Keynote Lecture CIB2004 World Building Congress Toronto, Ontario CANADA May 2-7, 2004

High-Rise Buildings: Evolution and Innovations

Dr. Oral Buyukozturk
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Oguz Gunes
Ph.D. Candidate
2004 IST Group. All rights reserved

Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, MA, USA

OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION LOADS EVOLUTION INNOVATIONS CONCLUSION

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Introduction

What is a high-rise building?

A building whose height creates different conditions in the design, construction, and use than those that exist in common buildings of a certain region and period.
The Council of Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Demand for High-Rise Buildings

Scarcity of land in urban areas Increasing demand for business and residential space Economic growth Technological advancements Innovations in Structural Systems Desire for aesthetics in urban settings Concept of city skyline Cultural significance and prestige Human aspiration to build higher

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Geographical Distribution of High-Rise Buildings

(Tables source: Emporis Corporation April 2004)

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Economy vs. Demand for High-Rise Buildings

Economic growth and resulting demand for office space is a good indication of demand for high-rise buildings
U.S. Gross Domestic Product
10% 8% 6% 4% 2% 0% -2% 2001

U.S. Asking Office Rents, Class A

$ Per Sq. Ft. Per Year Full Service CBD Suburban

$50 $40 $30

2002

2003

2004

$20 Jan-98Jan-99Jan-00Jan-01Jan-02Jan-03Jan-04

U.S. Office Supply vs. Demand

U.S. Office Vacancy Rates
19.0% 17.0% 15.0% 13.0% 11.0% 9.0% 7.0% 5.0% Sq. Ft. in Millions
Completed Absorbed

150 100 50 0 -50 -100

86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04

86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04
(Grubb & Ellis Company, 2004)
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Structural Loads
Gravity loads
Dead loads Live loads Snow loads
Impact Load Dead Loads Wind Load Live Loads Snow Load

Lateral loads
Wind loads Seismic loads

Special load cases

Impact loads Blast loads
Blast Load Earthquake Load
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Gravity Loads
Floor systems account for a major portion of the gravity loads Selection of the floor system may influence structural behavior and resistance Structural use plays a major role in selection of the floor system Office buildings
large simply supported spans

Residential and hotel buildings

short continuous spans

Types of floor systems Concrete Prestressed concrete Steel Composite

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Wind Loads
Qz
Plan view

Qh

Qh Qz
z

Qh

Qh
Wind
ch (S ) 77 19 er, ell u

Qz = KV I
2

Qh = Qz

z=H
(Taranath, 1998)
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Seismic Loads
Spectral response acceleration (g) Response with increasing damping

W V

Period (sec)

V = Cs W

Decreasing V/W
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Design for Increased Height

Building weight and cost increase nonlinearly with increasing height due to lateral loads Efficient structural and material systems are needed to reduce weight and cost Wind loads generally govern design for lateral loads for heights > 150 m for steel buildings > 250 m for concrete buildings
(Ali, M., 2001)

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Evolution of Structural Systems

A clear classification of high-rise buildings with respect to their structural system is difficult A rough classification can be made with respect to effectiveness in resisting lateral loads

Structural Systems
Moment resisting frame systems Braced frame, shear wall systems Core and outrigger systems Tubular systems
Framed tubes Trussed tubes Bundled tubes

Hybrid systems
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Evolution of Structural Systems

110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40
Rigid Frame Semi-Rigid Frame Frame with Shear Truss

# of Floors Type I Type II Type III Type IV Shear Frames Interacting Systems Partial Tubular Systems Tubular Systems
End Channel Framed Tube with Interior Shear Trusses

(CTBUH, 1980) Frame with Shear band and Outrigger Trusses

30 20 10

Bundled Framed Tube

Exterior Framed Tube

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Exterior Diagonalized Tube

End Channel and Middle I Framed Tubes

Shear Frame System

Resists lateral deformation by joint rotation Requires high bending stiffness of columns and beams Rigid joints are essential for stability Not effective for heights over 30 stories

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Braced Frame System

Lateral forces are resisted by axial actions of bracing and columns Steel bracing members or filled-in bays More efficient than a rigid frame

Cantilever

Shear

Combined
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Core Structure System

