1.

TOPIC

Body design of EMoC car (GT car)

2.0

OBJECTIVE

To design the body of EMoC car and analyze the body for better performance and practicality. The objective also to fabricate, if possible, the body and shape of the car.

3.0

BACKGROUND
Supervisor had assigned me to design the new body shape of EMoC car of

Perodua Eco Challenge. This car had used by UiTM team on 2011. I have to redesign and improve the design in order to reduce the drag and/or weight. Basically, weight of this car is around 300 kg and the drag is 0.48. For me, I have to design GT car concept. Grand Tourer (GT) cars are high-performance luxury car designed for long distance driving. The term derives from the Italian phrase Gran Turismo, homage to the tradition of the grand tour which able to make long-distance and high-speed journeys in comfort and style. Grand Tourers differ from standard two-seat sport cars in typically being engineered as larger, heavier and emphasizing comfort over straight-out performance. Most GT cars have been front-engined with rear-wheel drive which creates more space for the cabin than mid-mounted engine layouts. Softer suspensions, greater storage and more luxurious appointments had been added to their driving appeal. Some of very high-performance grand tourers such as Aston Martin DB9, Ferrari 599 GTB Fiorano and Mercedes-Benz SLR McLaren make various compromises in the opposite direction while rivaling sport cars in speed, acceleration and cornering ability and earning them special designation, supercars. There are many variations of GT cars such as GTO, GTS, GTB, GTV and many more. GTS (Gran Turismo Sport) is four door saloon GT cars. GTO (Gran Turismo Omologato) are homologated cars for racing and many more.

4.0

METHODOLOGY
Parametric Study

Premilinary Design

Wind Tunnel Test

Minor Modification

Detail Design

Fabricate

In order to complete this project, I have to do some parametric study. This parametric study is to gather information about GT cars. I have to do some research about GT cars that I can gather from the internet. All of the data we gathered, I should interpret into graph form. Then, I have to do some preliminary design. This section, there are some calculations, estimations and approximation of the car regarding design parameter and characteristic of the body shape and shell design. After that, I should do the wind tunnel test. This test needs me to draw the car by using the Computer Aided Design (CAD) program. Then convert this into machine compatible codes to fabricate the model by using Rapid Prototyping (RP) machine. Then, test the model with wind tunnel test and this result will compare with Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD).

The minor modification to the preliminary design in order to improve the design for strength and must based on calculation and reasons. The detail design is needed to estimate strength of certain body part for practicality. Basically, this section is for improvement of the structures of the body part. If possible, I will fabricate this whole or partially parts of the car.

5.0

INTRODUCTION
Throughout the history of the motor car have been individual vehicles that have

demonstrated strong aerodynamic influence upon their design. Until recently their flowing lines primarily a statement of style and fashion with little regard for economic benefits. It was only raising fuel prices, triggered by the fuel crisis of the early 1970s that provided the serious drive towards fuel-efficient aerodynamic design. The three primary influences upon fuel efficiency are the mass of the vehicle, the efficiency of the engine and the aerodynamic drag. The aerodynamic design will be considered in this topic and it is very important to recognize the interactions between all three since it is their combined actions and interactions that influence the dynamic stability and the safety of the vehicle. The engineers and designers of the early car realize that the powerful engine are not enough to improve car performance but they come up with the idea of lightweight body of the car. As early as 1903 we find for example the pioneer French car manufacturer, Panhard et Levassor, offering an optional lighter weight all-aluminium body albeit at an extra cost to the customer. However, soon, this type of lighter weight body construction suffer an declination due to demise of the separate steel chassis frame on which it was built and the widespread adoption of the all-steel integral body construction. There were also trials to extensive the use of the aluminium alloy but it rather less commercial than technical success. Nowadays, through Audi Space Frame (ASF) form, the situation may change. This introduced by Audi in 1994 due to construction for their luxury high-performance A8 and it is comparable in term of both weight and fuel economy to a mid-range saloon of conventional steel construction.

Engines in the 1950s and 1960s were often oversized, having many more cubic centimeters or liters than necessary. At low speed, this type of engines resulted less efficiency and fuel-wasted engines. Large engines do not produce as much power as smaller engines for the amount of fuel consumed especially in urban areas. So, the modern engines have been reduced in term of size in order to improve the efficiency. But, in this topic, we will not discuss about the engine of the vehicle. One of the major factors affecting fuel mileage is the amount of engine power used to overcome wind resistance at all speed. All modern bodies have good aerodynamic shapes which allow air to move and reduce the wind resistance or drag. Basically, fewer horizontal surfaces and more curved and rounded surfaces will reduce the drag of a car.

6.0

LITERATURE REVIEW
The term aerodynamic may be simply defined as science of air in motion. So, we

might expected it first serious study is connected to early airplane and airships. On the introduction was mentioned that one of the factors that influenced the motion of a vehicle was air drag. This assumes increasing importance the faster a vehicle is travelling because of the force that opposing motion due to air resistance varies as the square of the speed. So, as soon as the car began to increase the speed, the engineers became aware that energy-consuming factor and slowly tried to changes in body contour in order to make the air disturbed as little as possible. So, they began to adopt less box-shaped into more curved cars to possess a certain degree of streamline which promote a steady airflow with no additional air crossing its path. Later than, they designed sloped hoods and windshield, rounded surface and fewer horizontal surfaces in order to reduce drag.

Figure 1: Older vehicles had flat surfaces and sharp corners, which disrupts air flow. BAerodynamic body designs reduce wind resistance at high speeds, reducing the amount of power needed to move the vehicle and increasing fuel economy.

The underside of the vehicle has been improved from an aerodynamic standpoint. In term to reduce wind resistance, they smoothened the underside surfaces of the car as smooth as possible. To increase the stability, the shapes of the body also designed to manipulate the air to hold down the vehicle. Nowadays, all the new body designs will undergo testing and computer simulation to produce the wind resistance as little as possible.

Figure 2: Schematic airflow around a passenger car

Hypercar The limited use of carbon fibre composites has become evident in actual production car but this is regularly mentioned in guise of the Rocky Mountain Institutes (RMI) hypercar design concept. This combined both ultra-light and ultra-low-drag car. From the RMI paper show afew prediction between hypercar nowadays and mid 90s car could achieve three times better fuel economy. They also show that the hypercar have lower mass, aerodynamic drag and rolling resistance which are 63%, 55% and 65%, respectively. Those above attributes hypercars would employ composites that embedded reinforcing fibres in a polymetric matrix. Materials experts from various carmakers estimate that an all-advanced-composite autobody could be 50-67% lighter than currently similar sized steel autobody.

In addition, the secondary weight savings result from the better performance, allowing frugal use of those materials combined with less capital intensive manufacturing and assembly and help overcome the cost per kilogram premium over steel.

Drag Form drag. Form drag is basically derived from shape of the vehicle body. This represents the main source of aerodynamic drag which visually impressed through the airflow over the streamlined body of the car. As a vehicle moves forward the motion of the air around it gives rise to pressure that vary over the entire body surfaces. If a small element of the surface area is considered then the force component acting along the axis of the axis of the car depends upon the magnitude of the pressure, the area which it acts and inclination of surface elements. So, it is possible to have a different values of form drag when two cars each having different design but similar frontal area. The coefficient of drag, Cd, is used to measure the drag produced by car produced.

Figure 3: Lift, drag, side force and moment axes

Surface drag. As we know, air is also categorized as fluid. In this form of drag, air will form as a fluid which tends to adhere itself to the surface. Between the surface of the moving body and the airflow, theres a thin boundary layer of air and the air

molecules closest to the surface tend to adhere to the surfaces. The theory is the air velocity is zero at the surface to its local maximum in some distance from the surface. This sets up a shearing action in the air near the body surfaces which known as skin friction. As a result, energy is absorbed from the motive power of the car and dissipated in the form of heat. This is the evident that the aerodynamic drag force is mainly depends on the surface area of the body.

Figure 4: The force acting on a surface element

Interference drag. Some of these features individually create only small drag forces their summative effect can increase overall drag up to 50%. The interaction between the main flow and flows about external devices can further add to the drag. Further to reduce interference drag attempts are also being made to provide a smoother underbody structure of the car and other components wherever this is practical. Lift induced drag. A consequence of the constraints imposed by realistic passenger space and mechanical design requirements is the creation of a profile which in most situations is found to generate a force with a vertical component. To overcome this problem in the modern high-performance cars, laterally mounted air deflectors known as spoilers and air dams. A sophisticated application of spoiler and air dams is that found in the Mitsubishi called Action Aero System where automatically deflect the air dam is deflected downward and increase angle of attack of the spoiler when the car reach speed of 80 km/h. on the other hands, the air dam will retract and spoiler will

return to its original position when the speed falls to 50 km/h. This practically to constantly maintain the Cd value of the car. Excrescence drag. This type of drag is largely due to practical requirements which disturb the smoothness of the surface of the car and which generate energy absorbing eddies and turbulence. Obvious contributor includes wheel, wheel arches, wing mirrors, door handles, rain gutters and windscreen wiper blades yet exhausted system are also major drag sources. Internal drag. The last of the major influences upon vehicle drag is that arising from the cooling of the engine, the cooling of other mechanical components such as brakes and from cabin ventilation flows. This is because the air passing through them is relatively slow and its entry and exit points have been deliberately sited to take advantage of the air flow over the body.

Drag reduction The broad requirements for low drag design have been long understood. Recent trends in vehicle design reflect the gradual and detailed refinements that have become possible both as a result of increased technical understanding and of the improved manufacturing methods that have enabled more complex shapes to be produced at an acceptable cost. There were researched that shows that the screen rakes will affect the drag coefficient, Cd. The research demonstrated the benefits of shallow screens but the raked angles desired for aerodynamic efficiency lead to problem not only of reduced cabin space and driver headroom but also to problem of internal, optical reflections from the screen and poor light transmission. Such problem can be overcome by the use of sophisticated optical coatings similar to those widely used on camera lenses but as yet there has been little use of such remedies by manufacturers. Figure below demonstrate the benefits that may achieved by changing bonnet slope and the screen rake (based on data of Carr (1968)).

Figure 5: Typical static pressure coefficient distribution

Figure 6: Drag reduction by changes to front body shape

The airflow over the rear surfaces of the vehicle is more complex and the solution required minimizing drag for practical shapes are less intuitive. Research found that squareback shapes car is characterized as large low pressure wake. The airflow is unable to follow the body surface around the sharp, rear corner. Drag which associated with such flows is depends on the cross-sectional are of the tail, pressure acting on the

body and energy absorbed by the creation of eddies. This governed largely by the speed of the vehicle, height and width of the tail. There was also research about change of Cd due to change of angle of the backlight. The research showed that when the backlight angle increases from zero to 15 (from horizontal) there is slight change of the drag coefficient. This is due to decrease of the effective area. If we increase the angle to nearly 30, the Cd became smaller. This sudden drop corresponds to the backlight angle at which the upper surface flow is no longer able to remain attached around the increasingly sharp top, rear corner and the flow reverts to a structure more akin to that of the initial squareback.

Figure 7: A-Squareback large scale flow separation, B-Hatchback/fastback vortex generation

There were cars that influenced by all of the flow phenomena that have been discussed for the form discussed above. The inclination of the screen may be sufficient to cause the flow separate from the rear window although in many case the separation is followed by re-attachment along the boot lid. Research has shown that in this situation, the critical angle is not that of the screen alone but the angle made between the rear corner of the roof and the tip of the boot. This suggests that the effect of the separation is to re-profile the rear surface to something approximating to a hatchback shape. In order to achieve minimum drag condition, the backlight angle of 15 it is necessary to raise the boot lid. There some benefits to this practice which increase the luggage space but the rearward visibility is reduce. Rear end, boot-lid spoilers have a similar effect without the associated practical benefits. The base models produced by

most manufacturers are usually designed to provide the best overall aerodynamic performance within the constraints imposed by other design considerations and the spoiler that feature on the upmarket models rarely provide further aerodynamic benefit.

Figure 8: A-The influence of backlight angle on drag coefficient, B-high tail, low drag design

Sides of the car also can help reduce the drag. The most effective way to reduce drag is adoption of boat-tailing design technique. This way can reduce the crosssectional area of the rear section of the car and hence reduced the volume enclosed within the wake. For more extreme condition, we can design the tail extending to the fine point which can eliminate the wake flow but this will increase surface friction drag and the pressure on the extended surfaces may also contribute to the overall drag. This also will affect the aerodynamic efficiency will reduce a little.

Figure 9: Boat tailing: reduce wake

Despite the effort to smooth the visible surfaces, it is recently that serious attempts have been made to smooth the underbody. But there are many considerations to be made to achieve this target. As example, there is such as access to maintenance, clearance for suspension and wheel movement and many more. Surprisingly, sometimes, larger air dam that is fitted to the production car can help reduce the drag. The air dams have two useful functions. Firstly, to reduce the lift force acting on the front axle by reducing pressure beneath nose this accelerates with a corresponding drop on pressure. Secondly, for the passenger cars a neutral desirable to maintain stability without excessive increase in the steering forces required at high speed. For high speed car, the air dam will create significant aerodynamic downforce to increase adhesion of the tyres. But, there are some negative impacts which are will increase drag and extreme steering sensitivity.

Figure 10: Simple comparison between the profile of a car and an aerofoil section for lift induced drag (R-resultant aerodynamic force, L-lift force, D-drag force).

Stability and cross-winds The aerodynamic stability of cars addressed as two independent concerns which are the feel of the car and effects of steady cross-winds and transient gusts associated to atmospheric conditions. The feel of the cars is mean by the calm condition and maneuverability of the car in a straight line and high speed and also when lane change. The effect of steady cross-winds due to atmospheric condition may be exaggerated by local topographical influences such embankments, bridges and others.

Figure 11: Rear, underbody diffusion

The most difficult thing to prove in aerodynamic influences is the source of the instability in calm condition. This due to complex interaction between chassis dynamic and small changes magnitude of lift force and centre of pressure. There some evident suggested that stability degrade with increase in the overall lift and with different lift between the front and rear axles. Cross-winds effect is easier to quantifiable. This effect is rarely present as safety hazard but their effect on drag and noise is considerable. Most of the new vehicles will be model tested under yawed conditions in wind tunnel but optimization for drag and wind noise is always based upon zero cross-wind assumptions. If we able to obtain or

estimate the average yaw angle experience of a country then there is a strong case for optimizing the aerodynamic design for that condition. Influence of transient cross-wind gusts often experience when you overtaking heavy vehicle or passing bridge abutments. In order to reduce the problem, it is desirable to design cars that able to minimize side forces, yawing moments and yaw rate that occur as the vehicle is progressively and rapidly exposed to the cross-wind. Basically, rounded shapes vehicles able to overcome this type of problem. It is necessary to built and develop wind tunnel model that provide accurate and reliable data. Engineers also have to understand the mechanism that give rise to the aerodynamic forces and moments. Initial results from the recent developments in wind tunnel testing suggested that the side forces and yawing moments experienced in true transient case exceed that have been measured in steady state yaw tests. Aerodynamic research initially focused upon drag reduction but it soon became apparent that the lift and side forces were also of great significance in terms of vehicle stability. An unfortunate side effect of some of the low drag shapes developed during the early 1980s was reduced stability especially when driven cross-wind conditions. Cross-wind effect are now routinely considered as highly complex and often unsteady flows that associated with the airflow over passenger cars but the figure of this effects is still remain sketchy. In order to understand this flow, the experimental techniques and computational flow prediction methods still required some development and improvement. Noise and ventilation systems Some aerodynamic noise is created by ventilation flows through the cabin the most obtrusive noise is generally that created by the external flow around the vehicle. The creation of aerodynamic noise is mostly associated with turbulence at or near the body surface and moves to reduce drag and inevitably provided the additional benefits of noise reduction. Improvements of rain gutters, positioning of windscreen wipers reflect, improve manufacturing technique and quality control and improve panel fit have resulted in major noise reduction. Open windows can create noise problems also. Increased use of air condition is the best practical solution to this problem.

Figure 12: Noise sources (Piatek, 1986)

Underhood ventilation. Numerous researchers suggest that the engine cooling system is responsible for 10 to 15% of the vehicle drag. Basically, the cooling drag has been determined from wind tunnel drag measurements with and without the cooling intakes blanked-off. We should know that closure of the intakes may alter the entire flow-field around the car. Many of the sources of cooling drag are readily apparent. In general, any smoothing of the flow path will reduce the drag, as will velocity reductions by diffusion upstream from the cooling system. Less obvious but also significant is the interaction between the undercar flow and the cooling flow at its exit where high turbulence and flow separations may to occur. The reduction of underhood drag is the greatest if the airflow can be controlled by the use of the ducting guide the air into and out from the radiator core. The high blockage of the radiator core has the effect of dramatically reducing the air velocity through the radiator thus much of the air that approaches the radiator spills around it. Small mass flow passes the core exhibit substantially non-uniformity that can reduce the effectiveness of the cooling system. This can be solving if the flow is ducted into radiator in controlled and efficient manner. Increase the diffusion slows the air flowing through radiator which reduce drag and heat transfer. At low speed, large core area creates less drag for given heat transfer rate. Too much diffusion will lead to flow separation within the intake which may result in severe flow non-uniformities across the face of the radiator.

Cabin ventilation. Sealing between the body panels and particularly around the doors has achieved benefits in terms of noise and drag reduction. In order to achieve the required ventilation flow rates, we must more focus on intake and exit locations and velocity and path of the fresh air through the passenger compartment. The intake should located in a zone of relatively high pressure and it should not be too close to the road surface where particulate and pollutants level tend to be highest. The region immediately ahead of the windscreen is perfect for the air entry to the passenger compartment and air conditioning system. The most effective extraction is at a zone of lower pressure to be sought which at the rear of the vehicle. Increasing the pressure difference between the intake and exit will give high ventilation air flow rates but only at a flow rate that is sensitive to the velocity of the vehicle. A recent trend has been to use relatively low pressure differences coupled with a greater degree of fan assistance to provide a more controllable and consistent internal flow whether for simple ventilation systems or for increasingly popular air conditioning systems.

Unibody construction Older cars used a separate body and frame in their construction. This type of design provided great strength but also increased the vehicles overall weight. Most car today use unitized body or unibody construction in which the frame and body assemblies are stamped from the same piece of sheet metal, welded together or by the combination of both techniques. The design eliminates the need and weight of a separate frame and attaching hardware while retaining the strength and rigidity of the heavier body. Unitized bodies are less likely to develop rattles. However, there are more prone to transmit noises from other parts of the vehicle. Light trucks, most sport utilities vehicles and some vans continue to use separate frames and becoming smaller and lighter than they were earlier.

Figure 13: unibody construction allows a lighter overall body weight than the separate frame and body design. Putting the frame and the body into one unit makes the body more rigid, increasing its strength.

Material: Aluminium Basically, the attraction of aluminium is based on their characteristic which is low density. The advantage of the aluminium is also can be resistant corrosion. In addition, they got strong supply base and can be recycle. Based on consideration structures or sub assemblies to steel, the weight of aluminium can be approximately halved but the cost is doubled. Although the density is one-third of steel, the full down weighting potential cannot be realized as the modulus of aluminium is considerably lower than that of steel and as stiffness is a primary influence for the design of the most body parts some compensation must be made and thickness increased. The cost for aluminium is affected by commodity market and for planning purpose, some means of stabilizing future costs by buying ahead or alternative strategy must be considered. The characteristic of the aluminium made it to become poorer formability and less readily welded compared to steel.

Material: Advanced composites High performance advance carbon graphite epoxy. More that 95% of the McLaren F1s body is constructed in this material. This material consists of carbon embedded with partially cured resin. Then, it will laminate and curing take place in an autoclave programmed with two cure cycles. The advantages of this type of technology is that it allows the engineer to control the properties, including stiffness and strength in three dimension and can be develop the characteristics exactly where he wants. Plus, the maximum efficiency is obtained from each gram. The big advantage is the strength to weight ratio is impressive and it is claimed that the same tensile strength as steel is obtained but at one-quarter of the mass. Conjunction of the honeycomb panels with this material can also create a strong and stiff assembly. SP Resin Infusion Technology (SPRINT). This material consists of two layer of dry fiber reinforcement of a side of a precast and precatalysed resin film. This type of material provides an alternative approach which far less labor intensive than others materials. The nature of the product allows good consolidation and integrity and flow of the material allows shape control even into corners without entrapment. Gel coats can be applied to give the desired finish. Aluminium Structured Vehicle Technology (ASVT). Stiffness of the aluminium structure can be greatly improved by the use of a structural adhesive rather than spot welding and it was proved in tests that torsional stiffness levels approaching those of spot welded steel could be produced at half the weight with alloy sheets. In order to guard against peel failures in impact it was necessary to use toughened epoxy plus some spot welds in flanges. However, to ensure durability under service conditions it is necessary to pretreat the aluminium sheet and the selection of a suitable formulation followed only after extensive accelerated tests. Ultra-Light Steel Auto Body (ULSAB). At the time of increasing worldwide interest in aluminium bodied cars, ULSAB initiative was launched to re-emphasize the versatility of steel and introduce new ideas to future weights saving that could be achieved. By using the high strength steels, hydroformed sections and sheet hydroforming, tailor welded blanks and alternative assembly methods, it was shown that the body weight

can reduce to 25%, torsional rigidity improved to 80%. The static bending and first body mode increase by 52% and 58%, respectively.

Refferences: 1. Geoff Davies, Materials for Automobile Bodies, Elsevier Ltd., 1st Edition, 2003. 2. Julian Happian-Smith, An Introduction to Modern Vehicle Design, Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd., 1st Edition, 2002. 3. M J Nunney, Light & Heavy Vehicle Technology, Butterworth-Heinemann, 3rd Edition, 2002. 4. Chris Johanson, Auto Engine Performance and Driveability, The GoodheartWillcox Company Inc., 2004. 5. SAE International, Advances in Lightweight Materials: Casting and Aluiminium and Achieving Lightweight Vehicles, 2007. 6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_tourer