Agro Midterm 2 Study Guide Chapter 7: Wind Not always present as a factor in environment but can have strong

g impact on agroecosytems: o Exert a physical force on the plant body o Transport particles and materials o Mix the atmosphere immediately surrounding the plant Most basic process driving the atmosphere is differential heating and cooling of earths surface Coriolis Effect The deflection of air currents in atmospheric circulation cells due to the rotation of the earth

Leads to prevailing winds o Our winds blow from SW or NE Lag effect because of the earths rotation makes winds blow from SE or NW direction

Local winds Can be very predictable. Affected by topography and proximity to water o Sea breeze or lake breezes* - In coastal areas, daytime winds blow toward the land because the nearby landmass heats up faster than the body of water o Slope winds** - In areas of mountainous topographies, the land radiates heat back into the atmosphere at night, the air close to the surface cool as well. Since cooler air is heavier it begins to flow downslope o Rainshadow effect Direct effects of wind on plants Desiccation Dwarfing - Shortening of plant stature due to wind. Plants in alpine and coastal dune ecosystems are typically short because of relatively constant high winds Deformation When winds are relatively constant and from the same direction they can permanently alter the growth form of plants (plant leaning in the wind)

Plant Damage and Uprooting Leaves can be shredded or removed, branches can be broken, and whole plants can be uprooted (typical in hurricane and tornado areas) Changes in Composition of Air Surrounding Plants Levels of oxygen, CO2, and nitrogen change. Air movement mixes air around plant, disturbing oxygen rich boundary layer around leaves and accelerating the diffusion of CO2 toward the stomata (this can actually benefit plants)

Wind erosion In low rainfall areas Soil surfaces lacking vegetative cover and with a loose, dry, finely granulated soil surface may be easily eroded by wind 2 methods of transportation: o Detachment of particles o Transport of particles Saltation when particles are transported across surface, staying within 30cm of surface. Accounts for 50 70% of wind movement of soil Dustbowl one of the largest ecological disasters in US American plains in 1930s Due to intensive tillage, combined with monoculture with short rotations, left soil exposed for erosion Transport of disease and pest organisms Some bacteria, fungal spores, and insects depend on wind dispersal What are beneficial effects of wind on plants? Mixing air around plants Pollination Measuring Wind Wind measured with anemometer Windbreaks Structures (usually trees) that modify wind flow for the purpose of reducing soil erosion by wind, increasing crop yields, and/or protecting the farmstead and other structures o Change winds course and rate of flow (not stop it) o Shelter belt o Hedge rows How is a windbreak usually oriented in relation to wind? Perpendicular When trees are used for windbreak, it is a form of agroforestry Primary effect is a reduction of wind speed Windbreak can reduce wind velocity by 80% for a distance of 10 tree heights downwind of windbreak and for 2 tree heights windward side. Quiet zone in lee of the barrier (great reduction in wind speed) and wake zone (less reduction in wind speed) Near top of windbreak, flow is compressed and accelerated. Density of windbreak has impact on distance barrier alters wind flow Dense barriers produce largest velocity reduction leeward but more turbulence and less protected area Porosity of 40% reduces wind speed effectively for 30 heights downwind.

Some crops benefit more than others from windbreaks. Which ones benefit? Alfalfa With some crops, benefits from windbreak are maximized at 3-6 heights downwind. Why? PAGE 95 Alternatives to permanent windbreaks? Annual crops Harnessing Wind We need sources of renewable energy Windmills have long been used ASU windmill Chapter 8: Soil Soil is weathered superficial layer of earth mixed with living organisms Not just a medium for holding plants up! Ideal soil o 45% minerals (formed from breakdown of bedrock) o 5% organic matter o 50% space (half water/half air) Process of soil formation Only 0.5 1.5 ton topsoil per acre annually is formed in Midwest 5 6 tons of soil per acre is lost! Physical weathering o Water, wind, temperature, gravity Water seeps into crevices (heating, cooling) CO2 in water forms carbonic acid Pulls minerals from rocks (calcium carbonate) Transport o Wind, water, gravity, glaciers move soil particles Colluvium (transported by gravity) Alluvium (transported by water) Glacial soil (transported by glaciers) Eolian soil (transported by wind) Biotic Processes Plants establish o Send down roots, drawing nutrients from mineral matter, break down Plant residue becomes energy source for bacteria, fungi, worms, etc Organic matter broken down by decomposition and mineralization Remaining fraction is humus Chemical Weathering Hydration o Addition of water molecules to mineral chemical structure (crystal swell and fracture) Hydrolysis o Cations of crystalline structure replaced by hydrogen ions, causing decomposition Solution o Parent materials go into solution with water (i.e. solution of limestone causes caves where underground water flows) Oxidation o Elements such as iron oxidize in presence of water or air