Lateral and gravity loads supported by central core Eliminates columns and bracing elements Core is inefficient because it is not deep in respect to bending Moment supported floors are inefficient

Individually cantilevered floors Cantilever supports

Group cantilevered floors Core

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Outrigger Braced Structure System

1- or 2-story deep truss connects core to perimeter columns Outriggers Increases the bending rigidity Dependent of rigid core for shear resistance

Braced core

Tension

Compression

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Tubular System
Majority of structural elements around the perimeter Sides normal to lateral load resist bending Sides parallel to lateral load resist shear Minimize number of interior columns Closely spaced exterior columns
Closely spaced columns

Increased stress at corners created by shear lag effect

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Hybrid Systems
Combine advantages of different structural and material systems Composite material system Concrete super columns Steel encased concrete columns Composite floor system Steel truss and outrigger systems High strength concrete super columns reduce deflections and weight Steel encased HS concrete combines easy erectability of steel, axial load capacity of HS concrete, efficient confinement and reinforcement.
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

High-Efficiency Mega-Braced Frame System

Mega braces

Very large columns and bracing Small number of columns Bracing extends over multiple floors Stiff transfer floors allow for internal flexiblity

Transfer zones

Mega columns

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Evolution of Materials
High performance concrete (HPC) High performance steel (HPS) Composite construction

Material systems of the tallest 200 Buildings

Number of Buildings Composite 33% Steel 42%
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Concrete 25% Introduction Introduction Loads Loads

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990 2000*

Decade
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Evolution Evolution Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Innovations

Vulnerability and risk assessment Performance based design Materials Structural control Egress strategies

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Vulnerability and Risk Assessment

Probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) and decision making have been effectively used in nuclear engineering, manufacturing, seismic loss estimation etc. Probabilistic, nonlinear, and coupled evaluation of building vulnerability is needed for identified hazards.
Hazard identification, prioritization and evaluation Risk assessment & Loss estimation Decision & Implementation

Vulnerability analysis

Optimum mitigation strategy

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Risk Assessment and Performance Based Design

Hazard Analysis

Amplification

Seismic source

ation Attenu

Vulnerability Analysis
SPECTRAL ACCELERATION STRONGER CONSTRUCTION

WEAKER CONSTRUCTION

MINOR SHAKING

MODERATE SHAKING

MAJOR SHAKING

SPECTRAL DISPLACEMENT

Structural model
NONE SLIGHT MODERATE EXTENSIVE COLLAPSE
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Design for Fire

Old: Prescriptive-Based Design
Design based on fire rating of materials used Fire rating of material from tables Compliance with a code specified value

New: Performance-Based Design

Evaluate the strength and stiffness for a particular design fire Coupled stress-thermal analysis Specialized design for fire effects Use of fire retardant materials, advanced coatings and ceramics
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Performance Evaluation Under Fire

Coupled structural/fire analysis Structural Model
Elastic/strength properties Geometry Thermal properties Onset of fire

Time: 20 min

Demand
Structural loads Fire modeling Time: 35 min

Thermal analysis

Stress analysis

Time: 45 min Weakest link

Deformations, damage, collapse

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Design for Impact Loading

Engineering problems related to impact loads: Modeling of impact Assessment of impact damage Evaluation of structural safety after impact Modeling of potential fire after impact Coupled evaluation of structural integrity and collapse potential
(FEMA 403)

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Impact Modeling
Floor

V V
Boeing 767-200 Boeing 767-200

Core area

Floor
Core columns Velocity

Exterior columns

Boeing 767-200 Max. takeoff weight: 395,000 lb (180 ton) Max. fuel capacity: 24,000 gal (91,000 liter) Cruise speed: 530 mph (237 m/s)

V 220 m/s
Pcutting 3.0 MN

Total kinetic energy

Fuselage cutting force

Ek = 1 MV 2 = 3460 MJ 2
Introduction Introduction Loads Loads

MIT Impact and Crashworthiness Laboratory

2004 IST Group

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Energy Dissipation During Impact

The initial kinetic energy of the plane is dissipated through Permanent plastic deformation (crushing) Generated Heat Fracture and fragmentation (creating new surfaces) Friction Residual velocity Elastic vibrations
Floor structure 53% Aircraft 25% Estimated distribution of energy dissipation Core columns 28%

