course and to accompanying alcoholic beverages to provide a gustatory statement about the wealth, power and initiative of the host. Thus, spices served to make a political statement when a baronial lord invited possible rivals to an expensive display of profligacy at a sumptuous banquet.

Spices also fitted into philosophic concepts of improving health, since it was understood that they could affect the four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile) and influence the corresponding moods (sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic). Thus, ginger would be used to heat the stomach and improve digestion; clove was believed to comfort the sinews; mace would prevent colic and bloody fluxes or diarrhea; nutmeg would benefit the spleen and relieve any bad cold. Cinnamon, one of the most popular flavors in cooking, was considered to be particularly good for digestion and for sore throats. Hot pungent spices were used more liberally in winter diets or to treat cold diseases accompanied by excess phlegm. It is noteworthy that rheumatism was believed to be caused by abnormal rheum, or phlegm; the appropriate therapy would be pepper just as it is today, with the topical use of capsaicin, a chile pepper extract. Spices, along with salt, would have been incorporated in mixtures to pickle and preserve meats; the pungent spices were useful for relieving the salty taste of such foods. Aromatic spices, such as cloves, cardamon and mint, would be useful to disguise the foul breath of onion and garlic eaters who were likely to have additional halitosis from caries and gingivitis. Burnt spices or incenses could be used to help counteract the malodors that were prevalent in rich homes that lacked sanitary mechanisms for the disposition of excreta and rotting foods. Some spices, such as pepper and cinnamon, do have antimicrobial properties, but their reputation as food preservatives is unwarranted. One fascinating tribute to the value of spices, such as peppercorn, was their acceptance in medieval times as a substitute for money; thus, some landlords would be paid a peppercorn rent. Conquerers would accept spice stores as booty or as a victory tax. The flow of pepper along trade routes provided opportunities for trade taxes to be imposed at major trading cities by Arabians, Egyptians, Turks and Venetians. The increasing custom duties in the 15th century resulted in a 30-fold rise in the price of Indian pepper, at a time when the social desire for pepper and other exotic spices was maximal. Changes in pepper prices had an effect on national economies and on aggressive reactions comparable to that seen in the Western appetite for fuel oil today. Chocolate pods at one time were so valued that they also were used as the equivalent of money by Aztecs. The excessive value of spices in Europe is revealed by the fact that Magellans circumnavigation of the globe started with five ships which were supplied to last their 250 or so crew members for many months; the expedition limped home with only one ship and an emaciated crew of 18 surviving men who returned to Spain in 1522 after their three-year horrendous expedition. Despite their enormous losses, the incredibly valuable cargo of 50,000 pounds of cloves and nutmegs from the Moluccas made the enterprise seem like a commercial success.

SOURCES OF SPICES
European countries over the last two thousand five hundred years have found the allure of spices to be irresistible. The wide prevalence of garlic, onions and chives, radishes, mustard and horseradish, and the availability in Mediterranean countries of herbs such as mint, thyme, basil and saffron, made these well distributed flavors

seem less appealing to the sophisticated taste buds of the more wealthy. The Romans, and then the Portugese, Dutch, and finally the British, were attracted to India by a persisting appetite for pungent peppercorns (the source of yellow and black pepper). Major importing countries came to appreciate the other curry spices of India, such as cardamon, turmeric, ginger, and cloves, while the British greatly overextended their welcome by staying on for tea. To this day, the British involvement in India is symbolized on every dining table by the presence of salt and pepper; the British came for pepper, but left when Gandhi aroused his country by symbolically flouting the tax on salt. Perhaps a cup of tea at the end of the meal emphasizes a more lasting value of the British interaction with India. China and its neighboring countries supplied cassia, cinnamon, licorice, rhubarb and sugar. Coffee originally came from Yemen; chocolate as well as tomatos from Central America and the Yucatan; chile peppers in addition to potatos from Bolivia and Peru. The allure of trade for the valuable spices that could be transported successfully over vast distances was spurred by an increasing appetite in Europe for new spicy culinary experiences. The desire to monopolize major spices and the need to control the profitable sea routes were the driving forces that led to many of the dramatic events of history during the past 2000 years. In ancient times, Arabia, Syria and Egypt provided well-organized marketing sites along the major recognized spice routes from which Asiatic spices were sent on their final land or sea journeys to the great spice ports of Europe, such as La Spezia, Venice and Genoa in Italy, Seville in Spain, Lisbon in Portugal, and the major port cities of England, Belgium and Holland. The most important of the exotic spices in Medieval Europe was Asian pepper; this could be transported, stored and traded as peppercorns without any loss in its taste. The great growth of the pepper trade in Europe that occurred between the 12th and the 16th centuries was controlled by Venetian importers, and their enormous income led to the richness of Venice and its prominent role in the patronage of the arts of the Renaissance. Extraordinary efforts were often made to mislead merchants as to the source of origin of spices, but it was gradually realized that the most uniquely desired flavors came from the indigenous plants of the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, where cloves and nutmeg grew. The Portugese, Dutch and British each tried to establish spice monopolies in these coveted islands. Eventually, French and other adventurers were able to transplant many precious spice plants to other sites. Currently, nutmegs are grown in Grenada in the Caribbean, and in Madagascar. More cloves are produced in Zanzibar than in Indonesia, where they now need to be imported to meet the demands of manufacturers of the popular kretek clove cigarettes. It is noteworthy that some spices have moved in the opposite direction, and have been transplanted into Africa and Asia from the New World. Thus, the fiery hot chiles that are so characteristic in the cooking of India, China and other countries of the Far East were imported and established there following the 16th century exploration of the New World of the Americas where these peppers are native. Similarly, mustard and coriander were imported into Asia from Europe, where they were so commonplace; they then became important culinary flavors in Indian, Chinese, Thai, Vietnamese and other ethnic cooking of the Orient. Chocolate was

transplanted from Mexico to Africa, but it was developed as a confectionary by the Europeans, including the Swiss who popularized milk chocolate. One spice, licorice, which is very popular in China, is largely unknown in the U.S., where so-called licorice candy is usually made of molasses and corn oil with anise or fennel flavoring and artificial coloration. On the other hand, so-called cinnamon is often an inferior related spice, cassia; both are marketed as sticks of bark that are currently harvested from trees in Sri Lanka and many other countries. Variants of common spices are numerous: thus, the peppers include peppercorn, black and yellow pepper, chiles, cayenne pepper, long pepper, paprika, bell pepper, grains of Paradise (African melegueta), cubeb, allspice (pimento), and Szechuan pepper (anise pepper).

PERFUMES AND INCENSES

From earliest history until today, fragrant, alluring smells have been regarded as essential elements of civilized relationships. Exotic plant odors and the scents that could be utilized for body application have inspired explorers, aristocrats, writers, poets, merchants and priests, and they have been of fundamental relevance to religious practices and to courtship. Many societies have felt that the burning of fragrant woods provides an ideal, ethereal token of appreciation to their gods. The liberation of incense smoke was a source of perfume: this word comes from the Latin per fumum, "by smoke". Incense is a word that means "that which is lit". The sophisticated Greeks greatly appreciated such aromatic sources (aromata) as the turpentine tree, and this became an important import. They also valued the older Egyptian fragrant woods, and their exudates, such as those of myrrh, frankincense (olibanum) and cinnamon. Enormous amounts of money were spent on these exotic imports. The Greek island of Chios was the source of the valued gum exudate mastic as well as turpentine; the mastic was also used as a sort of chewing gum, and it gave rise to the word masticate. The more precious perfume incenses and spices came as imports through Arabia along well-established incense routes to be eagerly purchased by Mediterranean merchants who sold them to satisfy the increasing demands of markets throughout Europe. The most important ancient fragrances were frankincense and myrrh. The Arabs used the milky sap of the frankincense tree, and called it al lubn, from the word for milk. (The same word gave rise to the name of Lebanon, whose mountains were always capped by milky snow). "Al lubn" became anglicized to olibanum, which is another name for frankincense; the latter name refers to the pre-eminence of this resin, the true or frank incense. Myrrh is a resin that has a bitter taste; its name is derived from Hebrew murr or maror, meaning bitter. Resins do not decay, and as shown by Majno, the resins of myrrh and similar agents are bacteriostatic. Myrrh continues to be used for this purpose in mouthwashes and toothpastes. Cinnamon, and the similar bark, cassia, when burned gives off a delightful fragrance; this is also readily obtained by grinding the bark. The phenolic compounds, such as cinnamic acid, are bacteriostatic, and fumes from their resins may well have served as fumigants as well as pleasing

incenses. The fragrance industry of today uses an enormous number of natural and synthetic molecules that singly or in combination evoke strong olfactory or gustatory sensations. Most spices and many herbs are used in the preparation of the fragrant components of scents, perfumes, cosmetics, body creams and lotions, hair preparations and air fresheners. Increasingly, these aromatic essences from plants are being utilized in aromatherapy, where their odiferous properties are fancifully related to specific physical and psychologic effects.

SPICES AS APHRODISIACS
The heady aromas of expensive, exotic spices ensured that they would offer a voluptuously stimulating environment for invigoration of romantic encounters. In the Old Testament's the Song of Solomon, Proverbs and Psalms romantic verses extolled the sensory excitement offered by cinnamon, calamus, myrrh, saffron and other perfumed smells from fragrant spices. In Greece and Rome, spices were included in antidotes against poisons and venoms but their potent, life-restoring virtues earned them a heady reputation of being essential every-night aphrodisiacs; indeed, in Rome the word cinnamon was equivalent to the current use of "sweetheart" or "darling". The Romans also embraced the phytochemical concept of the biblical lover's spicy enticement: "Make haste, my beloved, and be thou like to a roe, or to a young hart, upon the mountains of spices." (Song of Solomon 8,14); "I have perfumed my bed with myrrh, aloes and cinnamon. Come let us take our fill of love till morning." (Proverbs 7, 17-18). The Arabs had their "Perfumed Garden" and the Hindus their "Kama Sutra", each of which extolled favored spices such as nutmeg, cloves, galangal, cardamon and ginger, while the Romans came to favor cinnamon and pepper, and the Chinese were most impressed with ginger. Over the years, spices have offered the luxury of intriguing tastes, impressive incenses and delightful perfumes, and, as tools of the rich, they have always been included in recipes for improving sexual potency. It is of interest that the equivalent of the multi-herb antidote against all poisons that was concocted by King Mithridates VI, who ruled over ancient Turkey , is still on sale in a modern reformulation in that country (See section on Medical Use of Spices). It now carries suggestive names such as "Sultan's Paste". Proprietary luxuries of this type, that consist of several dozen herbs and spices, are currently promoted as aphrodisiacs and tonics rather than as antidotes against poisoning, or as incenses, for appeasing the gods in religious ceremonies. Undoubtedly, spicy versions of these recipes that served the ancient pagan gods such as Priapus, Cupid, Venus, Eros, Pan and of course Aphrodite (the goddess who arose from sea foam - "aphros") continue to work their historic magic. Modern romances are catalyzed by spices and herbs which are called upon to provide symbolic and sensory support in luxurious perfumes, heady scents, and sensual aromatic cream or oil massages. However, it is of interest that the most appreciated of current aphrodisiacs is undoubtedly the New World's Aztec "food of the gods", the meso-American spice chocolate rather than the ancient and historic spices of Arabia and the Orient.

served the ancient pagan gods such as Priapus, Cupid, Venus, Eros, Pan and of course Aphrodite (the goddess who arose from sea foam - "aphros") continue to work their historic magic. Modern romances are catalyzed by spices and herbs which are called upon to provide symbolic and sensory support in luxurious perfumes, heady scents, and sensual aromatic cream or oil massages. However, it is of interest that the most appreciated of current aphrodisiacs is undoubtedly the New World's Aztec "food of the gods", the meso-American spice chocolate rather than the ancient and historic spices of Arabia and the Orient. The essential oils and terpenoid alcohols of spices contribute to their smell, taste and tactile sensation. Thus, eugenol is found in cinnamon, clove and pimento; one of its medical qualities is a local anesthetic effect, which is utilized in dentistry. Menthol, from mints, has a cooling effect as well as a characteristic fresh taste and smell. Anise contains anethole, cinnamon produces cinnamaldehyde, mace contains myristin, and so on; all have specific pharmacologic effects that are generally mild. However, some such as myristicin - are more potent, and large doses can result in harmful effects such as hallucinations. A number of spice chemicals are shared with herbs and flowers. It is noteworthy that colorful flowers result in an experience of exciting color and smell, whereas most spices result in excitatory sensations of taste and smell without being particularly stimulating to the visual sense. There are some exceptions, including the crocus which is the source of saffron, and edible flowers such as nasturtium which can spice up a salad. Similarly, chile peppers and radishes can be visually exciting, whereas cinnamon bark and cardamon seeds are relatively dowdy. The following spices have had a long reputation of having aphrodisiacal properties. Asafetida This has a foul smell, but in small amounts it can provide a sensual taste or smell. The same phenomenon applies to musk oil (from the musk ox) and castoreum (from the beaver), and perhaps to the secretions of the civet cat and the skunk: these agents can give a salty, animalistic, deeply erotic fragrant quality to a perfume when suitably diluted. Cardamon is popular in India and in Arabic cultures, and used to be employed by the Chinese court to give users a fragrant breath. Cloves and some other spices and herbs contain eugenol; its smell is fragrant and aromatic, and has long been considered as enhancing sexual feelings. Ginger contains gingerols, zingiberene and other characteristic agents that have made it a favored seductive flavor in Asiatic and Arabic herbal traditions. Mace and Nutmeg contain myristicin and similar compounds that are related to mescalin. In larger doses, nutmeg and mace can cause hallucinations, whereas in smaller amounts they are traditional aphrodisiacs. Pepper from India contains piperine: this pungent agent can stimulate sexual function, according to ancient beliefs. Saffron contains picrocrocin which is alleged to have the ability to cause erotic sensations. Vanilla contains the widely loved vanillin, whose taste and smell conjure up romantic feelings in the appropriate circumstances.

Other popular herbs that have been reported to have aphrodisiacal properties include garlic, mint, rosemary, sage and thyme. All these allegedly erotically stimulating agents have long been incorporated into cooking, incenses, rubs and other romantic sources for stimulation of sexual

stimulate sexual function, according to ancient beliefs. Saffron contains picrocrocin which is alleged to have the ability to cause erotic sensations. Vanilla contains the widely loved vanillin, whose taste and smell conjure up romantic feelings in the appropriate circumstances.

Other popular herbs that have been reported to have aphrodisiacal properties include garlic, mint, rosemary, sage and thyme. All these allegedly erotically stimulating agents have long been incorporated into cooking, incenses, rubs and other romantic sources for stimulation of sexual feeling. More recently, these and other herbs are utilized creatively in numerous massage oils and in incenses that are popularly utilized to improve sensations as a new-old form of therapy, with the modern title of aromatherapy.

USE OF SPICES AS MEDICINES

The ancient Middle Eastern civilizations utilized all types of plant, animal and mineral products to treat disease. The ancient Egyptians developed a somewhat more sophisticated pharmacopoeia, although magic and religion were always utilized as part of therapy. Nevertheless, the Egyptian priests, physicians and embalmers became familiar with a significant number of herbs and spices, some of which (such as cinnamon and myrrh which were expensive imports) they employed in embalming preparations. The Ebers Papyrus, which was written in Egypt about 1500 B.C., mentions the use of several spices as medicines, including coriander, cumin, fenugreek and mint. The Old Testament recognized the role of apothecaries in compounding ointments; the holy anointing ointment consisted of myrrh, cinnamon, cassia and calamus in olive oil. The exotic spikenard from India was used to anoint Jesus; this fragrant herb is regarded as a perfume source. See a list of spices and their medical use: Medical Use of Spices. WINES Peppers were known as an important import from India in biblical times. These spices were used in wine as medications for stomach pain, and similar spiced wines were used therapeutically for centuries afterwards by Greeks, Romans and medieval Europeans. One famous spiced wine that was popular in medieval Europe was named ypocras or hippocras, after tissanes that were prescribed by Hippocrates: a typical recipe would include cinnamon, ginger, melegueta, nutmeg, galingale and honey in wine. Many other sweetened spiced wines were used for pleasure or as prescriptions for numerous diseases. The warming qualities of peppers derived from peppercorns, long-pepper, melegueta (Guinea pepper from Africa) or cubebs would make these pungent wines suitable for use on cold evenings or for diseases characterized by excess of cold humors such as the excessive phlegm of respiratory tract inflammatory conditions. Similar spiced wines, ciders and mead are used today, but they are prepared mainly for their festive value, such as their characteristic use at Christmas time. Many commercial wines, cordials and liqueurs contain proprietary mixtures of herbs and spices. Cardamon, aniseed, allspice, cloves, cinnamon, ginger and other spices and herbs such as juniper are favorites, while mints and other herbs such as celery might be used as garnishes as much as flavors. Undoubtedly, folk remedies and family traditions lead to many people favoring specific spicy beverages for a spectrum of health purposes varying from aphrodisiacs and

digestives to cold preventatives and bronchitis therapies. One drink of past days was piment, consisting of wine flavored with honey and various spices. The word piment has been used to mean capsicum pepper (chiles), allspice (also called pimento) or black pepper (pimienta). The word is related to the Latin pigmentum, meaning pigment: this word was often applied to the colorful imported spices from Asia. The Anglo-Saxons prepared a sweet, spicy wine which they called piment; this was called pigment by the Danes who used it. The apothecaries who were entrusted to make this wine were known as pimentarii. Chaucer refers to such people making hippocras or the similar glarry. The pimentarii of Byzantium prepared many medical products according to the needs of physicians. ANTIDOTES and MITHRIDATIUM Poisoning was a favored means that was employed in ancient Greece and Rome to eliminate enemies. In the 1st century B.C., Mithridates VI, King of Pontus (located in present-day Turkey) worked with his physician to devise an effective antidote to all poisons. Two hundred years later, Galen wrote about antidotes, and he credited the King of Pontus with creating a mithridatium that contained 41 ingredients. By that time other famous antidotes had been described; some of these persisted in use for centuries, including one devised by Galen. The most popular of the herbal antidotes besides mithridatium included galene, diascordium and philonium, which were named for their inventors. A generally used antidote that was alleged to be effective against venomous bites and stings was called theriaca; the theriacas of Damocrates and those produced in Cairo, Venice and other large cities became very popular. The word theriaca was corrupted to the word treacle in English, especially for preparations of herbs in a thick, sweet base. The famous 17th century herbalist Nicholas Culpeper declared that the virtues and inexpense of garlic made it the poor-mans treacle, and that it can be used as an effective panacea. Most of the other forms of theriacas and the various mithridatiums contained dozens of constituents, including exotic spices such as ginger, cinnamon, cassia, malabathrum, galbanum, cardamon, nard, pepper, frankincense, myrrh and saffron. Although these ineffective multiherb remedies remained in official use until the 19th century, they have spawned a host of similar tonics and stimulants that contain a comparable, illogical array of herbs and spices that enjoy a wide market today. See section on Spices as Aphrodisiacs. The only differences in todays theriaca equivalents are the incorporation of various modern constituents such as vitamins, minerals, amino-acids and newly fashionable herbs. A similar group of medical recipes included bitters or hiera, which were introduced in Greece for use in the Temples of Ascalepios. The components and the number of constituents varied considerably over the ages, although aloes and cinnamon were commonly used. These were prescribed as purgatives and tonics, and were eventually recommended as valued panaceas for a great number of different disorders. Their use persisted despite no evidence of effectiveness for many centuries. Today, some European countries still make available similar bitter tonics (such as the ancient Hiera picra or holy bitter), and they are marketed as non-specific remedies; people regard them as digestives, cough medicines and so

on. SPICES AND PUTREFACTION In all medical systems of Asia and Europe, spices have been used both as therapeutic foods and as medicines. Despite the contrasting opinions of different experts who insisted on their indications, there is little evidence of any specific benefit from most spices. Many pungent spices are unattractive to animals (excepting most, humans, many birds and some rodents), and they do have some antimicrobial, gastrointestinal, and mucus-loosening properties. Modern studies suggest that garlic, onion, allspice and oregano are the most potent antibacterial and antifungal agents; thyme, cinnamon, cloves and chile peppers are among the next best, while cardamon, black and yellow pepper, ginger, anise and celery seeds are less effective. However, there is lack of uniformity in findings, and this may reflect non-uniformity in source material. Furthermore, some fungi and bacteria use spices as supportive media for their growth. Although it is often claimed that exotic spices were sought as valuable food preservatives, this is not correct. Thus, simple pickling with common-place vinegar, garlic and mustard can preserve and flavor food almost as well as dehydrating and salting can. Honey and strong sugar soultions can also be used as food preservatives. There is little evidence that pepper, cloves, nutmegs, ginger and other expensive spices were used as alternatives to garlic, etc. to preserve food or to delay the spoilage of cooked dishes. Their use in their countries of origin is not related to spices serving as an alternative to refrigeration, since they are usually added to fresh foods as flavors. In particular, they add zest to a bland diet based on rice and other high-carbohydrate vegetable staples. Indeed, the concentrations of spices that would be needed to significantly retard food spoilage by microorganisms would result in an overwhelming flavor, that may be worse than that of the decaying food. While it is true that ancient recipes suggest that spices were added in extraordinary large amounts to banquet recipes, it is not clear how many people were meant to be served. It is likely that in practice large amounts were used only if a huge number of people were to participate in the feast. Thus, the actual amount of spice per individual may have been closer to what is acceptable today. Moreover, banquets were an opportunity to enjoy a prolonged bout of gorging, and it is likely that little food remained to be preserved from putrefaction over the ensuing postbanquet days. The evidence does not support claims that spice imports were driven by a need to either disguise the taste of spoiled food or to prevent putrefaction of cooked dishes. Furthermore, when coffee, tea, tobacco and snuff became fashionable in the 18th century, spices in food became less acceptable; thus, spice use declined in France and many other countries, even though methods for food preservation had not improved. It is noteworthy that honey was recognized to be an effective preserver of meats and other foods. In ancient times honey was applied to wounds, and more recent studies have shown it to be more effective than granulated sugar. Honey may have more than a simple osmotic effect that contributes to its bactericidal and fungicidal benefits. History records that when Alexander the Great died in Babylon, his body was encased in honey in a tomb for transfer to Alexandria for burial. There is no evidence that any spices are superior to or offer additive benefits to honey as a

food preservative.

CULINARY HERBS
Numerous herbs have been classified as spices, but currently many are grown so readily that they are seen as common food flavors rather than aromatic spices. The alliacious herbs garlic, onion, shallot and chive could be regarded as both foods and flavors, while radish, daikon, watercress and other pungent leaves and flowers are used as salad flavors. Mustard, horseradish and salsas containing chiles are used as condiments, while peppers, capers, fermented fruits (including grape juice), mango and vegetables are used as pickles or chutneys. Thus, herbs such as marjoram, oregano, basil, mint, parsley, sage, tarragon, thyme, savory, rosemary, sesame, poppy seeds, bay leaves and celery seeds could be considered as flavorful culinary ingredients, as fragrant herbal medicines or as inexpensive, easily grown spices. Perhaps all flavorful herbs that are used in food preparation and for modifying disease states or improving specific aspects of health need a special classification as spicy herbs. This would exclude other comparable spice-like products such as orange peel, juniper berries, anchovy paste, pungent honeys, flavorful vinegars, perfumy agents such as myrrh and rose water, fashionable cooking oils, exotic fruits, and unusual items that are used parochially in different parts of the world such as ajowan, annatto, lemon grass and asafetida. Most spicy herbs do have traditional medical values. All could be regarded as digestants, carminatives (which help remove excess air from the stomach) and bowel function improvers. Many are used in aromatherapy as topical agents that improve skin condition and result in pleasurable sensations such as relaxation or calmness. Some may be used as incenses or room air fresheners, or be incorporated in cosmetics and body lotions, both for their pleasant sensory qualities and for possible healing properties. A few herbs, such as mint (containing menthol), basil, thyme and sage, are often used to treat pharyngitis, coughs and bronchitis, and they are likely to be used in combination with medical herbal extracts from eucalyptus, camphor, benzoin, aloes and so on. Culinary herbs thus span the continuum between foods, medicines and exotica, and therefore they rightly earn their place in the spice section in markets and in either the spice rack or bathroom cabinet (or both!) at home. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness.

HISTORY OF SPICE TRADE

5000 BC Middle East Egypt Arabia Egypt Evidence of spices being used

3000 2000 1500

Use of spices in embalming Monopoly of spice trade (for 2000+ years) Queen Hathepshut imports spices from Punt (East Africa)

5000 BC

Middle East Egypt Arabia Egypt

Evidence of spices being used

3000 2000 1500

Use of spices in embalming Monopoly of spice trade (for 2000+ years) Queen Hathepshut imports spices from Punt (East Africa) Use of spices in anointing oil and incenses

1000

Palesti ne Arabia Greece China Rome

992 500 200 1st Centur y AD

Queen of Sheba brings spices to King Solomon Importance of spices in diet as medicine Cloves imported from Spice Islands Extravagant use of spices

Rome 500 Europe Arabia 1100 1200 Europe Englan d Europe Italy

Developed sea-trade with India; lasted 3 centuries Spices from Moluccan Islands available Controlled spice trade until Middle Ages Crusades stimulated interest in spices Guild of Pepperers established; merged with Spicers Spices regarded as aphrodisiacs Marco Polos book stimulates interest in Oriental spices Spices used as medicines & fumigants during Black Death Venice and Genoa control spice trade Spicers Guild became Grocers Company

1250 1300

1350

Europe

Italy 1400 Englan d Portug al

Henry the Navigator stimulates sea discoveries

1350

Europe

Spices used as medicines & fumigants during Black Death Venice and Genoa control spice trade Spicers Guild became Grocers Company

Italy 1400 Englan d Portug al 1450 Turkey Spain 1500 Portug al Spain Italy 1550 Englan d Hollan d Spain 1650 Hollan d

Henry the Navigator stimulates sea discoveries

Controls spices; forced other sea route discoveries Columbus finds spices in Caribbean islands Controls spice trade after Vasco da Gama sails to India Magellans expedition circumnavigates the globe Venices spice wealth helps finance Renaissance Drake circumnavigates globe; imports spices into England Gradually wrests Spice Islands from Portugal

1521

1600

Competes for spice trade Controls spice trade from East Indies

Creates artificial shortage of Spice Island products 1700 Ceylon Europe 1750 France Coffee trees planted; later, grown in Brazil Coffee, chocolate and tobacco favored over spices Peter Poivre brings nutmegs and cloves to Mauritius and Reunion Destroys spices to try and create price increases

Hollan d

Europe 1750 France

Coffee, chocolate and tobacco favored over spices Peter Poivre brings nutmegs and cloves to Mauritius and Reunion Destroys spices to try and create price increases

Hollan d

Common ALLSPICE (PIMENTO) Name Genus S Pimenta dioica pecies Family Myrtaceae Origin West Indies and Central America Cultivate Jamaica, Cuba, Lesser Antilles, Trinidad, d Mexico, Honduras Click image to enlarge

Descripti This native plant of the West Indies was thought by the on Spanish explorers to be a pepper (pimienta); the name was corrupted to pimento, and also lives on in the other name for allspice, Jamaican pepper. The berries of the tree do resemble peppercorns, but they are variously described as having a mixed spicy aroma suggestive of cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, juniper and pepper; hence the name allspice. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The berries have been used in pickling and in condiments, rts and are especially used with meats. A form of allspice cured meat was known in the Caribbean as boucan, and European sailors who relied on this staple were called buccaneers. Caribbean cooking utilizes allspice in many dishes; it is of limited popularity elsewhere. Medicinal Allspice is used in toiletries and liqueurs, and it used to be Propertie added to flannel to make a plaster for treating neuralgia or s rh e u ma ti sm. Th e e u g e n o l co n te n t (w h i ch i s mo re characteristic of cloves) can provide a mild analgesic effect. See chemicals in spices. Historical Both pimento and the oil possess View aromatic, carminative, and stimulant properties. The action of pimento is similar to that of cloves, and it may therefore be employed for the same purposes; thus to relieve flatulence, check vomiting, and as an adjunct to other medicines to cover their nauseous Click image to enlarge

characteristic of cloves) can provide a mild analgesic effect. See chemicals in spices. Historical Both pimento and the oil possess View aromatic, carminative, and stimulant properties. The action of pimento is similar to that of cloves, and it may therefore be employed for the same purposes; thus to relieve flatulence, check vomiting, and as an adjunct to other medicines to cover their nauseous taste, and to prevent griping, etc. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) Click image to enlarge

Spice Exhibit URL: http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/inde

Spice Exhibit URL: http://unitproj.library.ucla.edu/biomed/spice/inde Common ANISE Name Genus S Pimpinella anisum pecies Family Apiaceae Origin Eastern Mediterranean Cultivate Southern Europe, North Africa, Near d East, China, Pakistan, Mexico, Chile, USA

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Descripti Several spices have been called anise. The native of Egypt, on Pimpinella anisum, is anise seed or aniseed, while China is the source of Illicum verum, star anise. In the past, dill, caraway and fennel seeds were confused with anise seed. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The seeds have been used widely in cooking, and are rts popular in spicy cakes. The oil of anise is often used in artificial licorice, and gives its distinctive taste to liqueurs such as anisette and raki. Anise is used in many processed foods and in cough medicines, and is often included in pet foods for the flavor it imparts. Medicinal Over the centuries, anise has been reported to have Propertie numerous medical benefits, but there is no evidence that it s offers any pharmacologic benefit. It is thus a flavorful digestive spice that may be soothing, stimulating or carminative (relieving gas) in different individuals, and it is a popular taste in drinks, confections and simple proprietary medicines. See chemicals in spices. Historical Oil of anise possesses the same View aromatic, carminative, and stimulant properties as anise fruits, and as already noticed is commonly preferred to them as a medicine, and is alone official in the British Pharmacopoeia. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of

View aromatic, carminative, and stimulant properties as anise fruits, and as already noticed is commonly preferred to them as a medicine, and is alone official in the British Pharmacopoeia. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common BLACK PEPPER Name Genus S Piper nigrum pecies Family Piperaceae Origin India Cultivate India, Indonesia, Brazil, Madagascar d Click image to enlarge

Descripti Freshly ground pepper is more aromatic than packaged on powders, and the ceremony of the waiter grinding the pepper over ones entre has some gustatory merit in addition to offering a ceremonial reminder of peppers ancient importance.

Descripti Freshly ground pepper is more aromatic than packaged on powders, and the ceremony of the waiter grinding the pepper over ones entre has some gustatory merit in addition to offering a ceremonial reminder of peppers ancient importance. Most black pepper comes from India, where it is known as the king of the spices; it is also exported from Indonesia, Malaysia and Brazil. It has always been one of the most popular spices, and the successful sea voyages of U.S. importers of pepper and cloves made Salem, Massachusetts, one of the richest towns in the U.S.A. at the beginning of the 19th century. Black pepper is available on most Western dining tables, but yellow pepper is preferred in cooking since it does not add dark color to foods. See a list of Major Pepper Spices. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa Black pepper is obtained from the unripe green berries of the rts vine, which become black when they are dried in the sun. YELLOW (or WHITE) PEPPER is obtained from ripe red berries or by peeling off the pericarp from black peppercorns. Medicinal The main flavor is from piperine, but other essential oils, Propertie including terpenes, contribute to the aroma. Its alkaloids s include the pungent tasting chavicine and piperidine. See chemicals in spices. Historical Black pepper is an aromatic carminative View stimulant; and is also supposed to possess febrifuge properties. Its action as a stimulant is more especially evident on the mucous membranes of the rectum and urinary organs. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common CARDAMOM Name Genus S Elettaria cardamomum pecies Family Zingiberaceae Origin Near East and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Cultivate India, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Cambodia, d Guatemala, El Salvador Click image to enlarge

Descripti Several varieties of seed plants are known as cardamon, but on the best known is an export from India, where it is obtained from a ginger-like plant, Elettaria cardamomum. It is related to black cardamom, and to melegueta (also known as grains of paradise), a peppery cardamon-like seed which grows mainly in West Africa; this was a popular European import in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Cardamom is particularly popular in Arab countries for flavoring coffee, and perhaps half the worlds production is thus used. Cardamom and related spices were used by the Romans, and it remains popular in baked products in Scandinavian and Baltic countries. The seeds are widely used in cooking and in chewing products (similar to chewing gum) in India and Pakistan, and in Persian cuisine, but it is not widely appreciated in North America as a cooking spice or as a flavor in candies or beverages. Its exotic qualities have suggested it could be used as a stimulant and aphrodisiac, and long ago it was used as a perfume and breath freshener. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The aromatic extract contains many essential oil chemicals, rts some of which have a smell like that of camphor. Thus, its main use is as an adjunctive spice in curries, coffees and other Asian or Middle Eastern foods. It used to be second in expense to saffron, and is known in India as Queen of Spices. However, declining markets and increased production in Guatemala have led to a fall in its value. Medicinal Medically, it is used mainly as a flavor and an aid to digestion. Propertie It is used more prosaically to treat colds, bronchitis, fevers, s inflammatory conditions of the oropharynx, and liver complaints. There is no evidence to support any of these uses.

other Asian or Middle Eastern foods. It used to be second in expense to saffron, and is known in India as Queen of Spices. However, declining markets and increased production in Guatemala have led to a fall in its value. Medicinal Medically, it is used mainly as a flavor and an aid to digestion. Propertie It is used more prosaically to treat colds, bronchitis, fevers, s inflammatory conditions of the oropharynx, and liver complaints. There is no evidence to support any of these uses. See chemicals in spices. Historical The effects of cardamoms are those of a View very agreeable aromatic; they are used partly on account of their flavour, and partly for their carminative and stimulant properties. They are, however, rarely prescribed alone, but commonly either as adjuvants or correctives of cordial, tonic and purgative medicines. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common CASSIA Name Genus S Cassia senna or Cinnamonum cassia pecies Family Lauraceae Origin Burma Cultivate Hot wet tropics of China, Indochina, East d and West Indies, and Central America

Genus S Cassia senna or Cinnamonum cassia pecies Family Lauraceae Origin Burma Cultivate Hot wet tropics of China, Indochina, East d and West Indies, and Central America Click image to enlarge

Descripti Cassia is the name given to the bark of several trees such as on Cinnamonum cassia, C. aromatium, C. loureirii, C. burmannii, etc. These varieties have a wide distribution, but in ancient trade cassia used to come mainly from China, hence the name Chinese cinnamon or bastard cinnamon. The bark is coarser than that of true cinnamon, and the taste is more astringent and harsh, although a variety C. burmannii from Indonesia is similar to the Sri Lanka product. Cassia is more widely used today than is cinnamon, although most people are unfamiliar with the name cassia; moreover, the word can be confused with Cassia angustifolia a very different plant, namely senna! Cassia as a spice is favored by the Chinese for incorporation in Five Spice Powder (along with Szechuan pepper, cloves, fennel and star anise). Cassia leaves (tejpat) are currently used as a spice in Indian cooking, while cassia leaves and buds were a favored import (with the name malabathrum) in ancient Rome and also during the Middle Ages. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The spice in the case of both cinnamon and cassia come from rts bark of the plants. Medicinal Cinnamon and cassia extracts have been used medically to Propertie treat gastrointestinal problems and as a specific for diarrhea, s but their value is marginal. Their use as antimicrobials is of limited relevance, and it is dubious if the presence of cinnamon or cassia in cooked foods retards spoilage if left unrefrigerated in a tropical climate. Nevertheless, cinnamon along with many other spices has antibacterial properties that may be worth exploiting. See chemicals in spices. Historical The properties of cassia are similar to View those of cinnamon; but it is commonly regarded as somewhat more astringent. Its uses are the same as those of cinnamon. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants

See chemicals in spices. Historical The properties of cassia are similar to View those of cinnamon; but it is commonly regarded as somewhat more astringent. Its uses are the same as those of cinnamon. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) Click image to enlarge Common CHILE PEPPER Name Genus S Capsicum annuum pecies Family Solanaceae Origin Central and South America Cultivate Hungary, Bulgaria, France, Spain, Italy, d Israel, USA for US market; many other countries grows their own supply

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Descripti Chile peppers or Capsicums, come in so many cultivated on varieties (cultivars) that the shape, color, taste and pungency of any one species can vary considerably over time or according to the country from which it is obtained. Their pungency is caused by capsaicin and other capsaicinoids, which belong to the vanilloid family of chemicals. They are native to Central and South America (where they are called aji), and may have originated in Bolivia; currently, they are grown in many tropical countries as well as in the more temperate climates of the Southwest United States and in the Mediterranean area. In the U.S., as in many countries, they are often used for decoration. The name chile is said to be derived from a Nahuatl word, tchili, meaning red (whereas the name Chile, the country, is derived from a word meaning snow). Chile peppers are broadly subdivided into variants of Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens. The main cultivars of C. annuum range from the non-pungent bell pepper and

grown in many tropical countries as well as in the more temperate climates of the Southwest United States and in the Mediterranean area. In the U.S., as in many countries, they are often used for decoration. The name chile is said to be derived from a Nahuatl word, tchili, meaning red (whereas the name Chile, the country, is derived from a word meaning snow). Chile peppers are broadly subdivided into variants of Capsicum annuum and C. frutescens. The main cultivars of C. annuum range from the non-pungent bell pepper and Hungarian paprika varieties to the very hot-tasting wild bird pepper or chiltepin. The latter is of interest in that it appeals to birds, who apparently do not experience the burning quality of the fruit, whereas all other animals (except, perhaps, rats) are repelled by this quality. The important cultivars of C. frutescens and its sub-varieties include the most pungent peppers, habaero and Scots Bonnet; the less fiery jalapeo, cayenne, Tabasco and many exotic cultivars; and the milder New Mexican (or Anaheim), Serrano, ancho (poblano) and pasilla. Chili, salsa, and other forms of prepared peppers and cayenne peppers are sold in a large variety of products of varying pungency. Ornamental peppers are popular because of their color and their ethnic attractiveness, and make pleasant decorative souvenirs of visits to exotic places, as are the colorful stringed ristras of dried New Mexico peppers. In California, increasing numbers of people are developing a taste for different types of chile peppers and flavors in condiments and spicy recipes, and even in candies. See a list of Major Pepper Spices. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The fruit of the plant contain all the heat and taste. rts Medicinal Fresh or lightly cooked peppers are rich in Vitamin C; indeed Propertie this was first isolated in Hungary from bell pepper. However, s these peppers are best known in medicine as sources of capsaicin which is used as an investigatory tool (since it stimulates liberation of Substance P, and is relied on as a cough inducing agent in laboratory studies) as well as a pain relieving medication for topical use in arthritis and neuropathies. Peppers which have pungency increase mucous secretion in the lungs and nose. The capsaicin of chile peppers is also used offensively in pepper sprays since it is very irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract. Most of the older medical uses (such as dyspepsia) are not regarded as valid medications, but chile pepper is still used in Ayurvedic therapy to treat peptic ulcers. Currently, capsaicin is used topically in proprietary creams to treat pain and neuropathies, whereas formerly chile-impregnated plasters and poultices were similarly used. The addition of chile pepper to chicken soup (with accompanying garlic and other herbs) is recommended as a useful therapy for colds, sinusitis and bronchitis. See chemicals in spices. Historical When taken internally, capsicum is a View powerful stimulant producing when swallowed in small doses, a sensation of warmth in the stomach, and a general glow over the whole body; hence in moderation it is very useful as a

soup (with accompanying garlic and other herbs) is recommended as a useful therapy for colds, sinusitis and bronchitis. See chemicals in spices. Historical When taken internally, capsicum is a View powerful stimulant producing when swallowed in small doses, a sensation of warmth in the stomach, and a general glow over the whole body; hence in moderation it is very useful as a condiment, for which both it and cayenne pepper are very extensively employed, and more especially in tropical countries w h e r e v e g e ta b l e fo o d i s c h i e fl y consumed. Taken in this way, it promotes digestion, and prevents flatulence. It is also sometimes give medicinally, as a general stimulant, in atonic dyspepsia, in diarrhea arising from putrid or undigested matter in the stomach, in extreme prostration, in poisoning by opium, in paralytic affections, and in delirium tremens, in which disease when taken early it is said sometimes to produce sleep. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common CHOCOLATE Name Genus S Theobroma cacao pecies Family Sterculiaceae

Common CHOCOLATE Name Genus S Theobroma cacao pecies Family Sterculiaceae Origin Tropical America Cultivate Ghana, Brazil, Mexico d

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Descripti Although not often considered to be a spice, the seeds of the on Theobroma cacao tree deserve to be thought of as an exotic, aromatic, flavor with medicinal values, i.e. as a spice. It originated in the Yucatan area of Mexico, and it was used as a hot drink by the Maya and as a cold, sweetened drink by the Aztecs. Linnaeus chose to call the chocolate tree Theobroma, meaning food of the gods, since it was used as an offering by the Maya and Aztecs in their religious ceremonies. The word cacao is from the Mayan, ka-ka-io; the word chocolate comes from Mayan chocol (hot) and Nahuatl alt (water) implying that the chocolate content of the bean was extracted by hot water. The Spanish brought chocolate beans to Europe in 1544, but the original criollo cacao trees have since been replaced by a variety of the tree called forastero; this has resulted in a blander form of chocolate which now comes from many parts of the world, including West Africa. The harvesting of cocoa pods in some African countries has become notorious, since it is based essentially on slave labor. Over the centuries and in different countries, chocolate has been enjoyed in many different forms and flavors. The Mayans added vanilla and chile to it, and this exists today as mole. Allspice, annatto, cinnamon, mace and other spices have been added to this sauce; less popular were combinations including ambergris (a secretion of sperm whales), musk, jasmine, lemon peel and so on. Sweetening with honey or sugar and the addition of milk made chocolate drinks and confections more addictive. At one time, chocolate houses were as popular in Europe as coffee houses have become in the U.S.A. Schivelbusch comments that coffee was a Protestant, northern drink while chocolate was its Catholic, southern counterpart. However, as chocolate and cocoa spread from the aristocratic courts of Spain to become a more mundane drink in France, it became

(a secretion of sperm whales), musk, jasmine, lemon peel and so on. Sweetening with honey or sugar and the addition of milk made chocolate drinks and confections more addictive. At one time, chocolate houses were as popular in Europe as coffee houses have become in the U.S.A. Schivelbusch comments that coffee was a Protestant, northern drink while chocolate was its Catholic, southern counterpart. However, as chocolate and cocoa spread from the aristocratic courts of Spain to become a more mundane drink in France, it became a more social, Bohemian, non-alcoholic alternative social drink in England and other northern countries. Eventually, the chocolaty drink, cocoa, declined in importance as it became a beverage directed at children, as an alternative to tea and coffee. Nevertheless, countries such as Switzerland and Belgium produced famous varieties of chocolate confections that appeal to ordinary and sophisticated consumers who accept that their delight in the product is a mild addiction, based on the sweetness and the deliciousness of the manufactured product. Surely, this makes the chocolate seed a spice, equal to spicy flavors such as vanilla and cinnamon. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa All cocoa beans are fermented, dried, roasted, crushed into rts nibs or pieces, then further ground into a liquid mass usually containing 50% cocoa butter. (Mulherin. Spices, 1992) Medicinal The theobromine content may stimulate the brain, since it is Propertie an xanithine similar to coffee. Recently, the polyphenols in s chocolate have been generously praised as being potent anti-oxidants that may prevent degenerative diseases, thus reducing the guilt sensations of chocaholics. However, true medicinal values have not been established for pure chocolate. See chemicals in spices. Historical Cacao butter has been but lately View introduced into the British and United States pharmocopoeias, but it has been long used on the Continent. It is p e c u l i a r l y w e l l a d a p te d fr o m i ts consistency, blandness, and freedom from rancidity, for the preparation of suppositories for which purpose it is official. It is also used as a basis for pessaries, as an ingredient in cosmetic ointments, and for coating pills and other purposes. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) Common CINNAMON Name Genus S Cinnamomum zeylanicum pecies Family Lauraceae Origin Ceylon, Western India (Malabar Coast) Cultivate Sri Lanka, East and West Indies, d Mauritius, Renion, southern India, Burma, Malaysia, Vietnam

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Descripti Cinnamon is usually regarded as the bark of the on Cinnamomum zeylanicum tree; it is known as canela in Portugal and Spain, cannelle in France, and Zimt in Germany. In India and Iran, it is called darchini, meaning wood from China, which more accurately describes cassia. The original name came from the Malay word, kayumanis, meaning sweet wood. The Hebrew equivalent was qinnmn, and this is the source of the word cinnamon. The word canella was used by the Italians to describe as little cannon tubes that the rolled up quills of bark resembled. The cinnamon (or cassia) trade was controlled by Venice in the 13th and 14th centuries, and resulted in the city becoming very wealthy. The Egyptians used cinnamon and cassia along with myrrh in embalming, perhaps because cinnamic acid (and also myrrh) has antibacterial effects. The Hebrews, and others, used cinnamon and cassia in religious ceremonies, while in Mexico, Asiatic countries, Arabia and North Africa it was valued in cooking. The Roman empire imported huge amounts of cinnamon, and it may have been used mostly in perfumes and fragrances and to flavor wines, but it was not favored as a cooking spice. In the Middle Ages and subsequently, cinnamon, was imported from Egypt, having been brought there by Arabian traders who obtained it in Ceylon. It became a favorite flavor in many banquet foods and was regarded as an appetite stimulator, a digestive, an aphrodisiac, and a treatment for coughs and sore throats. Currently, in America cinnamon is mainly used to flavor desserts and condiment, while powder and quills (which may be cassia) are fashionable components of expensive drinks of coffee. True cinnamon is very popular in Mexican cooking

favored as a cooking spice. In the Middle Ages and subsequently, cinnamon, was imported from Egypt, having been brought there by Arabian traders who obtained it in Ceylon. It became a favorite flavor in many banquet foods and was regarded as an appetite stimulator, a digestive, an aphrodisiac, and a treatment for coughs and sore throats. Currently, in America cinnamon is mainly used to flavor desserts and condiment, while powder and quills (which may be cassia) are fashionable components of expensive drinks of coffee. True cinnamon is very popular in Mexican cooking and in coffee and tea. It is probable that Egyptian cinnamon in Pharaonic times was mainly cassia, much of which came from China where large groves of trees grew around the city of Kweilin (now called Guilin): kwei means cinnamon, and lin means forest. The true cinnamon of Ceylon (now called Sri Lanka) was discovered by the Portuguese in the early 16th century, who thenceforth controlled the trade with great cruelty. An increasing demand for cinnamon led to the Dutch fighting the Portuguese, and in the mid-17th century Ceylons cinnamon trade was taken over and controlled by Holland. In the 18th century, many Dutch were massacred in Sri Lanka in an effort to break the cruel rule of the new colonialists, but this led to reprisals and a subsequent growth in Portuguese control of the islands cinnamon plantations. The Dutch forcefully monopolized cinnamon; to keep up prices in 1760, they burnt huge amounts in Amsterdam to create a shortage. Perhaps this hostile act convinced cinnamon fanciers in other countries that the spice was being over-utilized in gourmet cooking. Nevertheless, in 1795, the English seized control of Ceylon hoping to revive interest in cinnamon. Before long, however, cinnamon saplings were transplanted by the Dutch for cultivation in Indonesia and by the French to plantations in Mauritius, Reunion and Guyana. The importance of cinnamon from Ceylon continued to gradually decline as this spice became less fashionable in cooking and in wine making. It is of interest that cinnamon now grows in Egypt, where in the 19th century, it was introduced by the French who planted saplings that had been grown in the Jardin des Plantes of Paris. However, after that time the importance of cinnamon in French cooking waned, whereas it still persists in traditional recipes of French Canada. Currently, cinnamon is regarded as a wonderful aroma in baked goods, but its taste is of limited appeal. Similarly, it is not greatly favored as a medication or as a food preserver or as an incense. In view of its huge popularity and the enormous struggles involved in its trade over the past millennium, this ancient spice undoubtedly merits greater appreciation today. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The spice in the case of both cinnamon and cassia come from rts bark of the plants. Medicinal Cinnamon and cassia extracts have been used medically to Propertie treat gastrointestinal problems and as a specific for diarrhea, s but their value is marginal. Their use as antimicrobials is of limited relevance, and is dubious of the presence of cinnamon or cassia in cooked foods retards spoilage if left

millennium, this ancient spice undoubtedly merits greater appreciation today. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The spice in the case of both cinnamon and cassia come from rts bark of the plants. Medicinal Cinnamon and cassia extracts have been used medically to Propertie treat gastrointestinal problems and as a specific for diarrhea, s but their value is marginal. Their use as antimicrobials is of limited relevance, and is dubious of the presence of cinnamon or cassia in cooked foods retards spoilage if left unrefrigerated in a tropical climate. Nevertheless, cinnamon along with many other spices has antibacterial properties that may be worth exploiting. See chemicals in spices. Historical Cinnamon bark has generally the View properties of the spices, being aromatic, carminative, and stimulant. It is also so me w h a t a stri n g e n t. It i s ra re l y prescribed alone, but chiefly as an addition to tother medicines, to improve their flavour or to check their griping qualities. As a cordial, stimulant, and to n i c, i t i s i n d i ca te d i n a l l ca se s characterized by feebleness and atony. As an astringent it is employed in diarrhea, usually in combination with chalk, the vegetable infusions, or opium. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common CLOVE Name Genus S Eugenia caryophyllis or Syzgium pecies aromaticum Family Myrtaceae Origin Some of the Molucca Islands Cultivate Moluccas, Malaysia, Zanzibar and d Pemba, Tanzania, Madagascar, West Indies

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Descripti The history of cloves is similar to that of nutmeg and mace. on Th e cl o ve tre e (Syzg i u m a ro ma ti cu m, o r Eu g e n i a caryophyllis) is also indigenous to the Moluccas, and they were probably imported from the Spice Islands into China more than 2000 years ago. From the 8th century, cloves became increasingly popular in Europe, and along with nutmeg, the importation of this coveted spice helped the enterprising Venetians become extraordinarily wealthy. The lure of cloves and nutmeg attracted the Portuguese to the Spice Islands in 1514; they were followed by the Dutch in 1605, and they retained control over the trade until late in the 18th century, at which time the exotic spices of the Moluccas were starting to be grown elsewhere in the world, and they lost their incredible attraction. Currently, clove trees are grown in such places as Zanzibar, Madagascar and Mauritius, as well as in Ternate, Tidore and a couple of other of the northern Spice Islands and in Indonesia. Cloves are used in kreteks; these crackly, aromatic cigarettes are favored by Indonesians to such a degree that the country has to import cloves from Africa to supplement its own indigenous crop. The word clove comes from the Latin word clavus, meaning nail, since the shaft and head of the clove bud resembles a nail. It is used to flavor meats, including ham, and is incorporated in Indian curries and rice dishes such as vindaloo; it is used in pickles and sauces (e.g. Worcestershire sauce) and some European spice cakes. However, its value as a flavor has declined considerably since the time of Magellan. It should be remembered that Magellans fateful circumnavigation of the world (1519-1522) started off with five ships and over 250 men. Although only one ship and 18 men returned to Spain, nevertheless its cargo of about 50 tons of

The word clove comes from the Latin word clavus, meaning nail, since the shaft and head of the clove bud resembles a nail. It is used to flavor meats, including ham, and is incorporated in Indian curries and rice dishes such as vindaloo; it is used in pickles and sauces (e.g. Worcestershire sauce) and some European spice cakes. However, its value as a flavor has declined considerably since the time of Magellan. It should be remembered that Magellans fateful circumnavigation of the world (1519-1522) started off with five ships and over 250 men. Although only one ship and 18 men returned to Spain, nevertheless its cargo of about 50 tons of cloves and nutmeg were considered to have made the expedition a financial success. Cloves and nutmeg were among the most precious of items of Europe of the 16th and 17th centuries, and they were worth more than their weight in gold. Fortunes were made in the East Indian and Spice Island trade, since precious spices brought huge rewards to successful importers. The glittering wealth of the Portuguese and Spanish courts, of Italian port cities, Dutch trading firms, German bankers and British speculators was followed by the extraordinarily successful entry in 1672 of the United States into the spice trade. Competitive sailing boats helped make Salem the capital of spices in the first half of the 19th century. A certain Elihu Yale, who was born in 1649 in Boston, made his fortune as a spice merchant in India; he gave material support from his family home in Wales to help build up the institution that was to become Yale University. This is, interestingly, located in Connecticut, which was nicknamed the Nutmeg State, since enterprising merchants were able to sell fake nutmegs made of wood to unsuspecting purchasers w h o v a l u e d th e s p i c e . S e e a l i s t o f s p i c e s b y Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The clove of commerce is the dried unexpanded flower. The rts principle constituent of cloves, and the one to which their properties are essentially due, is the oil. Medicinal Unlike most spices, clove has an obvious medical value. It Propertie contains eugenol which is an effective local anesthetic, and s this has long been used in dentistry. Other constituents include salicylic acid. Although the smoking of clove cigarettes is a national habit in Indonesia, the entry of this aromatic tobacco in the U.S.A. was curtailed when suspicion arose that it could cause adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Clove, which is an aphrodisiac (with properties similar to those of rhinoceros horn i.e. an imaginary symbol of potency), was a highly valued flavor, a possible food preservative, and a pharmaceutical panacea in past centuries. Now, it is a rarely appreciated spice and an oldfashioned drug that has little role in medicine or dentistry today. See chemicals in spices. Historical Both cloves and the oil are stimulant, View aromatic, and carminative. Cloves in substance or infusion are sometimes given to relieve nausea and vomiting, m o r e e s p e c i a l l y th e v o m i ti n g o f pregnancy, to relieve flatulence, and to except weak digestion. The oil of cloves

today. See chemicals in spices. Historical Both cloves and the oil are stimulant, View aromatic, and carminative. Cloves in substance or infusion are sometimes given to relieve nausea and vomiting, m o r e e s p e c i a l l y th e v o m i ti n g o f pregnancy, to relieve flatulence, and to except weak digestion. The oil of cloves sometimes affords relief when introduced into the cavity of a carious tooth. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common CORIANDER (CILANTRO) Name Genus S Coriandrum sativum pecies Family Apiaceae Origin Mediterranean Countries Cultivate Widely around the world d

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Descripti The seed of the well-known cilantro or Chinese parsley plant on (Coriandrum sativum) is known as coriander, and it is a spice with one of the longest histories of use. The name coriander is derived from the Greek word koris, meaning bedbug, since the unripe seeds and leaves when crushed have a smell suggestive of a crushed bedbug. The plant is indigenous to Greece, but the seed is now as well known in Asiatic and South American as it is in Mediterranean cooking. Cilantro is regarded as an herb, and is used with Mexican salsas, in Greek dishes and, along with the seeds of coriander, in Indian curries and in Thai food. Coriander is used in condiments, desserts, liqueurs, perfumes and in candies. Sugar covered coriander was known as comfits; these were used ceremoniously as a predecessor of paper confetti. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The seed is used both whole and ground. The fresh leaves rts are also popular garnishes in a variety of Mexican and East Asian cuisines. Medicinal Coriander and cilantro have been advocated for health Propertie purposes in folk therapies, and the list of such uses is similar s to those for other spices. However, no medical value has been adequately evaluated, and thus this popular herb/spice remains a cooks ingredient, and is utilized as a manufacturers flavor, rather than being recognized as an herbalists medication. Food authorities regard coriander as one of the most versatile spices, and, perhaps not surprisingly, individual authors give very different descriptions of its flavor. See chemicals in spices. Historical Coriander fruits possess stimulant and View carminative properties like those of the

been adequately evaluated, and thus this popular herb/spice remains a cooks ingredient, and is utilized as a manufacturers flavor, rather than being recognized as an herbalists medication. Food authorities regard coriander as one of the most versatile spices, and, perhaps not surprisingly, individual authors give very different descriptions of its flavor. See chemicals in spices. Historical Coriander fruits possess stimulant and View carminative properties like those of the other aromatic umbelliferous fruits; and may therefore be given in similar cases to those of caraway. They are, however, but little employed in medicine. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common CUMIN Name Genus S Cuminum cyminum pecies Family Apiaceae Origin East Mediterranean Cultivate Iran, Turkey, India, China, Indonesia, d Japan, Southern Russia, Morocco, Mexico

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Origin East Mediterranean Cultivate Iran, Turkey, India, China, Indonesia, d Japan, Southern Russia, Morocco, Mexico

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Descripti This seed spice is, like coriander, an ancient Mediterranean on flavor. It is popular in Morocco in kabobs and couscous, in England in mulligatawny soup, in German sausages, pickles, cakes and breads, Dutch cheese, Mexican sauces and chili con carne, in hummus and in Indias masalas and curries. It is also used in liqueur, such as kummel, when alcohol is flavored with cumin, caraway, and fennel. Cumin and caraway are often confused with each other, and with anise, which is sometimes called sweet cumin. In the U.S.A., this spice is used in condiments, in flavors and in perfumes. Cumin is grown extensively in Iran, and is used in many Persian recipes. However, the Iranian spice, black cumin, and the similar spice, nigella, are less popular outside Iran, India and a few other countries, in which they are mostly used for fl a vo ri n g ri ce d i sh e s. Se e a l i st o f sp i ce s b y Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The seeds are the source of the flavor. They may be used rts whole or more likely ground. Medicinal Cumin resembles other similar old spices, having been Propertie advocated for many medical indications. There is no evidence s that it has useful properties other than being a spicy flavor with digestive benefits. Nevertheless, it is being evaluated for possible anticancer and antioxidant effects. See chemicals in spices. Historical C u m i n a g r e e s w i t h t h e o t h e r View umbelliferous fruits in being mildly stimulant, aromatic, and carminative. It is, however, rarely or ever used internally in this country, or in the United States, for medicinal purposes, caraway being equally efficient and a much mor agreeable remedy. In India, however, cumin fruits are much valued as a ca rmi n a ti ve b y th e n a ti ve s. As a discutient and resolvent, cumin is sometimes used externally in the form of the old official Emplastrum Cumini of the London Pharmacopoeia. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of Click image to enlarge

ca rmi n a ti ve b y th e n a ti ve s. As discutient and resolvent, cumin sometimes used externally in the form the old official Emplastrum Cumini the London Pharmacopoeia.

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Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

Common DILL Name Genus S Anethum gravelans pecies Family Apiaceae Origin Southern Europe and Western Asia Cultivate India, North and South America d Click image to enlarge

Descripti The name dill may arise from a Norse word, suggesting lull; on however, there is no evidence of a lulling or soporific,sedative effect of this spicy herb. It is often used as a condiment in European cooking; it is combined with pickled vegetables and is used in fish sauces and in soups. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa Dill seeds are used, as well as the dried leaves, and fresh rts leaves. Medicinal Medically, it is extremely popular as gripe water in Europe, Propertie where it is used to relieve colic in babies. It is also used as a s digestant and to relieve mild bowel disorders in general. There is nothing to support its long-time use for more significant effects, such as stimulating the flow of milk or as a charm against withchraft. See chemicals in spices. Historical It possesses, like the fruits of the anise, View caraway, fennel, and other aromatic u n b e l l i fe ro u s fru i ts, sti mu l a n t, carminative, and aromatic properties; and like anise, it is popularly supposed to promote the secretion of milk. In the form of dill water, etc., it is a common domestic remedy to relieve the flatulence and griping of infants; it is also frequently employed by the medical practitioner as a vehicle for the exhibition of purgative and other medicines to children. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with

promote the secretion of milk. In the form of dill water, etc., it is a common domestic remedy to relieve the flatulence and griping of infants; it is also frequently employed by the medical practitioner as a vehicle for the exhibition of purgative and other medicines to children. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common FRANKINCENSE Name Genus Sp Boswellia thurifera ecies Family Buseraceae Origin Arabia, East Africa (particularly Oman, Socotra, Somalia) Cultivate d Click image to enlarge Common MYRRH Name Genus Sp Commiphora myrrha ecies

Cultivate d Click image to enlarge Common MYRRH Name Genus Sp Commiphora myrrha ecies Family Buseraceae Origin Southern Arabia, Northeast Africa Cultivate d Descripti From earliest history until today, fragrant, alluring smells have on b e e n re g a rd e d a s e sse n ti a l e l e me n ts o f ci vi l i ze d relationships. Exotic plant odors and the scents that could be utilized for body application have inspired explorers, aristocrats, writers, poets, merchants and priests, and they have been of fundamental relevance to religious practices and to courtship. Many societies have felt that the burning of fragrant woods provides an ideal, ethereal token of appreciation to their gods. The liberation of incense smoke was a source of perfume: this word comes from the Latin per fumum, by smoke. Incense is a word that means that which is lit. The main incense fragrances were frankincense and myrrh. The sophisticated Greeks greatly appreciated such aromatic sources (aromata) as the turpentine tree, and this became an important import. They also valued the older Egyptian fragrant woods, and their exudates, such as those of myrrh, frankincense (olibanum) and cinnamon. Enormous amounts of money were spent on these exotic imports. The Greek island of Chios was the source of the valued gum exudate mastic as well as turpentine; the mastic was also used as a sort of chewing gum, and it gave rise to the word masticate. The more precious perfume incenses and spices came as imports through Arabia along well-established incense routes to be eagerly purchased by Mediterranean merchants who sold them to satisfy the increasing demands of markets throughout Europe. The most important ancient fragrances were frankincense and myrrh. The Arabs used the milky sap of the frankincense tree, and called it al lubn, from the word for milk. (The same word gave rise to the name of Lebanon, whose mountains were always capped by milky snow). Al lubn became anglicized to olibanum, which is another name for frankincense; the latter name refers to the pre-eminence of this resin, the true or frank incense. Myrrh is a resin that has a bitter taste; its name is derived from Hebrew murr or maror, meaning bitter. Frankincense came mainly from the Dhofari region of Oman, and the best of this fragrant oleoresin source still characterizes this remote region. Myrrh traditionally came from Punt; this area was probably in Somalia, Ethiopia or Eritrea, but it may have been in Yemen, Oman or Southern Arabia. The domestication of the camel around 1200 BC

anglicized to olibanum, which is another name for frankincense; the latter name refers to the pre-eminence of this resin, the true or frank incense. Myrrh is a resin that has a bitter taste; its name is derived from Hebrew murr or maror, meaning bitter. Frankincense came mainly from the Dhofari region of Oman, and the best of this fragrant oleoresin source still characterizes this remote region. Myrrh traditionally came from Punt; this area was probably in Somalia, Ethiopia or Eritrea, but it may have been in Yemen, Oman or Southern Arabia. The domestication of the camel around 1200 BC stimulated the growth of the incense trade with Eygpt and eventually with Greece and Rome. Resins do not decay, and as shown by Majno, the resins of myrrh and similar agents are bacteriostatic. Myrrh continues to be used for this purpose in mouthwashes and toothpastes. Cinnamon, and the similar bark, cassia, when burned gives off a delightful fragrance; this is also readily obtained by grinding the bark. The phenolic compounds, such as cinnamic acid, are bacteriostatic, and fumes from their resins may well have served as fumigants as well as pleasing incenses. The fragrance industry of today uses an enormous number of natural and synthetic molecules that singly or in combination evoke strong olfactory or gustatory sensations. Most spices and many herbs are used in the preparation of the fragrant components of scents, perfumes, cosmetics, body creams and lotions, hair preparations and air fresheners. Increasingly, these aromatic essences from plants are being utilized in aromatherapy, where their odiferous properties are fancifully related to specific physical and psychological effects. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa Frankincense and myrrh are both resins -- dried tree sap -rts that come from trees of the genus Boswellia (frankincense) and Commiphora (myrhh) common to Somalia. Medicinal Propertie See chemicals in spices. s Historical Bentley, Robert and Henry View Tri me n . Me d i ci n a l Pl a n ts; b e i n g d e scri p ti o n s w i th original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine a n d a n a cco u n t o f th e characters, properties, and u s e s o f th e i r p a r ts a n d products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) FRANKINC ENSE MYRRH

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London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

Click image to enlarge Common GREATER GALANGAL Name Genus Sp Languas galangal or Alpinia ecies galanga Family Zingiberaceae Origin India, Southeast Asia, Laos Cultivate Indonesia, Southwest India, d eastern Himilayas

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Common LESSER GALANGAL Name Genus Sp Languas officinarum or Alpinia ecies officinarum Family Zingiberaceae Origin Southern China Cultivate Indonesia, Malaysia d Descripti This spice is popular in Asiatic cooking and was well-known on in European medieval cooking. The plant Alpinia galanga (or Languas galangal) has numerous common names, including greater galangal, galangale and galang. It is also known as Siamese ginger or laos, since the plant is indigenous to Southeast Asia, and its rhizome (root) resembles ginger in appearance and in taste. The word galangal is probably derived from the Arabic translation of its Chinese name, liangtiang, which means mild ginger. Sometimes the word galingale is used for the various galangale and associated gingery rhizomatous spices, but this term has also been used to describe tubers from the roots of certain cypress and sedge plants. These popular tubers of ancient Egypt are now available in Spain, and are know as tiger nuts, earth nuts, or chufa nuts. In Spain a sweet drink that is made from chufa nuts is called horchata; it differs from the Mexican drink of the same name which is made from rice. Different galangal specimens vary in their hotness and flavor. The spice is said to have a flowery taste, while others describe it as tasting like ginger with cardamom. However, some feel the taste of galangal is more like peppery cinnamon, while lesser galangal has a stronger, hotter, and more medicinal taste. The lesser galangal Languas

available in Spain, and are know as tiger nuts, earth nuts, or chufa nuts. In Spain a sweet drink that is made from chufa nuts is called horchata; it differs from the Mexican drink of the same name which is made from rice. Different galangal specimens vary in their hotness and flavor. The spice is said to have a flowery taste, while others describe it as tasting like ginger with cardamom. However, some feel the taste of galangal is more like peppery cinnamon, while lesser galangal has a stronger, hotter, and more medicinal taste. The lesser galangal Languas officinarum is sometimes confused with greater galangal. It comes from China, where it is used as a medicinal herb, but is grown in Indonesia and is regarded as a spice flavor for use in food. Another plant in this group is zedoary, also called white turmeric; this spice is sometimes used in foods, but it is currently of minor importance. Galangal and other gingery spices are used in Asia and in the Middle East in cooking, perfumes, snuffs, and aphrodisiacs. The galangal spices have been used as flavors for condiments, including vinegar, beers, and wines in Russia, and they are used in Germany and elsewhere in teas. A ruther related group of spicy plants are those members of the Kaemplferia genus, such as Kaemplferia galanga; this is sometimes confused with lesser galangal. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The roots of galangal contain the flavor. rts Medicinal They have no well-defined medicinal use, although they have Propertie been advocated for many of the disorders that are treated with s ginger. In Germany, herbalists use lesser galangal for dyspepsia biliary symptoms, bowel spasm and angina. See chemicals in spices. Historical Alpinia officinarum: Galangal View is an aromatic stimulant like ginger. It was formerly much employed by the Arabians and Greeks, and was used to some extent in this country, but it has now become obsolete here. Bentley, Robert and Henry Tri me n . Me d i ci n a l Pl a n ts; b e i n g d e scri p ti o n s w i th original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine a n d a n a cco u n t o f th e characters, properties, and u s e s o f th e i r p a r ts a n d products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) Quote and image of Lesser galangal from Bentley and Trimen, (1880) Image of Greater galangal

characters, properties, and u s e s o f th e i r p a r ts a n d products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) Quote and image of Lesser galangal from Bentley and Trimen, (1880) Image of Greater galangal from C r e v o s t, C h a r l e s , 1 8 5 8 Catalogue des produits de l'Indochine, par Ch. Crevost et Ch. Lemari. Published/ d i stri b u te d : [H a n o i , Imp r. d'Extrme-Orient, 1917GREATER GALANGAL

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Common GARLIC Name Genus S Allium sativum pecies Family Alliaceae Origin Himilayas, Siberia Cultivate Widely around the world d

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Descripti Garlic is the name given to the leek (herb) with gar (spear) on shaped leaves. Its Latin name Allium sativum is derived from al = burning, sativum = harvested. The plant may have arisen as a wild variant (ramson) in Siberia, but it has spread world-wide, and is harvested in China, India, Gilroy in California, and in many other places. As a food, it was favored by the Hebrews in biblical Egypt, and it is now beloved in both homespun and gourmet cooking everywhere. Garlic has had a long-held reputation as a medicine, and it was regarded by the popular 17th century British herbalist, Culpeper, as the poor mans treacle, implying that it had value as an antidote to poisons and as a panacea for illnesses. Chicago is named after the Indian term for the place where the wild garlic grows. Garlic is so widely grown that it cannot be regarded as an exotic plant. Nevertheless, it is generally thought of as a spice because of its remarkable pungent aroma, and its value for culinary and medical uses. William Harvey published his revolutionary book on the Motion of the Blood in 1628; he was impressed with an issue that still remains a concern: the presence of garlics smell on the breath following its consumption. However, Harvey was more impressed that a folk remedy for colds called for garlic in the shoe: the fact that this therapy led to the smell of garlic on the breath was noted by him as additional evidence that the blood circulates in the body. The other well-known connection between garlic and blood was the herbs traditional property of repelling vampires. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness.

revolutionary book on the Motion of the Blood in 1628; he was impressed with an issue that still remains a concern: the presence of garlics smell on the breath following its consumption. However, Harvey was more impressed that a folk remedy for colds called for garlic in the shoe: the fact that this therapy led to the smell of garlic on the breath was noted by him as additional evidence that the blood circulates in the body. The other well-known connection between garlic and blood was the herbs traditional property of repelling vampires. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The bulbs small cloves contain the active ingredient used in rts cooking and for medicinal purposes. Medicinal Propertie s The smell of garlic is caused by allicin (diallyldisulfideS-oxide), which is derived from precursors such as alliin (S-allyl-L-cysteine sulfoxide) by the enzyme alliinase which is liberated when the clove is broken up. The active compound resembles the well known drug N-acetyl-L-cysteine (Mucomyst), which has mucolytic and antioxidant properties. Garlic contains several potent antioxidants, and there is evidence that its addition to the diet may help reduce the incidence of gastric and colorectal cancers. The chemicals in garlic can help reduce serum cholesterol, hypertension, blood clotting, blood sugar, bowel parasites, respiratory and other infections, and the aging process itself. However, additional clinical evidence is still needed to determine whether its widespread popularity as an herbal medicine can be justified by measurable benefits of significance. There is insufficient information to suggest that any specific proprietary or home preparation is more effective than either simple raw or cooked garlic. The taste of garlic is acceptable to many animals, and our eating of garlic has not been proved to deflect the attention of mosquitoes, vampires or wolves. Garlic festivals and specialty restaurants have d e mo n stra te d th a t th i s u n i q u e sp i ce ca n b e appreciated as a delectable flavor in almost any prepared food, including ice cream.

See chemicals in spices. Historical As a medicine garlic was held in great View repute by the ancient physicians, and was also formerly much used in modern practice, but in this country is now rarely used by the regular practitioner, although it is still employed to some extent in the United States. Garlic is stimulant, diaphoretic, expectorant, diuretic, and tonic, when exhibited internally; and rubefacient when applied externally" Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295

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diaphoretic, expectorant, diuretic, and tonic, when exhibited internally; and rubefacient when applied externally" Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) Common GINGER Name Genus S Zingiber officinale pecies Family Zingiberaceae Origin Tropical China Cultivate India, China, Japan, Indonesia, Australia d (Queensland); Sierra Leone, Nigeria; Jamaica and other West Indies islands Click image to enlarge

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Descripti One of the most popular of the hot-tasting spices is ginger, on which is obtained from the root of Zingiber officinale. The plant is indigenous to southern China, from whence it is spread to the Spice Islands and other parts of Asia, and subsequently to West Africa and to the Caribbean. India is now the main producer and exporter. Extracts of ginger are used in foods, condiments, baked confections, candies, beverages, cosmetics and perfumes. It is common to find it in many supermarkets for use in food preparation or as an herbal medicine. China produces a ginger which is particularly suited for confectionery, whereas Japanese ginger lacks the typical aroma. Pickled ginger (gari or sushoga) is always used as a condiment for sushi. Overall, ginger products vary considerably in taste, pungency and smell, while the root varies in consistency, depending on the country of origin and the variety of the crop. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The rhizome contains the spicy parts. rts Medicinal The main constituents in ginger are phenolic compounds Propertie such as gingerols and shogaols, and sesquiterpenes such as s zingiberene. These and other compounds are extracts found in ginger oleoresin. The main pungent flavor chemicals are the gingerols, which are not volatile. Recently, studies have

country of origin and the variety of the crop. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The rhizome contains the spicy parts. rts Medicinal The main constituents in ginger are phenolic compounds Propertie such as gingerols and shogaols, and sesquiterpenes such as s zingiberene. These and other compounds are extracts found in ginger oleoresin. The main pungent flavor chemicals are the gingerols, which are not volatile. Recently, studies have suggested it is of value as an anti-emetic; however, it should probably not be used in nausea of pregnancy, since its safety has not been established. There is less convincing evidence to support claims that ginger is an antioxidant, with cancer preventing properties, or that it has anti-inflammatory benefits in arthritis. In large amounts, it appears to inhibit platelet aggregation. See chemicals in spices. Historical "Traditionally, the warming and aromatic View properties of ginger led to its use for numerous indications. It is a digestant and carminative, and was used for dyspepsia and bowel colic. It is a general stimulant, being one of many spices that are regarded as being aphrodisiacs. Ginger has been recommended as an expectorant and it is traditionally used in teas or soups to treat colds or bronchitis. Many traditional Chinese medicines contain ginger, and its use generally appears to be safe. Ginger possesses stimulant, aromatic, and carminative properties, when taken internally; and when chewed it acts as a sialogogue. Externally applied it is rubefacient. The stimulating, aromatic, and carminative properties render it of mu ch va l u e i n a to n i c d ysp e p si a , especially if accompanied with much flatulence; and as an adjunct to purgative medicines to correct griping. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common HORSERADISH Name Genus S Amoracia rusticana pecies Family Brassicaceae Origin Southern Russia, Balkans Cultivate Northern and South-eastern Europe and d in Scandinavia Click image to enlarge

Descripti The word horseradish is derived from the German word for on sea radish, since it grows in coastal areas in Europe. Although horseradish (Amorica rusticana) does not fulfill the criteria of being an aromatic or exotic herb for use in cooking, it can be classified along with mustard, garlic and onion as a pungent condiment. However, despite its popularity for garnishing meat dishes, and some forms of prepared fish, it is rarely incorporated as a basic flavor component in any cooked dish. In distinction to mustard, it has not been regarded as having an affinity for being combined with wine, although it was formerly used as a pick-me-up in beer. The origin of horseradish may have been Russia, but it has spread widely; in the U.S.A. it was formerly grown mainly in the Midwest, but now about 40% of the countrys supply comes from around Tule Lake in northern California. The related wasabi, which has a fiery taste comparable to

garnishing meat dishes, and some forms of prepared fish, it is rarely incorporated as a basic flavor component in any cooked dish. In distinction to mustard, it has not been regarded as having an affinity for being combined with wine, although it was formerly used as a pick-me-up in beer. The origin of horseradish may have been Russia, but it has spread widely; in the U.S.A. it was formerly grown mainly in the Midwest, but now about 40% of the countrys supply comes from around Tule Lake in northern California. The related wasabi, which has a fiery taste comparable to horseradish mixed with mustard, originated in Japan; much is now grown in New Zealand and in Oregon. The spice continues to be used mainly as an accompanying condiment for sashimi and sushi, or as a snack flavor. It is common experience that oral intake of wasabi or horseradish constitutes the best therapy for sinusitis and nasal congestion. The common radish is still regarded as a pungent salad vegetable rather than a spice. It is of interest that radish seedlings contain S-carboxymethyl-cysteine, which is marketed as a synthetic mucolytic in Europe. Allyl isothiocyanate (allyl mustard oil) is the major chemical produced by horseradish and mustard; several other related sulfur compounds contribute to the pungent taste and initiating odor. These chemicals are very toxic when used in large amounts. Ground-up horseradish can be added to a glass of water sweetened with honey; this suspension can be used as a gargle to improve mucus clearance. Radish seedlings were used in ancient times for asthma, and any benefit presumably results from its effect on mucus. Ground-up horseradish can be used on a poultice to serve as a rubefacient and a topical counter-irritant in comparable manner to a mustard plaster. Most people today, however, are only able to appreciate the stimulating and activating effects as the "therapeutic" outcome of a stiff dose of the horseradish type of spices. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The root is the source of horseradish; the leaves are rts sometimes used in salads. Medicinal The medical use of horseradish and wasabi includes the Propertie treatment of sinus, throat and lung problems, since pungent s spices loosen up impacted mucus. Horseradish has also been described as a diuretic and is used as a source of Vitamin C. Its value as an antihelminth and for treating infections has never been proved See chemicals in spices. Historical It has the same properties as mustard, View being stimulant, diuretic, and diaphoretic, when given internally; and rubefacient or even vesicant, when externally applied. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal

View being stimulant, diuretic, and diaphoretic, when given internally; and rubefacient or even vesicant, when externally applied. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) Click image to enlarge Common LICORICE Name Genus S Glycyrrhiza glabra pecies Family Fabaceae Origin Russia, China Cultivate England, Southeast Europe, Scandinavia d Click image to enlarge

Descripti The taste of licorice is similar to that of aniseed and fennel, on and thus licorice can be considered to be a spice. However, it has a long history as being of value as an herbal remedy, and it is therefore often considered to be an herb rather than a spice. The licorice plant is a member of the bean family, but its seed pods are hair free in contrast to similar plants. Its roots contain the very sweet, characteristic juice, and as a tribute to this, the plant is named Glycyrrhiza glabra meaning the sweet root with hairless seed pods. Corruption of the Greek name glyrrhiza led to the other official name, Liquiritra officinalis; the medieval name was gliquiricia from which the name licorice or liquorice is obtained. The sweetest sources of licorice come from plants growing in Spain and Italy, although it is probable that the original plant came from Russia or China. Spanish licorice was brought to England, and it became an important product in the town of Pontefract. The pleasant quality of true licorice led to it being incorporated into many traditional Chinese remedies, where it was credited with harmonizing the bodys response when it was exposed to the contrasting actions of other herbs in the formula. It has also been utilized in Chinese spice mixtures,

of licorice come from plants growing in Spain and Italy, although it is probable that the original plant came from Russia or China. Spanish licorice was brought to England, and it became an important product in the town of Pontefract. The pleasant quality of true licorice led to it being incorporated into many traditional Chinese remedies, where it was credited with harmonizing the bodys response when it was exposed to the contrasting actions of other herbs in the formula. It has also been utilized in Chinese spice mixtures, and is often incorporated in desserts, confectionaries, candies and alcoholic drinks. Further uses include its addition to tobaccos and snuff. Currently, it is included in many simple medications, especially for pharyngitis and cough. Traditionally, the list of indications is very extensive, and includes infections, aphthous ulcers, skin disorders, rheumatic and other inflammatory diseases, asthma, hepatic and gastroduodenal diseases. There is no doubt that glycyrrhizin has an aldosterone like effect, and excessive intake of licorice can cause hypokalemia and hypertension. However, the claimed value of licorice products in treating hypo-adrenal states is disputed. Other hormonal effects have been suggested, including impairment of gonadal function. Thus, this ancient herbal spice has dubious medical values that are complemented by its undoubted toxic potential. It may surprise many people in the U.S. to know that familiar licorice candy is usually not true licorice, since the flavor is generally provided by aniseed, molasses and corn syrup. Eaters of typical U.S. licorice products may put on weight, but this will not be explainable by the hormonal effects of the compounds fo u n d i n tr u e l i c o r i c e . S e e a l i s t o f s p i c e s b y Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The roots and rhizomes are the important source for the flavor rts Medicinal Licorice contains several active phytomedicines. The main Propertie one is the saponin-like triterpene glycoside, glycyrrhizin (also s called glycyrrhizic acid and glycyrrhizinic acid), which is much sweeter than sugar. This compound is hydrolyzed in the bowel to glycyrrhetic (or glycyrrhetinic) acid, which is also called enoxolone. The latter has been marketed as a succinate derivative, carbenoxolone, which is prescribed in Europe and Japan as a treatment for gastric ulcers, although its value is uncertain. Licorice flavonoids are believed to have antioxidant properties. Additional effects of glycyrrhizin include the surprising finding in Japan that this agents helps improve liver function in hepatitis C. Similarly, some reports demonstrate improvement in AIDS. All such studies raise unanswered questions as to the true value of licorice in the modern era. See chemicals in spices. Historical Liquorice root possesses demulcent View properties: and hence is useful to allay cough, and in catarrhal affections. It has also been found serviceable in irritable conditions of the mucous membrane of the urinary organs, etc."

demonstrate improvement in AIDS. All such studies raise unanswered questions as to the true value of licorice in the modern era. See chemicals in spices. Historical Liquorice root possesses demulcent View properties: and hence is useful to allay cough, and in catarrhal affections. It has also been found serviceable in irritable conditions of the mucous membrane of the urinary organs, etc." Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common MUSTARD Name Genus S Brassica alba or Sinapis nigra pecies Family Brassicaceae Origin Mediterranean countries Cultivate USA, Canada, Denmark, Germany, d Holland, France, Britain, China and Japan

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Japan

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Descripti Over 4000 years ago, mustard seeds were being utilized in on Greece and Egypt as a flavor and a medicine. The mustards are part of the cabbage family. Brassica (or Sinapsis) alba is white or yellow mustard; other species are known as brown mustard, and the main variety was formerly called black or true mustard. The brown cultivar is more pungent, and is used in the popular Dijon mustard; the milder American or English mustards are often made more colorful by the addition of the yellow dye, turmeric. The most pungent mustard taste is obtained from freshly ground seeds, but numerous other gustatory components are added to commercial condiments, including various spices, herbs and alcohol. Despite its ability to be grown worldwide, mustard can be regarded as a spice. It arose in the Mediterranean countries, but its exotic taste led to it being transplanted to India and other Asian countries in medieval times and it was imported into the Americas by Spanish missionaries. In California, wild mustard is now a common weed whose yellow flowers can be seen widely beyond the trails to missions alongside which they were first planted. Mustard seeds develop no odor when crushed, but the pungent taste is more relevant than its odor. The name mustard comes from the product that was derived by adding sinapsis (the Roman name for mustard seed) to unfermented grape juice, or must. This resulted in a hot must or mustard; the latter part of the word comes from the Latin, ardere, which means to burn. In Sweden, the old Latin name is recalled by the current name for mustard, senap; in Italian it is called senape. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The seeds are either used whole or ground into a powder. rts The leaves may be used in salads. Medicinal The pungent and irritating allyl isothiocyanate (mustard gas) Propertie that is released from brown mustard, horseradish and other s pungent vegetables, has been used in war gas products and other offensive preparations both for attack and for personal d e fe n s e . D e r i v a ti v e s , s u c h a s n i tr o g e n m u s ta r d (mechlorethamine) have been used as antineoplastic drugs. The plant source of the active chemicals is sinigrin (or allylglucosinolate, which is also known as potassium myrosinate); crushing the brown mustard seed releases the enzyme myrosinase, which converts the sinigrin to allylisothiocyanate and related compounds that have irritating, lachrymatory properties. See chemicals in spices. Historical Similar to, but milder than, those of black View mustard seeds. When swallowed whole

The plant source of the active chemicals is sinigrin (or allylglucosinolate, which is also known as potassium myrosinate); crushing the brown mustard seed releases the enzyme myrosinase, which converts the sinigrin to allylisothiocyanate and related compounds that have irritating, lachrymatory properties. See chemicals in spices. Historical Similar to, but milder than, those of black View mustard seeds. When swallowed whole they operate as a laxative, and have been used as a remedy in dyspepsia, and in other complaints attended with torpidity of the bowels. But their use in this state is by no means free from danger, as they sometimes accumulate in the intestines, and have produced fatal effects." Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

Click image to enlarge Common NUTMEG and MACE Name Genus S Myristica fragrans pecies Family Myristicaceae Origin Moluccas, especially the Banda Islands Cultivate Indonesia, Grenada, Saint Vincent and d other Leeward Islands, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Trinidad

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Family Myristicaceae Origin Moluccas, especially the Banda Islands Cultivate Indonesia, Grenada, Saint Vincent and d other Leeward Islands, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Trinidad

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Descripti The quintessential spice is nutmeg: it was a highly valued on exotic flavor source that grew only in the remote Spice Islands. It is not generally known that nutmeg is the kernel of the apricot-like fruit of the tree, Myristica fragrans, and that it is enclosed in a hard seed-case covered with an arillus; this soft membranous coat is the spice, mace. It is astounding to learn how popular these two spices were in the 15th-17th centuries, especially when compared to how little they are appreciated today. Nutmeg may have been a rare delicacy in ancient Greece and Rome, although there is little evidence of its use in the food or drink of those times. Nutmeg became more familiar to Byzantine traders who obtained it from Arabs, and its name may be derived from the Arabic word mesk, which is related to the word musky, meaning fragrant. In old French, mug meant musk, and the French term for the musk-nut, noix muguette, became the English word nutmeg. Mace may have had a similar etymologic derivation. The availability of the nutmeg in Europe increased once Crusaders learned to appreciate it in Middle Eastern cooking, and Venetian spice traders then ensured that it became familiar to banqueters of the 12th century. It was generally imported with its companion from the Spice Islands, the aromatic clove. The exaggerated desire for nutmeg, mace and clove by the 15th century made the Moluccan Islands a major target of Portugese explorers. In 1512 an expedition was sent by Albuquerque, the commander of the Portugese fleet in the strategic port of Malacca in the Malay peninsula, to locate the fabled Spice Islands. The commander of two boats, Francisco Serro, was the first European to gather nutmegs and cloves from their original source in a select few of the thousand or so of islands in the Moluccan sea. Nutmeg grew mainly on two of the seven Banda Islands in the southeast Moluccas, while cloves were found particularly in Ternate and Timore. As an outcome of their fateful discovery, the Moluccan Islands remained under Portugese control until these colonials were ousted by the Dutch in the first quarter of the 17th century. The Dutch policy of harsh monopolistic source control resulted in

Serro, was the first European to gather nutmegs and cloves from their original source in a select few of the thousand or so of islands in the Moluccan sea. Nutmeg grew mainly on two of the seven Banda Islands in the southeast Moluccas, while cloves were found particularly in Ternate and Timore. As an outcome of their fateful discovery, the Moluccan Islands remained under Portugese control until these colonials were ousted by the Dutch in the first quarter of the 17th century. The Dutch policy of harsh monopolistic source control resulted in nutmeg trees being destroyed on all islands other than the precious plantations of Banda and Ambon. The Dutch were eventually replaced by the British for a few years at the end of the 18th century, but by that time the Spice Islands had yielded their unique spice trees to Mauritius (controlled by the French), Malaya and the West Indies. Eventually, the Caribbean island of Grenada became an important source of cultivated nutmeg trees. The taste for nutmeg and mace has varied over the millennia. Although long used as a food flavor in Asia, these spices were mainly appreciated for adding to alcoholic drinks in ancient Rome. In medieval and renaissance banquets, exotic spices, including mace and nutmeg, along with the popular cinnamon, were added in large amounts to various dishes. Fashionable French gourmets would bring their own nutmeg graters to add their nutmeg to appropriately improve on a w e a l th y h o st s d i n n e r. Su ch a ffe cta ti o n s g e n e ra l l y disappeared in the 18th century, when attention was shifted to the newly fashionable coffee, chocolate and tobacco. Currently, the Dutch maintain a liking for nutmeg and mace, whereas in the cuisines of most other European and American countries, these flavors have a minor role. Perhaps European nutmeg, which comes from the Moluccan Islands, is of better quality than U.S. nutmegs that are grown in Grenada. Furthermore, ground nutmeg and pulverized mace rapidly lose their volatile oleoresins, and thus only freshly ground specimens are of major gustatory value. Nutmeg is mostly used in cola drinks, in confectionary and holiday dishes, such as eggnog. However, the more aromatic mace is characteristically used in making sausages and other prepared meats, and in donuts, where it provides a recognizable flavor. The former magical and panacea-like properties have declined, and neither spice is utilized in m e d i c a l p r a c ti c e to d a y . S e e a l i s t o f s p i c e s b y Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The dried seed is used for nutmeg and its dried covering (aril) rts produces mace. Medicinal Large amounts of nutmeg can provide atropine-like Propertie hallucinatory experiences, and it has been reported that this s agent enjoyed a reputation as a recreational stimulant in some U.S. prisons. It is likely that the active agent is myristicin. This compound is also present in parsley, dill and star anis, but in very small amounts. Interestingly, the Czech physiologist who studied vision, Purkinje, reported on his own experiences of nutmeg-induced hallucinations. Some may feel that the prior exalted role of nutmeg and spice in the culinary repertoire represents a mass hallucinatory response to modish fashions.

Medicinal Large amounts of nutmeg can provide atropine-like Propertie hallucinatory experiences, and it has been reported that this s agent enjoyed a reputation as a recreational stimulant in some U.S. prisons. It is likely that the active agent is myristicin. This compound is also present in parsley, dill and star anis, but in very small amounts. Interestingly, the Czech physiologist who studied vision, Purkinje, reported on his own experiences of nutmeg-induced hallucinations. Some may feel that the prior exalted role of nutmeg and spice in the culinary repertoire represents a mass hallucinatory response to modish fashions. See chemicals in spices. Historical Nutmeg [and mace] possess like the View other spices, aromatic, stimulant, and carminative properties; but in large doses it is narcotic, producing effects, it is said, similar to those of camphor. It has been used with advantage in mild cases of diarrhea, flatulent colic, and certain forms of dyspepsia Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common ONION Name Genus S Allium cepa pecies Family Alliaceae Origin Himilayas, Siberia Cultivate Widely around the world d

Family Alliaceae Origin Himilayas, Siberia Cultivate Widely around the world d

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Descripti The onion probably originated in East Asia, but has spread on around the world and has developed numerous varieties, including shallot, chive, and scallion. The name may come from onions union or singleness as a bulb. The plant is related to the lily botanically; chemically it is a less piquant cousin of garlic in taste, but it is unique in its lachrymatory properties. It is said to be the basis for the name of Chicago, which comes from an Indian phrase meaning The place where the wild onion (or garlic) grows. Currently, it is the most popular herb, since it is nutritionally satisfying in addition to being flavorful; people, such as the Hebrews who made their exodus from Egypt 3000 years ago, have long favored it as a basic food. Homeopaths use a dilute extract as a treatment for colds, but most other medical systems use it in a non-specific fashion as a warm, invigorating and satisfying tonic herb. It is sometimes used topically to treat insect stings, but personal experience suggests it lacks any significant antiallergy properties. It has mild anti-microbial qualities and has been used in wound treatment. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa rts Medicinal Onion (Allium cepa) and other alliaceous vegetables are Propertie similar in many respects to garlic. The tear-evoking s lachrymatory chemical released when onion is crushed or cut is thiopropanal S-oxide. The stimulating effect on the mucosa and secretory glands of the eyes and nose has resulted in onion being selected for homeopathic use as a treatment for colds. See chemicals in spices. Historical The onion is chiefly cultivated for View culinary purposes. The bulbs afford a considerable proportion of alimentary matter, principally mucilage, particularly when boiled; but in dyspeptic habits they occasion flatulence, thirst, and headache. The bulb is the most active part and is stimulant, diuretic, and expectorant. On account of the free phosphoric acid it contains, the juice is supposed to be useful in calculous cases, as it dissolves phosphate of lime out of the body.

matter, principally mucilage, particularly when boiled; but in dyspeptic habits they occasion flatulence, thirst, and headache. The bulb is the most active part and is stimulant, diuretic, and expectorant. On account of the free phosphoric acid it contains, the juice is supposed to be useful in calculous cases, as it dissolves phosphate of lime out of the body. Text: Stephenson, John. Medical Botany. London, John Churchill, 1835 Image: Curtiss Botanical Magazine. Volume 34, 1811. Plate 1469.

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Common SAFFRON Name Genus S Crocus sativus pecies Family Iridaceae Origin Near East, possibly Asian Minor Cultivate Spain, Austria, Italy, Greece, France, Iran, d Kashmir Click image to enlarge

Descripti The purple crocus, Crocus sativus, has long been cultivated on in Asia Minor and in Spain so that its hand-picked stigmas can be used both as a spice and as a brilliant red-yellow dye. The plant is now cultivated in India, Iran and several Mediterranean countries; it used to be grown in the southern England town, Saffron Walden. The yellow color of paella, bouillabaise, saffron cakes, challah bread, and some curry sauces is characteristically obtained from saffron. Unlike the cheaper turmeric, it can penetrate into rice grains, and a small amount can impart its flavor and smell to the food. Currently, saffron is one of the most expensive spices because it requires labor-intensive harvesting. The medicinal uses of saffron in the past included its general employment as an antidote against poisoning, a digestant, an aphrodisiac, a tonic, and as a specific for dysentery and measles. In accordance with the Doctrine of Signatures, its yellow color signified its natural ability to treat jaundice. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The flowers triple stigma, and the adjacent part of the style rts yield the spice. Medicinal Currently some herbalists claim it has anti-cancer and other Propertie remarkable properties, but there is no evidence to support s such beliefs. See chemicals in spices. Historical Saffron was formerly in great repute as a View s t i m u l a n t , a n t i s p a s m o d i c , a n d emmenagogue; but at present it is scarcely ever employed in this country, or in the United States, as a medicinal agent, except that it is sometimes given to yo u n g ch i l d re n i n e xa n th e ma to u s

Propertie remarkable properties, but there is no evidence to support s such beliefs. See chemicals in spices. Historical Saffron was formerly in great repute as a View s t i m u l a n t , a n t i s p a s m o d i c , a n d emmenagogue; but at present it is scarcely ever employed in this country, or in the United States, as a medicinal agent, except that it is sometimes given to yo u n g ch i l d re n i n e xa n th e ma to u s diseases from its reputed power of promoting the eruption. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common SUGAR Name Genus S Saccharum officinarum pecies Family Poaceae Origin India Cultivate Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, d Dominican Republic, Mexico, Egypt, south Africa, India, Pakistan, China, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Australia, USA

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Cultivate Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, d Dominican Republic, Mexico, Egypt, south Africa, India, Pakistan, China, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines, Australia, USA

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Descripti When cane sugar, from Saccharum officinarum, started to on become a popular sweetener in the Renaissance, it was regarded as an exotic spice, along with all things nice. This important food took an immensely long time to reach Europe although it had probably been cultivated in India since 800 B.C. It may have arisen in Polynesian islands before reaching India; it subsequently spread east to China and west to Persia. The Crusaders brought it back with them to Europe in the 11th century, but it remained a rare luxury for 400 years. The Venetians, who had become powerful traders by ferrying Crusaders to the Middle East, made sugar available to the rich of other countries. Sugar entered cooking in the 16th century, and this use was also described by Nostradamus. Prior to the use of sugar, honey was the main sweetener, and some flavorful honeys were exported by producing countries as spices. See a list of Sugars. The discovery of the New World prompted Columbus to bring sugar cane there on a subsequent voyage, and soon it was being grown on many Caribbean islands and in Mexico. Subsequently, the Portugese established sugar cane in Brazil, while other European colonialists started plantations in their possessions. It was grown in Sicily, Cyprus, the Canary Islands and on other Atlantic islands. The difficulty in cultivating sugar cane in tropical climates spurred the slave trade. In the U.S., sugar cane was introduced into several states such as Florida, Louisiana and Hawaii. In the 18th century, sugar was being extracted from sugar beets, and this source subsequently led to some decline in sugar imports from sugar cane countries. Currently, about 30% of the worlds sugar comes from beets. Currently, in spite of increasing sugar usage, there is excessive sugar production and irrational sugar trading based on local government policies involving subsidies and protection of favored growers. Sugar exports now come mainly from Brazil, Australia, Europe, Thailand and South Africa. The ancient Indians knew how to extract sugar (sarkara) from cane, but did not refine it. Marco Polo in the 13th century reported that although the Chinese used a great deal of dark sugar, they did not refine it whereas in Egypt and also in Venice purer sugar was manufactured. Over the centuries, numerous forms of sugar have been favored. When the cane

subsidies and protection of favored growers. Sugar exports now come mainly from Brazil, Australia, Europe, Thailand and South Africa. The ancient Indians knew how to extract sugar (sarkara) from cane, but did not refine it. Marco Polo in the 13th century reported that although the Chinese used a great deal of dark sugar, they did not refine it whereas in Egypt and also in Venice purer sugar was manufactured. Over the centuries, numerous forms of sugar have been favored. When the cane is crushed it releases a sweet juice, and leaves a fibrous mass of bagasse: fungal colonization of this can result in workers developing a hypersensitivity pneumonitis termed bagassosis. The crude juice is improved by removing impurities with slaked lime and carbon dioxide, and it is evaporated to form a brown syrupy product which can be readily converted into molasses. This was the source of the brown sugars (such as turbinado, Muscovado and Demarara) that were common in the 17-19th centuries. Sugar in impure form and molasses were brought to New England, and trading interests helped ensure that excess molasses was converted into rum. Refining of crude sugar results in white crystal sugar, which can be used in granulated or powdered forms or as lumps. In previous times, sugar loaves were marketed, while rich banquet hosts had their chefs produce sugar sculptures similar to ice sculptures. When sugar was first used in ancient Greece and Rome it was regarded mainly as a medicine, but it was used in food by the very rich. Venice in the 10th century started building its fortunes by importing sugar along with spices and silks from the Orient. The Arabs introduced crystallized sugar as qandi (which gives us our word candy) and various products of sugar such as syrups and caramel. Apothecaries made pleasing medicines with imaginative use of these products. By the 16th century, there was an increasing availability of sugar from ports in the New World as well as Asia, and it became familiar in the diet, especially as a sweetener of the new spices, coffee and chocolate, and subsequently tea. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa Juice from the stalks produces sugar. rts Medicinal The brown sugars are more complex and flavorful; they Propertie contain calcium, iron and vitamins. It is an interesting aspect s of human behavior that now ensures that the formerly cheaper products are coming back into favor (as more expensive products!) since they are more nutritious than white sugar. In the 19th century sugar from beets added to the worlds supply, and this formerly rare spice a luxurious food and an impressive medicine gradually came to assume its present role as an addictive necessity that endangers health. See chemicals in spices. Historical Sugar is of little importance in a medical View point of view. In the form of lozenges, sugar candy, etc. it allays tickling cough by slowly dissolving in the mouth. It is nutritious, but in consequence of not containing nitrogen, it is not capable in itself of supporting life. It is a powerful

and an impressive medicine gradually came to assume its present role as an addictive necessity that endangers health. See chemicals in spices. Historical Sugar is of little importance in a medical View point of view. In the form of lozenges, sugar candy, etc. it allays tickling cough by slowly dissolving in the mouth. It is nutritious, but in consequence of not containing nitrogen, it is not capable in itself of supporting life. It is a powerful antiseptic, and is largely used for preserving meat and fruit. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common SUMAC Name Genus S Rhus coriara pecies Family Anacardiaceae Origin Middle East and Mediterranean countries Cultivate Southern Italy, Sicily, Near East d Click image to enlarge

Descripti The sumac bush, Rhus coriara, has sour, astringent, redon colored berries that are regarded as a spice flavor, being similar to tamarind. The plant is a member of the cashew family; it grows in Mediterranean countries, and the berry is used in cooking in Turkey and Middle Eastern countries and other Arabic countries. It is used in salad dressings and to flavor meats, rice dishes and kebabs. When mixed with other vegetables, such as onions, it is favored as a condiment. The Middle Eastern spice mixture, zatar, contains sumac, thyme and sesame; some varieties of this mixture also contain hyssop, marjoram, cumin or black pepper. Medical uses have included digestion and bowel problems. It is said to have diuretic and antipyretic properties. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The berries are dried and ground to create the spice. rts Medicinal The sumac bush is related to poison sumac (Rhus vermix); Propertie this shrub grows in swampy areas in the USA, and contact s with it can produce a rash that is similar to the lesions caused by poison oak and poison ivy. See chemicals in spices. Historical Its medicinal qualities are wholly to be View ascribed to its stypticity or astringency; a property which it possesses in a sufficient degree to render it useful in dyeing, and also in tannin of leather, for it was used in the time of Dioscorides. Woodville, William. A supplement to medical botany, or, part the second:

See chemicals in spices. Historical Its medicinal qualities are wholly to be View ascribed to its stypticity or astringency; a property which it possesses in a sufficient degree to render it useful in dyeing, and also in tannin of leather, for it was used in the time of Dioscorides. Woodville, William. A supplement to medical botany, or, part the second: containing plates with descriptions of most of the principal medicinal plants not included in the materia medica of the Collegiate Pharmacopoeias of London and Edinburgh. London, Phillips, 1794.

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Common TAMARIND Name Genus S Tamarindus indica pecies Family Fabaceae Origin East Africa Cultivate India, Southeast Asian, West Indies d Click image to enlarge

Descripti In India, Thailand, Southern Europe and Latin America, on tamarind is a popular cooking and condiment flavor. The tree originated in Africa, but now it is cultivated mainly in South India and in the Caribbean. Arabs are believed to have called it date of India; the English word date is related to dactyl, the Latin word for finger, which applies to the pod of the tamarind tree more than to the fruit of the date palm. Various preparations are exported, including juices, jams and pastes. The sour fruit pulp contains tartaric acid; its taste goes well with meat and vegetable dishes, and it is used in marinades, vindaloos, curries, chutneys and Worcestershire sauce. It is also used in drinks and in refreshing confectionary preparations. Increasingly, it is used in such Mexican drinks as aguas, dulces de tamarindo and colas. Some products, such as tamarind lollipops, have been the subject of FDA alerts because of their containing lead or insect contaminants. In Indian traditional medicine, tamarind had many indications, including its use as a digestive, laxative, tonic, antihelminthic, antipyretic, and astringent. It is favored for wound treatment, sore throat, urinary problems, gonorrhea, ulcers, liver disease and so on. Interestingly, it is recommended as a polish for brass and copper. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The spice is the ripe fruit or pulp of the pods of Tamarindus rts indica. Medicinal In practice, no true therapeutic value has been demonstrated. Propertie See chemicals in spices. s Historical Ta ma ri n d s h a ve sl i g h tl y l a xa ti ve View properties, and are also refrigerant from the acids they contain. An infusion of

brass and copper. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The spice is the ripe fruit or pulp of the pods of Tamarindus rts indica. Medicinal In practice, no true therapeutic value has been demonstrated. Propertie See chemicals in spices. s Historical Ta ma ri n d s h a ve sl i g h tl y l a xa ti ve View properties, and are also refrigerant from the acids they contain. An infusion of tamarind pulp forms a very grateful and useful drink in febrile affections. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880)

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Common TURMERIC Name Genus S Curcuma longa pecies Family Zingiberaceae Origin Southern Asia Cultivate India (especially the south central states), d southern and eastern China, Taiwan, Philippines, Java, Haiti, Jamaica, Peru Click image to enlarge

Cultivate India (especially the south central states), d southern and eastern China, Taiwan, Philippines, Java, Haiti, Jamaica, Peru Click image to enlarge

Descripti The root of Curcuma longa is ground up to provide the yellow on dye and flavor known as haldi in India and turmeric in the West. It is cultivated in several countries in south-eastern Asia, and is widely used as an appetite stimulant and digestive in various sauces, and as a rice colorant and a standard curry constituent, or as an inexpensive substitute for saffron. The spice has become more popular recently as a source of the yellow turmerone, curcumin: this is believed to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticholesterolemic properties. Herbalists advise that it be used to prevent heart disease and cancer, and to treat HIV infection and arthritis. In Chinese medicine, it is used to control hemorrhage, and to treat various diseases such as asthma and coryza. Curcumin is often added to food products as a colorant and to prevent their spoilage by oxidation. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The rhizome is harvested and ground to make the spice. rts Medicinal Although none of the alleged benefits have been adequately Propertie evaluated, turmeric and curcumin are increasingly being s promoted as health products. See chemicals in spices. Historical Turmeric is not now used as a remedial View a g e n t; b u t i s i n tro d u ce d i n to th e p h a rma co p o e i a s a s a te st to th e presence of alkalies, its action on which has just been noticed." Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) Click image to enlarge

Common VANILLA Name Genus S Vanilla planifolia pecies Family Orchidaceae Origin Central America, West Indies, Northern South America Cultivate Madagascar, Comoros Islands, d Reunion, French Polynesia, Tahiti, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mozambique, Seychelles, Uganda, Guatemala, Mexico

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Descripti For many people in countries where quality ice cream is on readily available, vanilla is the most popular of the nonpungent spices. It has been regarded as one of the most expensive spices along with saffron, cardamon and green peppercorns. The cost of vanilla reflects its historic importance as a flavor used in the royal drinks of the Mayans and Aztecs that were based on chocolate. The Aztecs called vanilla tlilxochitl, and they used it with chile peppers to flavor their drink. Vanilla is found in the seeds of the orchid vine, Vanilla planifolia (V. fragrans), which is native to Mexico. The Spaniards likened the bean pods to a little sheath or vaina, which is derived from the similar Latin word, vagina! Obtaining the flavor can be a several month long process, resulting from slowly fermenting the beans, which contain many small seeds; the ground-up bean is then used in similar fashion to coffee. People who enjoy the strong vanilla taste want to use freshly cured bean, while others accept the commercial extract. True vanilla in ice cream contains tiny dark flecks resulting from the presence of the seeds. However, the vanilla flavor, which is mainly due to vanillin, can be readily chemically synthesized from eugenol or guaiacol, or from lignin derived from tar, wood, or tonka beans. This product lacks the quality of the natural vanilla flavor that develops during the curing of the best beans when glucosides are converted to vanillic aldehyde, which is vanillin, since other aromatic chemicals are also produced.

want to use freshly cured bean, while others accept the commercial extract. True vanilla in ice cream contains tiny dark flecks resulting from the presence of the seeds. However, the vanilla flavor, which is mainly due to vanillin, can be readily chemically synthesized from eugenol or guaiacol, or from lignin derived from tar, wood, or tonka beans. This product lacks the quality of the natural vanilla flavor that develops during the curing of the best beans when glucosides are converted to vanillic aldehyde, which is vanillin, since other aromatic chemicals are also produced. Vanilla trees are grown in Mexico, Central America (Guatemala and especially Costa Rica), and in some Caribbean islands (especially Jamaica). However, it is difficult to grow since it is only pollinated by native bees and hummingbirds. It requires artificial fertilization outside its natural habitat, but it can be cultivated through the use of cuttings. Following its introduction to the French island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean, a method of hand pollination was introduced in 1841. Reunion is still an important site of vanilla production; the variety is called Bourbon vanilla, after the former name of the island. Madagascar is now the major producer of Bourbon vanilla. When vanilla became popular in 17th century Europe, it was used for many indications, varying from stomach ulcers to sedation. As was the case with many spices, it was extolled as an aphrodisiac. Today, it may fulfill its latter function when used in high quality baked goods, confectionary and desserts, although most users regard it more prosaically as a delicious flavor that may help digestion. Vanilla is used to flavor tobacco and as a fragrance in the cosmetic industry. It is of interest that sensitive workers in the vanilla industry may develop vanillism, resulting in headaches and skin rashes. Artificial vanilla (containing vanillin and ethylvanillin) is acceptable to most tastes, and therefore the export of true vanilla may continue to decline, since the culture and manufacture of the quality product is expensive and relatively non-competitive. Moreover, its value as an exotic medicine is no longer accepted. Thus the role of the vanilla bean has declined in significance, with over 95% of the worlds supply of vanilla flavor being synthetic. See a list of spices by Taste and Hotness. Useful Pa The cured, dried fruits of the plant impart the flavor. rts Medicinal Vanillin is in the class of vanilloids, that includes Propertie surprisingly capsaicin (8-methy-N-vanillyl noneamide) from s chile pepper and eugenol from cloves, cinnamon and other spices, and zingerone from ginger. The vanilloid receptors of the central and peripheral nervous systems bind with these compounds, resulting in different sensory effects. Thus, capsaicin can cause a burning sensation while eugenol results in mild anesthesia; vanillin itself is neutral. See chemicals in spices. Historical Vanilla is an aromatic stimulant, with a View tendency towards the nervous system. It has also been regarded as an aphrodisiac. It has been employed as a

spices, and zingerone from ginger. The vanilloid receptors of the central and peripheral nervous systems bind with these compounds, resulting in different sensory effects. Thus, capsaicin can cause a burning sensation while eugenol results in mild anesthesia; vanillin itself is neutral. See chemicals in spices. Historical Vanilla is an aromatic stimulant, with a View tendency towards the nervous system. It has also been regarded as an aphrodisiac. It has been employed as a re me d y i n h yste ri a , l o w fe ve rs, impotency, etc. But its use as a medicine is obsolete in this country, although still sometimes employed on the Continent and elsewhere. Bentley, Robert and Henry Trimen. Medicinal Plants; being descriptions with original figures of the principal plants employed in medicine and an account of the characters, properties, and uses of their parts and products of medicinal value. London, Churchill, 1880. (WZ 295 B556m 1880) Click image to enlarge

Contacts and Acknowledgments

Curator Responsible for intellectual content. Irwin Ziment, M.D. Profesor Emeritus of Clinical Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA; Olive View-UCLA Medical Center, Sylmar, CA iziment@ucla.edu History & Special Collections Division Responsible for image selection and digitization Katharine Donahue, M.L.S. Head, History & Special Collections Division Louise M. Darling Biomedical Library, UCLA kdonahue@library.ucla.edu Rob Stibravy History Division Assistant Collection Development for Complementary and Alternative Medicine Louise M. Darling Biomedical Library, UCLA Exhibit and Database Design Randy Ahn, Ph.D., M.L.I.S. Digital Projects Coordinator Reference Librarian Louise M. Darling Biomedical Library, UCLA

Contacts and Acknowledgments

Curator Responsible for intellectual content. Irwin Ziment, M.D. Profesor Emeritus of Clinical Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA; Olive View-UCLA Medical Center, Sylmar, CA iziment@ucla.edu History & Special Collections Division Responsible for image selection and digitization Katharine Donahue, M.L.S. Head, History & Special Collections Division Louise M. Darling Biomedical Library, UCLA kdonahue@library.ucla.edu Rob Stibravy History Division Assistant Collection Development for Complementary and Alternative Medicine Louise M. Darling Biomedical Library, UCLA Exhibit and Database Design Randy Ahn, Ph.D., M.L.I.S. Digital Projects Coordinator Reference Librarian Louise M. Darling Biomedical Library, UCLA Exhibit and Database Maintenance Richard Davidon Collection Development and Digital Projects Louise M. Darling Biomedical Library, UCLA rdavidon@library.ucla.edu Support for the online exhibit provided by:

History & Special Collections UCLA Louise M. Darling Biomedical Library 12-077 CHS, Box 951798 UCLA Los Angeles, CA 90095-1798 Tel: 310/825-6940 Fax: 310/825-0465 2002 Regents of the University of California