Soil Horizons Chemical, physical, biological processes lead to observable layers or horizons Horizons give a soil a profile O organic, soil surface (most biologically active but may be absent in cultivated soils) A mineral, mixed with humus B materials leached from A accumulate as clays, iron, aluminum (blocky structure) C least weathered R unweathered parent material Soil Characteristics Texture o Percentage of mineral soil that is o Sand (feels gritty, porous to water, less able to hold nutrient cations) o Silt (feels grainy, holds water and nutrient ions) o Clay (water molecules and nutrient ions adhere to it) o Clay controls most important properties of soil but high clay soil drains poorly or cracks when dry

Soils are a mix of Textured Classes Best soil depends on crops o Potatoes do well in sandy soil o Paddy rice does well in clay Clay loam soil good in a drier environment Sandy loam soil good in a more wet environment Soil Structure Macrostructure formed by aggregates (platy, prismatic, columnar, blocky, granular, crumb like) Aggregates become larger with increasing depth Structure largely dependent on organic matter Soil aggregates depends on

o Attraction among soil particles (dependent on texture) o Cementing of these groups by organic matter Good crumb structure improves tilth: soil porosity and ease of tillage o Bound soil particles resist wind/water erosion o Promotes low bulk density (higher percent of pore space which means better aeration, water percolation, water storage) o Tools penetrate more easily Crumb structure impacted by farming practices Excessive cultivation, heavy machinery increases compaction

Color Helps identify soil types, history Dark color indicate high organic matter content Red and yellow indicate iron oxides under good drainage and aeration o Gray and yellow-brown indicators of poor drainage, iron is reduced to ferrous form instead of oxidized to ferric form Whitish indicates quartz, carbonates, gypsum Cation-Exchange Capacity Plants get mineral nutrients from soil as dissolved ions o Positively charged: potassium, calcium o Negatively charged: nitrate, phosphate If not taken up by roots or fungi right away, leaching risk Clay and humus particles or micelles have negatively charged surfaces that hold positive ions in place Number of sites on micelles is CEC Higher CEC means better soil ability to hold nutrients for plants to use Negative ions (nitrate, phosphate, sulfate) are adsorbed to clay micelles by ion bridges Soil acidity influences electrical charge on micelles (large impact on nutrient availability Soil Acidity and pH pH or acid-base balance Acidic (below 6.6) Neutral Basic (above 7) Few plants grow well outside range of 5-8 Legumes sensitive to acidic soils because of impact on nitrogen-fixing bacteria Soil Nutrients Availability determined by pH, CEC, and texture Nutrients lost due to harvest, leaching, and volitilization External fertilizers high cost Depend on nutrient cycling o Carbon cycling (discussed as soil organic matter) o Nitrogen cycling Soil Organic Matter In most soils, range is 1-5% Composed of living and nonliving material Soil management emphasizes role of organic matter

Soil Management Biomass lost through harvest and decomposition Replace biomass in soil (conventional ag focuses on the market) o Crop residue (possible pest or disease issues; compost?) o Cover crops (plant is grown specifically to incorporate into soil as green manure or left on top of soil to provide mulch as it decomposes; grown in rotation with crops or as living mulch) Managing Soil Organic Matter Animal manure CAFOs produce a lot of manure, but issues not only in geographical concentration but also in storing, transporting, applying large quantities of manure Small, integrated farms an easily apply manure Possible issues: flies, odor, nitrogen loss through ammonification o Incorporate manure into soil or compost before applying Compost o Allows many materials to be used for organic matter (animal manure, lawn clippings, food waste, etc.) o Optimal ratio of C:N, free of weed seeds, free of pathogens o Vermicomposting Tillage systems o Conventional agriculture cultivates soil to control weeds, incorporate organic matter, and allow roots growth; 3-stage: Deep plowing to turn soil Secondary tilling to prepare seed bed Post-planting cultivations to control weeds (along with herbicide) o But cultivate can degrade soil structure and organic matter Alternative tillage o No tillage, slash/burn, poke hole to plant seed (requires fallow period) o Permanent pasture o Agroforestry systems Zero tillage o Cultivation limited to seed bed at time of planting (however, may depend heavily on herbicides) Reduced tillage o Ridge tillage (initial plowing to form beds for corn and soybeans, then seed planting and special tillers for weed management on surface) Soil Quality Benefits of No-Till Increased organic matter levels Topsoil savings from reduced erosion Increased available water Increased soil biological activity Pesticide reductions of 50% Better infiltration Chapter 9: Water in the Soil Chapter 10: Fire Chapter 11: Biotic Factors How individual plants are affected by

Abiotic factors o Non-living component of the environment: soil nutrients, light, fire, or moisture Biotic factors o Living aspects of the environment: earthworms o How living organisms create conditions that impact individual plants

Two Frameworks for Organism Interactions in Community and Ecosystem 1. Organism-Organism Perspective o Classifying interactions between organisms o Negative effect (-) o Positive effect (+) o Neutral effect (0) Mutualism + + (i.e. organisms are so dependent, they suffer when not in interaction; i.e. legumes and Rhizobium bacteria); a form on symbiosis (living together) Competition - - (i.e. limited resources; competition for N in a crop field 2. Organism-Environmental-Organism Perspective Interference o Organism modifies environment in a way that impacts another organism Removal interference o When one organism removes something from the environment , reducing the availability of that resource for other organisms Addition interference o When one organism adds something to the environment that can have a positive, negative, or neutral impact on other organisms Allelopathy When a plant releases chemicals into the environment that inhibits ro stimulates the development of other plants (usually inhibits) Addition inference Released to environment: by being washed doff green leaves, leaches out of dry leaves, volatized from the leaves, exuded from roots, or released from shed plant material during decomposition o Volatization evaporation-like Common plants with allelopathic properties include o Trees: Black walnut, eucalyptus, sugar maple, tree-of-heaven, hackberry, southern waxmyrtle, American sycamore, cottonwood, black cherry, red oak, black locust, sassafras, and American elm, fragant sumac. o Weeds: Bitter grass, quackgrass o Cover crops: Winter rye, wheat, organic mulches from cover crops Benefits include smothering weeds, contribute organic matter, water penetration and retention o Some crops inhibit weeds: Sorghum, peas, rice, tobacco, squash, rye, velvet bean, corn, many grasses, mustard, buckwheat Suspect allelopathy when there is sufficient nutrients (fertilizer) and water Natures herbicides Natures Pesticides Exist to protect the plant against herbivory, pests, and disease Organic farmers can use these to their advantage

Chapter 12: The Environmental Complex Previous chapters examined environmental factors and other organisms affecting the plant But environmental factors rarely act independently o Therefore we examine interacting factors (the environmental complex) o Characteristics emerge from the interactions (complexity, hetereogenity) o Final part of autoecology study (individual organisms), then syncecology Environmental complex of a crop plant includes o Solar radiation, RH, temperature, atmosphere, wind, rainfall/irrigation, fire, topography/latitude, gravity, soil, nutrients, associated plants/animals/humans Factors work independently, interact, or cascade effect o Ex. Weed growth on north side of furrow (shading led to lower temperature, higher moisture, higher biological activity) Complexity of interaction o Illustrated by seed germination and the safe site Safe site = set of conditions at the scale of the seed (individual) that enables it to germinate (thrive). Heterogeneity of the environment o Environment varies (spacial, temporal) Even in monoculture, each plant encounters slightly different nutrient levels, moisture, temperature, etc. In a wet tropical lowland, slight topographical variation leads to moisture differences May be more ecologically efficient to adjust crop types rather than enforce homogeneity Changes take place hourly, daily, seasonally Ex. The window for using a flame weeder Spatial heterogeneity is created by: Differences in soils Soil nutrients Aspect Slope Elevation Vegetation Altitude Latitude Temporal heterogeneity is created by: Day/night cycles Seasonal differences Vegetational development Weather patterns Interaction of environmental factors Compensating factors: When one factor overcomes or lessens the effect of another factor o To counter the impact of herbivory, farmer may add compost to the soil (allows herbivory to persist with a successful harvest) Multiplicity of factors o Factors act as a functional unit( temperature, light, moisture) Factor predisposition: When one factor stimulates, enhances or causes another factor to negatively influence your crop o Ex. Low light levels from shading may lead to fungal attack The environmental complex is the dynamic, ever-changing set of ALL biotic and abiotic factors that affect growth, structure, function and reproduction of an organism. These

factors change over time and space, and are not independent of each other (=there is no one-on-one cause-effect relationship between them). Positive and negative feedback loops are constantly at work in nature It is often a complex of factors causing specific effects on your crops or animals Fixing one factor/problem often leads to a cascade of other factors to change as well. You can never do just one thing!!

Chapter 13: The Population Ecology of Agroecosystems In conventional agriculture, the crop plant or animal herd is the center of attention However, agroecology does not focus on the needs of just one population Agroecosystem is a collection of interacting populations of organisms (crop, non-crop, microorganisms, animals, etc.) We are concerned not only with population growth but also how non-crop plants increase in area (colonize new habitats) Stages of Colonization Dispersal Allows progeny (offspring) to escape the vicinity of the mother organism, lessening the potential for intraspecific competition between siblings. Also allows species to reach new habitats Establishment Dispersing seeds cannot determine where they will land, only microsites (safe sites) that fulfill the needs of the seed can support germination and establishment Growth and Maturation After establishment, main goal is to grow. Environment where seedlings are located as well as genetics combine to determine how quickly they will grow. Plants grow fastest in early stages of growth and slow as maturation begins more energy is allocated to the production of reproductive organs. Reproduction Once plants are mature, they can reproduce. Can take place asexually (through vegetative reproduction) or sexually (through the production of seeds) Life-History Strategies r-strategist opportunists; they colonize disturbed habitats where interference is minimal, short-lived, large numbers of easily dispersed seeds, r animal require little parental care K-strategist tolerators, have prolonged vegetative growth, relatively large seeds that contain reserve of stored food, K animals care for their young o These life history theories help us plan our agriculture and understand how a population maintains a role and place in an ecosystem over time R or K strategists? Q: what are weedy organisms? Q: What are crops? Q: What are livestock? Stress/disturbance-intensity theory Stress (shading, drought, low nutrients) and disturbance (tillage, fire, heavy grazing) limit biomass High Stress Low Stress High Disturbance Mortality Ruderals Low Disturbance Stress Tolerators Competitors Ruderals are adapted to conditions of high disturbance and low stress Stress Tolerators live in high-stress, low-disturbance environment Competitors live in low stress and low disturbance conditions

Niche An organisms place and function in the environment helps us understand what the role and place are Aspects of niches Spatial component Temporal component Functional component Niche diversity Specialists Specific in their distribution of activities, but have advantage of being able to make better use of abundant resource when its available Generalists Can adjust more readily to a range of resources Competitive exclusion two organisms in the same habitat are too similar and there are limited resources, one organism eventually excludes the other. It is relatively uncommon so there must be some level of coexistence or avoidance of competition o Gauses Law: two organisms cannot occupy the same ecological niche at the same time Examples of diversification of the niche and overlap: o Plants with different rooting depths o Insects with different prey preference o Birds with different hunting or nesting behaviors Applications of niche theory in agriculture Farmers manage aspects of ecological niches of organisms on the farm Promoting or inhibiting establishment of weedy species o Ex. wild mustard has little negative impact on crops but will inhibit other weeds Biological control of insect pests o Good example of niche concept (beneficial is introduced to occupy an empty niche) Design of intercropping systems o You need to know the niche characteristics of each species Used to develop ecologically-based management strategies for weeds and pests Chapter 14: Genetic Resources in Agroecosystems Genetic change in nature How does genetic change in nature take place? o Natural selection Created the genetic diversity found in nature Changing environment acts on species genomes o Mutations o Adaptation Concept for understanding natural selection Where does variability come from? Genotypic variation is due to nature of DNA replication (errors or mutations) Variability produced by sexual reproduction Due to natural genetic variation, some individuals have traits other do not that give them advantage o What types of advantages? Faster growth

More offspring

If environment never changes, would genetic change still take place? Yes, because of DNA But environments do change* Natural selection acts on populations Humans Domesticating Directed selection Became intentional (seed with higher yield chosen, goats with high milk production bred) Directed selection became more important than natural Why has domestication led to obligate mutualism? What are traits selected in crops and livestock by humans? Maximum yield Docility Increased shelf-life How is carbon partitioned differently? Carbon is partitioned to the harvestable biomass (the fruit) Directed selection has led to major problems in agriculture Many species require artificial (optimal) conditions and high level of external inputs Ideal soil moisture, nutrient availability, no pests For animals, environmentally controlled conditions, antibiotics, artificial insemination But some of the conditions result in negative impacts (on environment, soil, human health) Methods of directed selection in plants Methods depend on manner of reproduction Two types of reproduction in plants: 1. Self-pollination Female and male parts are in the same plant 2. Cross-pollination Female flower parts are fertilized by pollen from other plants Mass Selection Collecting seed from individuals in a population that show desirable characteristics o Landraces (varieties adapted to local conditions; its members are genetically diverse) Cross-pollinated plants, open pollinations occurs (natural mixing of pollen) Self-pollinated plants, high variability maintained o Field-based so traits adapted to local conditions are retained Pure Line Selection Self-pollinating plants, choose superior plants and subject progeny to testing over generations New lines released as new variety o Genotype stays stable over time o Production of synthetic varieties Cross-pollinating plant analog o Limit parental genotypes to superior ones o Allow natural crossing Hybridization

Cross between two very different parents (each from a different pure-breeding line) o Two distinct pure-breeding lines developed (in cross-breeding plants this means artificial in-breeding) o These two lines are crossed to produce the hybrid seed that is planted by farmers Cant use self-pollination or cross-pollinated, so special techniques used (plant pollen donor and seed producing lines in alternating strips and detassel the seed-producing plants before tassels produce pollen) Hybrid offspring of two selectively inbred parents are different from the parents o Hybrid vigor o Genetic uniformity However, seed form hybrids are not desirable for planting because sexual recombination will produce a variety of gene combinations (without hybrid vigor) Therefore, farmers must purchase new hybrid seed every year Excellent way for seed company to make money; poor for sustainability Q: Are these GMO?

Chickens Purebreeds (New Hampshires, White Rocks, White Wyndottes) o Crossbred Barred Rock x New Hampshire = Delware Delaware male x New Hampshire female = Indian River cross Cornish x White Rock. Cornish male line provides breast muscling, conformation Rock female line provides good reproduction. Commercial hybrids

Crossing provides: Hybrid vigor Intellectual property protection Double crossed lines provide security When Grandparents breed, pure lines are crossed to produce Parent Stock Pure lines cannot be reproduced from Parent Stock or offspring Biological lock GMO What is GMO? What are pros and cons?

Transgenetic modification Genetic engineers can transfer single genes from one organism to another o Specific traits can be introduced such as resistance to freezing Biotech: Application of technology to biology; manipulation of living cells, genetic engineering Modifying microbes: rBST Plant examples: Most common GMOs are soy, cotton, canola, corn, sugar beets, alfalfa, and squash (zucchini and yellow). o Common processed food ingredients such as: Amino Acids, Aspartame, Ascorbic Acid, Citric Acid, Sodium Citrate, High Fructose Corn Syrup, Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein, Lactic Acid, Maltodextrins, Molasses, Monosodium Glutamate, Sucrose, Xanthan Gum, Vitamins, Yeast Products. Animal examples: salmon, increasing resistance of livestock to various diseases

Use of lactating animals to produce pharmaceuticals useful to humans GMO public relations gold mine: transgenic rice containing beta-carotene Can reduce blindness due to vitamin A deficiency Technology is not patented and available to plant breeders However, 5 cents per child of vitamin A could also reduce blindness

Concerns Unintended/hidden effects of expression of genome Accelerated evolution of pesticide-resistant pests Creation of superweeds Introduction of toxic agents and allergens into food supply Genetic pollution of the environment Harm to wildlife and beneficial species Consolidation of agribusiness control of genetic resources Loss of genetic diversity 300,000 edible plant species on earth but 60% of worlds dietary energy comes from just 4: o Wheat, rice, corn, potatoes 70% of US dairy herd is Holstein Poultry: white egg layers, brown egg layers, broilers, turkeys: all their genetics are very similar Many livestock breeds are in danger of extinction Genetic diversity is the raw material for plant and animal breeding; restrict future breeding efforts Allows the use of genetic lines well-adapted to specific localities; these organisms requires fewer external inputs; basis for sustainable systems Genetic diversity is important component of environmental resistance in the field (some individuals may have innate resistance to disease) Provides reservoir of tracts with potential for specialty markets (organic crops with pest resistance) Diversity provides flexibility and ability to adapt Genetic vulnerability Irish potato blight Preserving Agrobiodiversity Breeding for durable resistance in crop plants On-site selection and conservation of plant genetic resources Local breeding Preserving minor crops and non-crop resources Valuing genetic diversity in livestock Improving genetic resources Breeding for more than one trait (in meat chickens selection for breast production has resulted in lameness issues; in laying chickens, aggression is an issue)