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Chapter 5 Objectives and Notes 1. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

List the current five kingdoms of life and give three examples of organism from each kingdom. 2. Define species. Describe how species are named scientifically. Summarize the role of geographic and reproductive isolation in forming new species. 3. List major steps which have occurred in earths chemical and biological evolution. Include scientific evidence to the theory of evolution. Describe three alternate hypotheses for the formation of complex chemicals. List potential sources of energy available for synthesis of biological chemicals. Describe how the first law of thermodynamics and polymers contribute to your understanding of evolution. 4. Compare the gradualism model and punctuated equilibrium hypotheses. Distinguish between macroevolution and microevolution. Define gene pool and describe the process that increases variability of the gene pool. 5. describe connections among mutations, adaptations, differential reproduction, and biological evolution. List and describe three possible outcomes of natural selection. 6. List four limits of adaptation of change. Summarize three common misconceptions about evolution. 7. Describe biodiversity in terms of specification and extinction. 8. Summarize how humans have tinkered with evolutionary processes; natures lessons that can be adopted as principles for more sustainable lifestyles; and ways that humans can restore and rehabilitate ecosystems.

APES Notes Ch. 5 Evolution, Biodiversity and Origins, Niches and Adaptation Origins of Life 1. How do we know? A. Chemical analysis: B. Radioactive dating: 2. Life evolved in two phases over the course of 4.7-4.8 billion years A. Chemical evolution of organic molecules and polymers B. Biological evolution from single celled prokaryotic bacteria to multi-cellular eukaryotic organisms 3. Chemical Evolution A. Formation of the Earths Crust:

B. Formation of the earths seas: C. Small organic molecules form in the seas: D. 4.4 billion years ago the first atmosphere was formed. The main components were believed to be: This mixture is often referred to as: E. Large organic molecules form in the seas: F. First protocells form in the seas:

2. Biological Evolution

A. 3.5 to 3.8 billion years ago, well below the surface of the sea away from harmful UV radiation the first prokaryotic cells formed: B. 2.3 to 2.5 billion years ago the first cyanobacteria appear and they: C. 2.0-2.1 billion years ago oxygen: D. 1.2 billion years ago we see the first eukaryotic cells arrive, which could reproduce sexually and E. 400-500 million years ago we see: F. How do we know what organisms were around:

1. Fossil record 2. Radiometric dating of rocks near the fossils 3. Evolution A. Heritable changes in a populations genetic make-up through successive generations B. The theory of evolution is based on the idea that all species descended from other species C. An overwhelming majority of biologists believe that this is the best explanation for the changes that have occurred over the last 3.7 billion years and also for why life on earth today is so diverse. D. Macroevolution: long term, large scale evolutionary changes among a group or species. One species leads to the appearance of many other species. a. Genetic persistence b. Genetic divergence c. Genetic losses

E. Microevolution: the small genetic changes that a population experiences F. How does microevolution work? a. It is the development of genetic variability in a population b. A populations gene pool is the sum total of all genes possessed by the individuals of the populations species c. Microevolution is a change in the species gene pool over time d. Members of a population have different molecular forms of the same gene called alleles. Sexual reproduction leads to a shuffling of alleles. As a result each individual has a different combination of alleles. This is called genetic variability e. Microevolution works through a combination of four processes: every Mutation, natural selection, gene flow, genetic drift

f. Mutation: The source for all new alleles (genes) is mutations, which are random changes in the structure of DNA molecules in a cell. Adaptation: any genetically controlled trait that helps an organism survive and reproduce under a given set of environmental conditions Every so often a mutation is beneficial and the result is a new genetic trait that will ensure the survival of offspring better Mutations are:

g. Natural Selection Differential reproduction: because of random shuffling or recombination of genes, certain individuals may by chance have one or more beneficial adaptations that allow them to survive under various environmental conditions. As a result they are more likely to reproduce than individuals that do not have such adaptations. Natural selection occurs when the combined effects of adaptation and differential reproduction result in a particular beneficial gene becoming more common in succeeding generations Natural selection does not create favorable genes; instead it favors some individuals over others by acting on genes already in the gene pool. Three types of Natural Selection:

Directional: it pays to be different: changing environmental conditions cause gene frequencies to shift so that individuals with traits at one end of the normal range become more common than midrange species

Stabilizing: it pays to be average: in a stable environment species that have abnormal genes have no advantage and tend to be eliminated.

Diversifying: it doesnt pay to be normal: when environmental conditions favor individuals at both extremes of the genetic spectrum and sharply reduce the number of mid-range individuals.

h. Gene Flow: i. Genetic drift: involves change in a genetic composition of a population by chance and is: G. Co evolution When populations of two different species interact over a long time, changes in the gene pool of one species can lead to changes in the gene pool of the other species. For example: H. An Example of evolution by natural selection:

4. Ecological Niches and Adaptation

A. Ecological niche: the species way of life or the functional role of the species in an ecosystem. For example: a. b. c. d. B. Fundamental niche vs. realize niche: Your fundamental niche is all then possible conditions that you can live under. Your realized niche is how you are actually living. For example: C. Generalist species vs. Specialist species a. Generalist: have very broad niches and eat a variety of foods and can live in a variety of places under differing conditions. For example b. Specialist: narrow niche, may only be able to live in one type of habitat or eat only one type of food. For example: c. Is it better to be a generalist or a specialist?

4. Speciation A. Two species arise from one species in response to changes in environmental conditions. B. The mechanism for speciation occurs in two phases a. Geographic isolation: occurs when two populations of a species becomes physically separated for long periods b. Reproductive isolation: occurs as mutation and natural selection occur independently in two separated populations of the same species. Eventually, the changes are so great that two groups will no longer interbreed. C. Divergent evolution: speciation creates separate species D. Convergent evolution: Two separate species will evolve separately to create animals with similar characteristics. Species that have similar niches tend to evolve similar sets of traits in response similar environmental conditions. For example:

5. Extinction A. When environmental changes occur species either evolve or cease to exist and their genetic material is permanently lost. B. Extinction patterns have been caused by large-scale movements of the continents and gradual climate changes like those from meteors and volcanoes. C. All species inevitably disappear D. Background extinction is the low rate that species constantly disappear. It is the normal level. Approx. E. Mass extinction: an abrupt rise in extinction rates above the background rate. It is catastrophic, global and often results in 25% to 70% loss of species F. There are have been five previous mass extinctions and we are currently in the six mass extinction, which is being caused by humans.

G. Adaptive radiation: an extinction of one species is an opportunity for another species and after a mass extinction there is a period in which numerous new species can evolve H. Speciation and extinction affects biodiversity: a. Speciation minus extinction equals biodiversity b. Although extinction is a natural process, humans have sped up the process and we have lost a lot of genetic material c. This mass extinction is different from previous extinctions in the following ways: 6. How does Macroevolution occur? A. Macroevolution is concerned with how evolution takes place above the level of species and over long periods of time and shows how small changes can lead to the eventual creation of many different species, genera and families.

B. Gradualist model: theory that says macro evolutionary change occurs over many millions of years C. Punctuated Equilibrium: opposing theory that says there are long periods of relatively punctuated with brief periods of very rapid changes. D. In reality it is probably a combination of both 7. Common Misconceptions about Evolution A. Survival of the fittest is often misinterpreted as survival of the strongest. In biological terms fitness is a measure of reproductive success and the ones with the most descendants are the fittest. Natural selection is not "tooth and claw competition. B. Humans evolved from apes, this is not true. Apes and humans have a common ancestor from which both are descended. C. Nature has a grand plan in which species become progressively more perfect, natural selection is random and there is no goal of perfection.

8. Human Impact on evolution A. Simplified ecosystem B. Strengthening of pest species by overuse of antibiotics and pesticides C. Eliminating predators D. Introduction of non-native species E. Over harvesting renewable resources F. Interfering with normal chemical and energy flows

G. The first law of ecology:

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