May be used as a design tool

Introduction Introduction Loads Loads Evolution Evolution

Exterior columns 3%
Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

MIT Impact and Crashworthiness Laboratory

2004 IST Group

Conclusion Conclusion

Design for Blast Loading

Sequence of damage due to a blast outside the building Incident pressure waveform

(FEMA 427)
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Redundancy and Progressive Failure

REDUNDANCY: Presence of alternate load paths PROGRESSIVE FAILURE: Successive failure of critical elements Redundancy is essential for structural safety and protection Ductile structural elements and details Design for load reversals Avoid shear failures

Structural behavior

Low redundancy

High redundancy
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Redundancy and Progressive Failure

Redundancy in column system

System Redundancy (Global frame) Local Redundancy (Local joints)

FEMA 403

Redundancy in floor system

Improved local redundancy

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Design Against Progressive Failure

Catenary action of cables
Cables in the floor

High-capacity column-beam connections

Catenary action Before removal of the column After removal of the column

(Astaneh-Asl, 2003)

Other possible design actions Transfer trusses at upper floors allowing columns to hang Strong moment connections for cantilever action of floor frames Perimeter frames with sufficient capacity to span multi-bays Mega-brace systems capable of resisting partial collapse Introduction Introduction Loads Loads Evolution Evolution

(Houghton and Karns)

2004 IST Group

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Materials Development
High performance concrete and steel enable efficient and innovative design FRP composites may be effective in combination with conventional materials Fiber reinforced concrete shows promise in fire protection
Relative MOE or Comp. Strength

Effect of Heat on Reinforced Concrete (2 hours of exposure to 1000 C fire)

1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000

Compressive Strength

Modulus of Elasticity

Temperature (C)

Ordinary RC

Riber RC
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Structural Control
Lateral motion problems can be resolved through various types of damping systems Controls systems can be implemented in initial design or as a retrofit
Passive dampers are commonly used in new tall buildings Viscous Dampers
Piston forcing fluid through an orifice Compact and easily installed

Hysteretic Dampers
Dissipates energy by cyclic yielding in tensions and compression Easy to install, but may need to be replaced after major event

Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD)

Translation TMD Pendulum TMD
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Structural Control Systems

Diagonal brace with viscous or viscoelastic damper

Chevron brace with viscous dampers

Chevron brace with viscoelastic damper

Pall friction damper

Tuned liquid column damper

Tuned liquid damper

damper spring

actuator

Tuned mass damper

Active mass damper

Hybrid mass damper

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Passive Structural Control

Tuned Mass Dampers
John Hancock Building, Boston

cd p m c k

kd

md

u + ud u

Governing equations of motion: Building Damper

p (1+ m)u + 2u + u = mud m

2

md m= m

ki = mi
2 i

2 ud + 2dd ud + d ud = u

ci = 2ii mi
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Active Structural Control

Hybrid Mass Dampers
Nishikicho Building, Tokyo
(Connor, 2003)

cd p m c k

kd

u + ud

u +ud + ua u

Governing equation of motion for the AMD

ka
F
Introduction Introduction

u +ud + ua ma
Loads Loads

F ua + u = (u + ud ) + ma
2 a a
2004 IST Group

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Health Monitoring
Vibration techniques can be used to determine the vibration characteristics of high-rise buildings Advantages Rapid Can be used for periodic or continuous monitoring Economically feasible Provides a preliminary assessment of the building stiffness Leads to more accurate seismic demand prediction
Ambient vibrations Accelerometer(s) Data acquisition unit

2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Emergency Egress Strategies

Elevated passages to neighboring buildings Refuge floors/rooms with fire escape elevators Perimeter wall rescue vehicles Fire resistant escape chutes Flying rescue platforms Individual fire resistant parachutes

2004 IST Group

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Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion

Conclusions
Highrise buildings enjoy rapid evolution and new innovations Efficient composite hybrid structural systems for super-tall buildings Use of composite material systems Improved analysis and design tools for better fire, impact, blast resistance Redundancy against progressive failure Effective egress strategies Use of passive and active control systems Implementation of health and long-term performance monitoring
2004 IST Group

Introduction Introduction

Loads Loads

Evolution Evolution

Innovations Innovations

Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion