STUDY OF RADIOACTIVITY AND MEASUREMENT OF ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT OF GAMMA RAYS OF PHOTONS FOR ALANINE

Submitted to
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad

Submitted By Mr. Haqi Esmail Shareef

Under the guidance of Dr. Pravina Pawar

Department of Physics, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad

Certificate
This is to certify that Mr. Haqi Esmail Shareef has successfully completed the project intitled Study of Radioactivity and Measurement Of absorption Coefficient of Gamma Rays of Photons for Alanine under the guide of Dr. K.M. Jadhav and Pravina Pawar. For partial fulfillment of requirement for a work of the degree of Master of Science in Physics with specialization Nuclear Physical in the Academics year 2011-2012.

Prof. (Dr) K.M. Jadhav (Professor Incharge)

Prof. (Dr) P.W. Khirade

Dr. Pravina Pawar (Asst. Professor)

Examiner

Acknowledgment
I express my first and for most thanks and gratitude to Prof. Dr. K.M. Jadhav Sir for permitting me to undertake this project work and giving valuable guidance. He has a source of inspiration for completion and shaping of the assigned work in a proper way. If feel honored to remain indebted to him forever It is also a pleasure to express my gratitude thanks to Dr. Pravina Pawar mam, for giving a valuable guidance. Her affective concern, proper guidance, and inspiring nature naturally turned me towards the fulfillment of my project I also express thanks to my father and mother and wife and two sons who directly helped and supported me all time.

Haqi Esmail Shareef M.Sc. Physics (Nuclear Physics)

INDEX
Sr. No. I Chapter Name Introduction Historical Introduction Radioactivity Definition of Radioactivity Natural Radioactivity Artificial Radioactivity Units of Radioactivity Types of decay Activity measurements Mathematics of radioactive decay Universal law of radioactive decay One decay process Glossary Application of radioactivity Nuclear medicine Radiotherapy Radioactive tracers Industry and the Home Power Generation Art Restoration Fundamental Laws Of Radioactivity Radioactive decay series II Introduction to biomolecule Sr. No. 5-32 5 5-6 6 7 7 7 10 12 12 13 13 14 17 17 18 18 18 20 20 24 29 33-54

Biomolecules Importance of Biomolecules Type of Biomolecules Biomolecule - Amino - Acids Amino acid - General Structure Functional Significance of Amino Acid RGroups General Properties Peptide Bonds Classification Physical Properties Optical Properties of the Amino Acids Chemical Nature of the Amino Acids Acid-Base Properties of the Amino Acids Amino Acid Benefits Amino acids and their functions in the body III Cross section Gamma radiation Absorption coefficient of Gamma ray photons interaction of gamma ray photon with matter IV V Result & Discussion Conclusions References

33 33 34 35 38 38 39 39 40 42 45 45 48 49 50 55-69 57 59 61 88 88-89 90-91

CHAPTER - I INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

In attempting to discover a possible connection between X-rays and luminescence observed in a discharge tube, H. Becquerel (1895) found that after exposure to cathode rasy potassium suranyl sulfate possessed the property of affecting a photographic plate wrapped in black paper, indicating that the uranium salt was emitting a penetrating type of radiation. In the same year he made surprising discovery that uranium compounds alone, without any previous treatment, are capable of fogging a photographic plate, and so emit rays spontaneously. In addition to their photographic action, the radiations were foud, like X-rays, to be capable of ionizing the year, so that the activity of a uranium compound could be measured by the rate at which a known quantity caused the discharged of an electroscope. The emission of rays capable of producing these effects is a fundamental property of the uranium atom, as the rays are observed with various uranium salts in different valence states as well as with the element itself; further, the activity is found to be independent of the temperature or previous history of the material. The spontaneous emission of radiation of this type is now known as

Radioactivity:
A study of the subject has thrown much light on the structure of matter. When examining the ionizing activity of the mineral pitchblende, one of the chief ores of uranium and consisting mainly of U 3O8 Mme. M. Curie and her husband, P Curie (1898) Noted that it had a greater activity than was expected from the uranium it contained. This result indicated the
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presence in the ore of compounds an element, or elements, even more radioactive than uranium and by using ordinary chemical methods of separation, two such substances were isolated. One of the elements was precipitated as its sulfide with bismuth sulfide; it was called polonium, in honor of Poland, the native country of Mme. Curie. The other elements separated together with barium as their sulfates, which were subsequently converted the bromides and separated by fraction crystallization. The elements, obtained as the impure bromide by M. Curie, P. Curie and G. Bemont (1898), was given the name Radium because of exceptional activity. After wards, A Debierne (1899) and F. Giesel (1901) found the new radioelement actinium in uranium minerals. In the course of a study of the penetrating power of the radiations. Rutherford (1899) Concluded that they could be divided in to two types, which he referred to as -rays and -Rays, Respectively. Shortly afterwards P Curie Founded that part of radiation was not deflected in a magnetic field, and this was shown by P. Villard to have exceptional penetrating power, these radiations were called the -rays.

Definition of Radioactivity:
The phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration of an unstable atomic nucleus accompanied by emission of radiation is called radioactivity. Radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896. He found that photographic plate was affected when placed near uranium salt. He concluded that the Uranium might have emitted highly entreating and invisible radiation. Later Madam Curic was confirmed the same. The substances showing this property are called radioactive substances.e.g. U, Ra, Th.
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Natural Radioactivity:
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of highly penetrating and invisible radiation from heavy element is called natural radioactivity. It is generally shown by heavy element having atomic number 83 or more than that.

Artificial Radioactivity:
The process of stable nucleus into unstable radioactive nucleus by bombarding it with suitable projectile is called artificial radioactivity. It is generally shown by light element having atomic number less than 83.

Units of Radioactivity:
In general, radiation is in the form of an alpha- particle (i.e., ionized helium atom having two units of positive charge and four units of mass), a beta-ray (a particle of mass equal to that of an electron and of either positive or negative charge emitted from a nucleus due to the proton or neutron decay), a gamma ray an electromagnetic radiation similar to X-rays but emanating from a nucleus) and neutrons. A radioactive material is characterized by the type of radiation it emits, the energy of the emitted radiation, and its half. Half life is the time required for reducing the number of radioactive to one-half the initial value. Some of the naturally [in the range of occurring radioisotopes have a very long half- life

thousands of years (yr), whereas some artificially produced radioisotopes have a very short half- life [ in the range of milliseconds (msec) to microseconds (sec) ] Thus it is essential that we define the activity or

disintegration rat e of a radioisotope since each disintegration emits an energetic particle which interacts with the surrounding medium. The fundamental unit of radioactivity is the curie (Ci). One curie represents 3.7 1010 disintegrations per second (dis/sec) of any type of radiation. This unit has now been replaced by an SI unit, called the Becquerel (Bq), which represents one disintegration per second. As is evident, the Becquerel is itself a small unit. The conventionally used units, smaller than the curie, are known as milicurie (mCi; 1 mCi = 10-3 Ci) and microcurie (Ci; 1Ci =10-6 Ci) Most sources handled in a laboratory are either of microcurie or, at the most, few millicurie strength. The radioisotopes used in food processing and medical therapy can be of the order of several kilocurie (kCi) or even megacurie (MCi) If N represents the number of atoms of a radioactive substance and its disintegration rate constant or decay constant (ie., probability of disintegrations per second per atom) hen the product N represents the activity of the substance. The disintegration rate constant is related to half life T as 0.693/ T1/2 since, at any time t,N(t) Noe-. Therefore, for a given N, a substance with a long half life will be less active than a substance with a short half- life. Thus, an optimal choice of weight and half life is always desirable, depending on the situation. Some of radioisotopes commonly used in the laboratory and their radiations are indicated in Fig 1.1 and Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Some common laboratory radioactive sources (a) Gamma ray Sources Isotope
137 60

Half life 30 yr 5.25 yr 2.6 yr 300d 108d

Gamma ray energy (Mev) 0.662 (93.5%) 1.173 (100%) 1.332(100%) 1.275 (100%) 0.511 (100%) 0.835 (100%) 0.898 (91%) 1.836%)

Cs

Co Na

22

54 88

Mn Y

Table 1.1 Some common laboratory radioactive sources (b)Beta-ray sources ( negative) Isotope
99 14 3

Half life 2.12 105 yr 5730 yr 12.26 yr 3.81 yr 2.62 yr 87.9 d 14.28d 27.7yr /64 hr

Maximum energy (Mev) 0.292 0.156 0.0186 0.766 0.224 0.167 1.71 0.56/2.27

Tc C TI PM

204 147 35 32 90

S P Sr/ 90Y

Example Calculate the activity of 1 gm of radium, 226 Ra, whose half life is 1620 yr.

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One gram of radium contains (6.203 1023)/226 atoms. The decay constant of radium is. 0.693 = 1620 yr -1 = 1620 yr 365 d/yr 24 hr /d 3600 s ec.3/ hr 0.693

Types of decay
As for types of radioactive radiation, it was found that an electric or magnetic field could split such emissions into three types of beams. For lack of better terms, the rays were given the alphabetic names alpha, beta and gamma, still in use today. While alpha decay was seen only in heavier elements (atomic number 52, tellurium and greater), the other two types of decay were seen in all of the elements. In analyzing the nature of the decay products, it was obvious from the direction of electromagnetic forces produced upon the radiations by external magnetic and electric fields that alpha rays carried a positive charge, beta rays carried negative charge, and gamma rays were neutral. From the magnitude of deflection, it was clear that alpha particles were much more massive than beta particles. Passing alpha particles through a very thin glass window and trapping them in a discharge tube allowed researchers to study the emission spectrum of the resulting gas, and ultimately prove that alpha particles are helium nuclei. Other experiments showed the similarity between classical beta radiation and cathode rays. They are both streams of electrons. Likewise gamma radiation and x-rays were found to be similar high energy electromagnetic radiation. Although alpha, beta, and gamma were found most commonly, other types of decay were eventually discovered. Shortly after the discovery of the positron in cosmic ray products, it was realized that the

11

same process that operates in classical beta decay can also produce positrons. (Positron emission). In an analogous process, instead of emitting positrons and neutrinos, some proton-rich nuclides were found to capture their own atomic electrons (electron capture) and emit only a neutrino (and usually also a gamma ray). Each of these types of decay involves the capture or emission of nuclear electrons or positrons, and acts to move a nucleus toward the ratio. Some radionuclides may have several different paths of decay. For example, approximately 36% of bismuth decays, through alpha emission, to thallium -208 while approximately 64% of bismuth 212 decays, through beta emission to polonium -212. Both thallium-208 and the polonium-212 is radioactive daughter of bismuth -212. And both decay directly to stable lead -208.

Constant quantities

The half life T , is the lime taken for the activity of a given amount of a radioactive substance to decay to half of its initial value.

The mean lifetime- T, tau the average lifetime of radioactive particle before decay. The decay constant - lambda the inverse of the mean lifetime.

Although these are constants, they are associated with statistically random behavior of populations of atoms. In consequence predictions using these constants are less accurate for small number of atoms. In principle the reciprocal of any number greater than one- half life, third life or even a ( 1/2- life can be used in exactly the same way as half life , but the half life t is adopted as the standard time associated with exponential decay.

Time- variable quantities:

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Total activity A is number of decays per unit time of a radioactive sample. Number of particles N is the total number of particles in the sample. Specific activity SA, number of decays per unit time per amount of substance of the sample at time set to Zero (t=0) Amount of substance can be the mass, volume or moles of the initial sample.

These are related as follows Where 0 is the initial amount of active substance- substance that has the same percentage of unstable particles as when the substance was formed.

Activity measurements
The units in which activities are measured are becqurel (symbol Bq) = one disintegration per second, curie (Ci) = 3.71010 Bq. Low activities are also measured in disintegrations per minute (dpm).

Mathematics of radioactive decay

For the mathematical details of exponential decay in general context, see exponential decay for related derivations with some further details, see half life. For the analogous mathematics in 1st order chemical reactions, see consecutive reactions.

Universal law of radioactive decay

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Radioactivity is one very frequent example of exponential decay. The law however is only statistical not exact. In the following formalism, the number of nuclides or nuclide population N, is of course a discrete variable ( a natural number) but for any physical sample N is so large (amounts of L =1023 Avogadros constant) that it can be treated as a continuous variable. Differential calculus to set up differential equations for modeling the behavior of the nuclear decay.

One decay process

Consider the case of a nuclide a decaying into another B by some process A B (emission of other particles, like electron neutrinos V. E and electrons e in beta decay are irrelevant in what follows). The decay of an unstable nucleus is entirely random and it is impossible to predict when a particular atom will decay. However it is equally likely to decay at any time. Therefore, given a sample of a particular radioisotope, the number of decay events d/ N expected to occur in a small interval of time d/ is proportional to the number of atoms present N that is. Particular radionuclides decay at different rates, so each has its own decay constant they probability of decay dN/* N is proportional to an increment of time df. The negative sign indicates that N decrease as time increases, as each decay event follows one after another. The solution to this first order differential equation is the function. Where N0 is the value of N at time t = 0 This equation is of particular interest; the behavior of numerous important quantities can be found from it (see below). Although the parent decay distribution follows an exponential, observations of decay

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times will be limited by a finite integer number of N atoms and follow Poisson statistics as a consequence of t he random nature of the process. We have for all time t:

NA + NB = N total = N A0,
Where Ntotal is the constant number of particles throughout the decay process, clearly equal to the initial number of nuclides since this is the initial substance. If the number of non decayed A nuclei is: Then the number of nuclei of B, i.e. number of decayed a nuclei, is

Glossary :
Important terms used in connection with radioactivity are given below; the terms given do not necessarily appear in the present article. Alpha particle: charged particles emitted from a radioactive atom. Each charged particle consists of two protons and two neutrons. Atom: This is the smallest unit of an element. It contains a nucleus with neutrons and protons, surrounded by orbiting electrons. Atomic mass: the mass of an atom usually expressed as atomic mass unit (amu). Beta particle: (often designated beta rays) charged particles emitted from a radioactive atom. These particles are identical except for their charge. The charge is classified as positive (positron) or negative (electrons or negatron). Carbon 14: A naturally occurring radio isotope of carbon having a mass number of 14 and half life 5780 years. Used in Radio carbon dating for determination of age of ancient objects.

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Cathode ray: Electrons originating at the cathodes of gaseous discharge devices.3 these electrons are often focused in a small area such as a tube and intensified on a surface. The most familiar form of a cathode- ray tube is the television picture tube. Conductivity: The ratio of electric current to the field in a material. Passage of electric charger which can be occur a variety of ways such as passage of electrons or ionized atoms. Curie: A unit of radioactivity, defined as that quantity of any radioactive nuclide which has 3700 x 1010 disintegrations per second. Deuterium: The isotope of element hydrogen with one neutron and one proton in his nucleus. Electrons: A negative charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom. It is lighter in weight than a proton or neutron. Elements: An element is a substance made up of atoms with the same atomic number. 75% of the elements are metals and the others are nonmetals. A few examples are oxygen, iron, gold, chlorine, and uranium. Fluorescence: Electrons absorb energetic radiation (for example ultraviolet light) raising an electron to a higher Bohr orbit. The energized electron soon drops down in a series of steps through lower energy states and in the process release photons at lower energy stares corresponding to visible light. The bright color occurs because the photons are concentrated in a narrow range of wavelengths. Geiger counter : A radiation counter that uses a Geiger Muller tube in appropriate circuits to detect and count ionizing particles , each particle crossing the tube produces ionization of gas in the tube which is roughly
16

independent of the particles nature and energy resulting a uniform discharge across the tube. Also knows as Geiger Muller counter. Geiger Muller tube: A radiation counter tube usually consisting of a gas filled cylindrical metal chamber containing a fine wire anode at its axis. Also knows as Geiger Muller Counter tube. Half life: The period of time in takes for half the nuclei of a radioactive element to undergo decay to another nuclear form. Heavy water: A compound of hydrogen and oxygen containing a higher proportion of the hydrogen isotope deuterium, than does naturally occurring water. Ionization chamber: A particle detector which measures the ionization produced in the gas filling the chamber by the fast moving charged particles as they pass through. Isotope: Atoms having the same number of protons in its nucleus as other varieties of the element but has a different number of neutrons. Magnetic field: All magnetic fields are created by moving electric magnetic fields and their net

charge. The single moving electron around a nucleus is a tiny electric current. These orbiting electrons create effect is to provide the atom with a magnetic field. Neutron: A particle with no charge that is located in the nucleus of an atom. Nuclear physics: A branch of physics that includes the study of the nuclei of atoms, their interactions with each other, and with constituent particles.

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Nucleus: The central part of every atom that contains protons and neutrons. Nuclide: A species of atom characterized by the number of protons, number, and energy content in the nucleus, or alternatively by the atomic number, mass number and atomic mass. To be regarded as a district nuclide, the atom must be capable of existing for a measurable life time. Also knows as nuclear species.

Application of radioactivity:
The principles of radioactivity and radioactivity decay have wide ranging applications in medicine, industry, the home, the arts and sciences, and electric power generation. Nuclear medicine: Nuclear medicine is a branch of medicine and medical imaging that uses the nuclear properties of matter in diagnosis and therapy. Many procedures in nuclear medicine use pharmaceuticals that have been labeled with radionuclides (radiopharmaceuticals). In diagnosis, radioactive substances are administered to patients and the radiation emitted is measured. The majority of these diagnostic tests involve the formation of an image using a gamma camera. Imaging may also be referred to as radionuclide imaging or nuclear scintigraphy. Other diagnostic tests use probes to acquire measurements from parts of the body, or counters for the measurement of samples taken from the patient. In therapy, radionuclides are administered to treat disease or provide palliative pain relief. For example, administration of Iodine -131 is often used for the treatment of thyrotoxicosis and thyroid cancer.

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Radiotherapy Radiation therapy (or radiotherapy) is the medical use of ionizing radiation as part of cancer treatment to control malignant cells. The radiation may be given in the form of external beam radiotherapy of high energy electrons or X-rays or it may come from radioactive sources placed inside the patient. Radioactive tracers Radioactive tracers are radioactive substances added in minute amounts to the reacting elements or compounds in a chemical process and traced through the process by appropriate detection methods, e.g. Geiger counter. Compounds containing tracers are often said to be tagged or labeled. In medical applications, a radioactive atom can be attached to a molecule or more complex substance, which can then be used to examine a chemical reaction in a test tube, or it can be administered to a patient by ingestion or injection and subsequently be incorporated into a biochemical process. The radioactive emissions from the radioactive atom can be used to track the behavior of the labeled molecule or substance in biological process by means of medical imaging. Industry and the Home Radiation processing is the use of ionizing radiation to produce beneficial physical chemical or biological effects on an industrial scale. Examples include.

The isotope

252

Cf (a neutron emitter) is used in neutron activation

analysis to inspect airline luggage for hidden explosives, to gauge the moisture content of soil and other materials, in bore hole logging in geology, and in human cervix cancer therapy.
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 In paper mills, the thickness of the paper can be controlled by measuring how much beta radiation passes through the paper to a Geiger counter. The counter controls the pressure of the rollers to give the correct thickness. Checking Welds. If a gamma source is placed on one side of the welded metal, and a photographic film on the other side, weak points or air bubbles will show up on the film. Foodstuffs can be irradiated to extend shelf life or reduce the numbers of harmful bacteria. Improve material properties, particularly in polymers, curing adhesives and resins, improvement of gemstones, wire and cable jacket curing, tire manufacture.

Smoke alarms contain a weak source made of Americium -241. Alpha particles are emitted that ionize the air, so that the air conducts electricity and a small current flow. If smoke enters the alarm, this absorbs the particles, the current reduces and the alarm sounds. Radiation has many uses in agriculture. In plant research, radiation

is used to develop new plant types to speed up the process of developing superior agricultural products. Insect control is another important application; pest populations are drastically reduced and, in some cases, eliminated by exposing male insects to sterilizing doses of radiation. Fertilizer consumption has been reduced through research with radioactive tracers. Radiation pellets are used is grain elevators to kill insects and rodents. Irradiation prolongs the shelf- life of foods by destroying bacteria, viruses and molds.

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Radioactive dating Radioactive dating or radiometric dating is a technique used to date materials based on knowledge of the decay rates of naturally occurring isotopes, and their current abundances. Many isotopes have been studied, probing a wide range of time scales. Radioactive dating is the principal source of information about the age of the Earth and rates of evolutionary change and is used to estimate the age of once- living materials. Power Generation Nuclear power is a type of nuclear technology involving the controlled used of nuclear fission to release energy for work including propulsion, heat and the generation of electricity. Nuclear energy is produced by a controlled nuclear chain reaction and creates heat which is used to boil water, produce steam and drive a steam turbine. The turbine can be used for mechanical work and also to generate electricity. As of 2007, nuclear power provided about 6% of the worlds energy and 16% of the worlds electricity with the U.S. France, and Japan together accounting for 57% of all nuclear generated electricity. Art Restoration Nuclear science plays an important role in the art world. A technique known as X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (or XRF) works by irradiating samples of materials using X-rays without destroying the analyzed material. At the same time, it can identify a vast number of elements simultaneously, making it an excellent way to fingerprint all kinds of materials. For example, XRF has been used to examine the tip of Davids nose, analyzing dust and dirt before Michelangos masterpiece could be safely restored.

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Restration work on Cellinis bronze statue of Perseus at the Uffizi Museum in Florence also benefited from insights gained using XRF. Examinations of Perseus right knee showed that the bronze alloy was composed of varying percentages of copper, tin lead, antimony, iron and silver. Clues from XRF results also can aid forensic scientists in solving crimes; for example, by determining if a paint pigment matches the artist original palette. Discovering the presence of a modern replacement for an old traditional pigment known to be used by a particular artist can provide evidence that a painting is a forgery.

Common Radioisotopes and Their Uses

Americium 2141 : Used in many smoke detectors for homes and business to measure levels of toxic lead in dried paint samples , to ensure uniform thickness in rolling processes like steel and paper production, and to help determine where oil wells should be drilled. Cadmium 109: Used to analyze metal alloys for checking stock and sorting scrap. Californium -252: Used to measure the mineral content of coal ash and to measure the moisture of materials stored in silos. Carbon -14: Used in research to ensure that potential new drugs are metabolized without forming harmful by products. Cesium 137 : Used to treat cancers ; to calibrate the equipment used to measure correct patient dosages of radioactive pharmaceuticals; to measure and control the liquid flow in oil pipelines; to tell researchers whether oil wells are plugged by sand; and to ensure the right fill level

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for packages of food, drugs and other products. (The products in these packages do not become radioactive). Chromium -51: Used in research in red blood cell survival studies. Cobalt -57: used in nuclear medicine to help physicians interpret diagnostic scans of patients organs and to diagnose pernicious anemia. Cobalt 60: Used to sterilize surgical instruments: to improve the safety and reliability of industrial fuel oil burners: and to preserve poultry, fruits sand spices. Copper 67: When injected with monoclonal antibodies into a cancer patient. Helps the antibodies bind to and destroy the tumor. Curium 244: Used in mining to analyze material excavated from pits and slurries from drilling operations. Iodine 131: Used to diagnose and treat thyroid disorders. Iridium 192: Used to test the integrity of pipeline welds boilers and aircraft parts. Iron 55: Used to analyze electroplating solutions. Krypton 85 : Used in indicator lights in appliances like clothes of thin plastics sheet metal washers and dryers, stereos and coffeemakers to gauge the thickness of thin plastics, sheet metal, rubber, textiles and paper and to measure dust and pollutant levels. Nickel 63: Used to detect explosives and as voltage regulators and current surge protectors in electronic devices Phosphorus 32: Used in molecular biology and genetics research.

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Sources
International Atomic Energy Agency, In Viennas Art World Nuclear Science Feeds a Happy End Accessed 27 August 2007. McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms SciTech Dictionary definition of radioactive tracer (New York, McGraw Hill Companies. Inc.2003) Nuclear Management Company. Medical and industrial uses of radioactive materials, Accessed 27 August 2007. Wikipedia Contributors, Radiation therapy, Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia. Accessed 27 August 2007. Wikipedia contributors, Nuclear power, Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia Accessed 27 August 2007.

Controlling Exposure to external radiation Shielding:

There is a variety of shielding materials that can be placed between you and source to absorb most of the radiation that would otherwise reach you. The choice of shielding material depends on the type of radiation and other functions served by the shields (such as containment, transparency or structural support). Dense materials with high atomic numbers, such as lead, form the most effective and compact shields for small sources of penetrating radiation. Because beta rays are less penetrating than other rays, pure beta ray emitters can be effectively shielded by lighter materials such as glass, water or Lucite.

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When high ener4gy beta rays are emitted and absorbed secondary X-ray and bremsstrahlung radiation are generated. The intensity of his secondary radiation increases if the beta rays are absorbed in high atomic number shielding material. This secondary radiation is more penetrating than the beta rays when large quantities (ie. Greater than 100 mCi, or 3.7 GBq) of a pure beta emitter like 32 p are used, the quantity of secondary radiation may be excessive unless shielded. The best shielding configuration in this case4 is to use a inch-thick Lucite acrylic sheet or similar material, adjacent to the 32 p to absorb the beta rays, while minimizing the creation of secondary radiation. Use sheets of lead foil outside the shields of Lucite to absorb the more penetrating bremsstrahlung and x rays.

Fundamental Laws of Radioactivity:

1) Soddy Fajans Displacement Law: When a radioactive disintegration occurs with the emission of and particles the original atom called the parent atom changes into same thing else called the daughter. In 1913 Soddy and Fajan discovered a simple law known as the displacement law of radioactivity, can be stated as follows.
(a)

When a radioactive atom emits and particles (mass 4 and charge 2e) it is converted into another element of atomic number two less than that of the parent element and the place of the new atom is shifted two groups lowers in the periodic table.

+
(b)

When a radioactive atom emits a particles ( mass approximately Zero and charge e) it is converted into another element of atomic number one

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greater than that of the parent element but of the same atomic weight and the place of the new atom is shifted one group higher in the periodic table. -1eo Now a day these rules are stated as follows a) Algebraic sum of the electric changes before disintegration must be equal to the total charge disintegration. b) The sum of mass numbers of the initial particles must be equal to the sum of mass numbers of the final particles. 2) Law of radioactive disintegration This law was established expectably in 1902 by Rutherford and Soddy in Great Britain. They found that the rate at which a particular radioactive material disintegrates or decays was independent of physical and chemical condition and was dependent of physical and chemical condition and was dependent of number of atom present at that time. Since disintegration is taking place continuously the number of atoms present is changing hence the rate of disintegration will change with time. Let N be the number of atoms present in a particular radio element at a given instant t. The number of dN that will decay during the time interval dt (from t to t +dt) must be proportional to N and also proportional to dt. Thus we have dN Or dN = -l Ndt N dt

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Where

is constant is known as disintegration constant of the

radioactive element. Negative sign indicates that number of atom of the radioactive element decreases with time. On rearranging and integrating equation (1) We get, N= No ------------ (2)

Where No is the initial number of atom of the radioactive nuclide. Here we have assumed that the probability of disintegration per second is independent of the age of that atom and is the same for all atoms of the species. For a nuclide having several modes of decay of decay and is sum of the probabilities of decay. 3) Law of Successive Transformation: In general one radioactive substance decays into another that is also radioactive. The first is called the parent (or mother) substance, the second the daughter substance. This relation is not limited to parent and daughter but extends over many generations, until a stable and product is reached. It was found experimentally that the naturally occurring radioactive nuclides from three series. In the study of radioactive series it is important to know the number of atoms of each member of the series as a function of time. If a time t = 0 we have N1 (0), N2 (0) atoms of radioactive substance 1, 2 etc. Respectively Now we have to find the number of atoms N1 (t) N2 (t) . Present at any subsequent timet 1, is the probability

2 of the individual modes

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Substance first decays according to the law given by equation (1) dN1/dt = - N1 1 (8)

The number of atoms of substance 2 decreases because substance 2 decays and increases because of the decay of substance. dN2/dt = N1 N2

From equation (8) the number of atoms N1 can be written as, N1 = N1(0) ..(10)

Inserting this value of n1 in equation (9) We have, dN2/dt = Or dN2/dt + Multiplying it throughout by N2 = / N1 (0) N2 = N1 (0) N1 (0) N2

and then integrating we have,

Where is a constant of integration Since N2 = N2 (0) when t = 0 hence we have. C- N2 (0) N2=
= /

/ N1 (0)
N1 (0)

N1 (0)

(N2 (0) N1

------------ (11)

This treatment can be extended to a chain of any number of radioactive products. The procedure is similar to that of the special case already discussed except that the mathematics becomes more tedious as the

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length of the chain increase. The differential equations representing the number of atoms each member of the series are given as dN1 /dt = dn2/dt =
-

N1 N1N2..(12)

dNn /dt = n-1 n Nn(13) The family of differential can be solved by Putting. N1 = C11 e ------------------+Cn2e +Cnn ------------- (16) (14)

N2=C2 e

The constants C11, C21, C22 .Cnn were determined by Bateman under the assumption that at t = only the parent.

l.e. at t = 0, N1 = N1 (0), N2= N3= N4 = .=0 from equation (14) we get C11= N1 =(0) N1= N1 (0) From equation (12) and (15) we get 0 = C11 e0 + C22 e0 or C21 = -C21 And C11 = -C22 = And
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N1 (0) (

C21=- C21)

C21 = C22 = N2 = N1 (0)

and

The number of atoms of the nth member of the chain is obtained by equation (16) where constants are having values. Cn1= Cn2=

= exp

- 0.766

Table (1-1): Radioactive decay series Series Uranium Actinium Thorium Neptunium First Isotopes 238 U 235 U 232 Th 237 Np Half-Life [Y] 4.49x109 7.10x108 1.39x1010 2.17x106 Last Isotopes 206 Pb 207 Pb 208 Pb 209 Bi

There are three natural radioactive series, called uranium, thorium and actinium series. Neptunium series is included in this table too, which does not occur in nature because its half life 2.1x106 y is much smaller than the age of the universe 3x109 y [46].

1.2. a: U-238 Series

30

This series begins with U-238 nuclei (half-life 4.49x109y) and gradually converted to the Pb-206 which is a stable element through sequences of the emission of alpha and beta particles. All nuclides in this series are solid elements except Rn-222 nuclei, which is gas. The elements of this series which are represented in Table (1-2) are arranged according to the mass number indicated in (4n+2) system. Table (1-2): U-238 Decay Series [47, 78] Nuclide U-238 Th-23 Pa-234m U-234 Th-230 Ra-226 Rn-222 Po-218 Pb-214 Bi-214 Po-214 Pb-210 Bi-210 Po-210 Pb-206 Half-life 4.49x109y 24.1 d 1.18 min 2.48x105 y 7.52x104 y 1600 y 3.825 d 3.05 min 26.8 min 19.7 min 1.6x10-4s 22 y 5.01 d 138.4 d Type of decay Alpha Beta Beta Alpha Alpha Alpha Alpha Alpha Beta, Beta Alpha Beta Beta Alpha

1.2. b: U-235 Series

This series begins with U-235 nuclei (half life 7.10x108 y), which is the longest half life comparing to other elements in this series and ends with Pb-207, which is a stable element. The elements of this series which are represented in Table (1-3) are arranged according to the mass number indicated in (4n+3) system. Table (1-2): U-238 Decay Series [47, 78]

31

Nuclide U-235 Th-231 Pa-231 Ac-227 Th 227 or Fr-233 Ra-223 Rn-219 Po-215 Pb-211 Bi-211 Po-211 Ti-207 Pb-207

Half-life 7.10x108 y 25.6 h 3.98x104 y 22 y 18.17 d 22 min 11.7 d 3.92 s 1.83x10-3 s 36.1 min 2.15 min 0.52 sec 4.79 min Stable

Type of decay Alpha Beta Alpha Beta Alpha Beta Alpha Alpha Alpha Beta, Alpha Alpha Beta ---

32

1.2. c : Th-232 Series

Thorium was discovered by Berzelius, which is derived from the Scandinavian god Thor. This series begin with Th-232 nuclei (half life 1.39x1010 y) and end with Pb-208 isotope. The elements of this series which are represented in Table (1-4) are arranged according to the mass number indicated in (4n) system.

Table (1-4): Th-232 Decay Series [47-48] Nuclide Th-232 Ra-228 Ac-228 Th-228 Ra-224 Rn-220 Po-216 Pb-212 Bi-212 Ti-208 or Po-212 Half-life 1.39x1010 y 6.7 y 6.13 h 1.9 y 3.64 d 54.5 s 0.158 s 10.6 h 60.0 min 3.1 min 3.0x10-7 s Type of decay Alpha Beta Beta Alpha Alpha Alpha Alpha Beta Beta Beta Alpha

1.2. d: Np-237 Series

Np-237 which a half-life (2.14x106 y), which is much shorter than the geological age of the earth. Virtually all neptunium decayed within the first 50 millions of years after the earth was formed [45]. So 237Np did not find in nature but it discovered in some` stars spectrum [49].

33

CHAPTER - II
INTRODUCTION TO BIOMOLECULE Biomolecules:
A biomolecule is defined as an organic compound which is found in almost all the living organisms. These are the molecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and sometimes some other elements to a very small extent.

Importance of Biomolecule:
Biomolecule play a very important role in the functioning of living organization and therefore these are considered as the building blocks of life. Biomolecule are essential for life to exist. These molecules make up and control a living organisms body. These play a vital role in the development of living organization. An organism needs each and every biomolecule in a proper amount for the functioning and well being of his body. Each biomolecule has a certain task and duty that keeps the body healthy and control it. Biomolecule are necessary for the existence of all known forms of life. For example, humans possess skin and hair. The main component of hair is keratin, an agglomeration of proteins which are themselves polymers built from amino acids. Amino acids are some of the most

34

important building blacks used, in nature, to construct larger molecules. Another type of building block is the nucleotides, each of which consists of three components; a Purina or pyramiding base, a pentose sugar or a phosphate group these nucleotides, mainly, from the nucleic acids. Beside the polymeric biomolecule, numerous small organic molecules are absorbed or synthesized by living systems. Many biomolecule may be useful or important drugs.

Type of Biomolecule:
Biomolecule ranges from a small molecule to large polymers.

A. Small Molecules mainly include molecules like :

Lipids such as phospholipids, glycolipids, sterols, and glyceroliopids: - are the main components or biological membranes and as function as the highest energy providing molecules. Carbohydrates such as sugars also provide energy and act as energy storage molecules. Vitamins though not synthesized by organisms, are important biomolecule, which are necessary for the survival and health of organization. Hormones, neurotransmitters and metabolites: hormones

regulate the metabolic processes and many other functions of organisms.

B. Monomers include :
Amino acids: buildings blocks of proteins function as genetic code and as biomolecule that assist in other processes such as lipid transport.

35

Nucleotides: They are the source of chemical energy (ATP,

GTP), assist in cellular signaling, and participate in important enzymatic reaction (coenzyme A, flavin) adenine dinucleotide, flavin mononucleotide, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate etc.) Monosaccharide: Provides energy and are the building

blocks of polysaccharides.

C. Polymers include following organic compounds :

Peptides ologopeptides, polypeptides or proteins: Play multiple functions in an organisms body. They work as enzymatic catalysts, transport molecules (hemoglobin transports oxygen) and storage molecules. These are the major components of muscles; they are needed for mechanical support. These biomolecule mediate cell responses. Antibody proteins are the main part immune system. Hormonal proteins control growth and cell differentiation. Many such other functions are performed by these biomolecule. Nucleic acids, DNA, RNA: are the biomolecule that are

involved in heredity. Oligosaccharides, polysaccharides cellulose, lignin:

Structural molecules and provide energy.

Biomolecule - Amino - Acids:

Amino acids are molecules that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. (In biochemistry, the term amino acid is used when referring to those amino acids in which the amino and carboxyl ate functionalities are attached to the same carbon plus praline which is not

36

actually an amino acid.) Amino acids are the building blocks of long polymer chains. With 2-10 amino acids such chains are called peptides, with 10-100 they are often called polypeptides, and longer chains are known as proteins. These protein structures have many structural and functional roles in organisms. There are twenty amino acids that are encoded by the standard genetic code, but there are more than 500 natural amino acids. When amino aids other than the set of twenty are observed in proteins, this is usually the result of modification after translation (protein synthesis). Only two amino acids other than the standard twenty are known to be incorporated into proteins during translation, in certain organization. Selenocysteine is incorporated into some proteins at a UGA cordon, which is normally a stop cordon. Pyrrolysine is incorporated into some proteins at a UAG cordon. For instance, in some methanogens in enzymes that is used to produce methods. Beside those used in protein synthesis, other biologically important amino acids include carnitine (used in lipid transport within a cell), ornithine, GABA and taurine. Amino Acids: Amino acids are organic compounds, containing an amino group and a carboxyl group. Amino acids are the end product of protein digestion and the basic building blocks from which proteins are synthesized in the cell. Amino acids are the chemical units that make up proteins, as they are famously called the building blocks of protein.

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Amino acids combine with nitrogen and form thousands of different proteins. However, they are not only the chemical units from which proteins are formed, but are also the end products of protein digestion. Proteins provide structure for all living things, from the largest animal to the tiniest microbe and, as such, ion its various forms, protein participates in the vital chemical processes that sustain life. In the human body, proteins are a necessary part of every living cell and next to water; proteins make up the greatest portion of our body weight. The body breaks these proteins down into their constituent parts, and then our cells use these to build the specific types of protein each of them needs. There are twenty-eight commonly known amino acids. Nine of these are called essential amino acid. They are; instideine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. These nine essential amino acids cannot be manufactured by the body and must be obtained from food or supplements. The remaining nineteen are referred to as non-essential amino acids, meaning they can be manufactured by the body from other amino acids as needed, but they too can be obtained through supplements. The term nonessential amino acids does not mean they are not necessary and they provide no amino acid benefits, only that they need not be obtained through diet because the body can manufacture them as needed. However, a nonessential amino acid can become essential under certain situations. For example, the nonessential amino acids cysteine and tyrosine are derived from the essential amino acids methionine and phenylalanine. If these two essential amino acids are not available in
38

sufficient quantities, cysteine and tyrosine than become essential in the diet.

Amino acid - General Structure:

There are basically 20 standard amino acids having different structures in their side chains (R group). The common amino acids are known as a-amino acids because they have a primary amino group (NH2) and a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) as substitutes of the carbon atoms. Proline is an exception because it has a secondary amino group (NH-), for uniformity it is also treated as alpha-amino acid. R

H2N

COOH

H Fig 1 general structure of a-amino acid. Where R represents a side chain specific to each amino acid. Amino acids are usually classified by properties of the side chain into four groups: acidic, basic, and hydrophilic (polar), and hydrophobic (nonpolar).

Functional Significance of Amino Acid R-Groups:

In solution it is the nature of the amino acid R-groups that dictate structure-function relationship of peptides and proteins. The hydrophobic amino acids will generally be encountered in the interior of proteins shielded from direct contract with water. Conversely, the hydrophilic
39

amino acids are generally found on the exterior of proteins as well as in the active centers of enzymatically active proteins. Indeed, it is the very nature of certain amino acid R-groups that allow enzyme reactions to occur. The imidazole ring of histidine allows it to act as either a proton donor or acceptor at physiological pH. Hence, it is frequently found in the reactive center of enzymes. Equally important is the ability of histidines in hemoglobin to buffer the H+ ions from carbonic acid ionization in red blood cells. It is property of hemoglobin that allows it to exchange O2 and CO2 at the tissues or lungs, respectively. The primary alcohol of serine and threonine as well as the thiol (SH) of cysteine allow these amino acids to act as nucleophiles during enzymatic catalysis. Additionally, the thiol of cysteine is able to form a disulfide bond with other cysteines.

General Properties:
The amino and carboxylic acid groups of amino acids readily ionize. At a pH (~7.4), the amino groups are protonated and the carboxyl acid groups are in their conjugate base (carboxylate) form, this shows that an amino acid that can act as an Acid and also a base. Amino acids can bear charged groups of opposite polarity, hence they are known as zwitterions or dipolar ions. The ionic property of the side chains influences the physical and chemical property of free amino acids and amino acids in proteins.

Peptide Bonds:
Elimination of water (condensation) can polarize amino to form long chains. The resulting CO-NH linkage, an amide linkage, is known as peptide bond. Polymers composed of two, three, a few (3-10), and many
40

amino acid units are known, respectively, as dipeptides, tripeptides, oligopeptides, and polypeptides, commonly they are called peptides. Peptide bond formation is a condensation reaction leading to the polymerization of amino acids into peptides and proteins. Peptides are small consisting of few amino acids. A number of hormones and neurotransmitters are peptides. Additionally, several antibiotics and antitumor agents are peptides. Proteins are polypeptides of greatly divergent length. The simplest peptide, a dipeptide, contains a single peptide bond formed by the condensation of the carboxyl group of one amino acid with the amino group of the second with the concomitant elimination of water. The presence of the carbonyl group in a peptide bond allows electron resonance stabilization to occur such that the peptide bond exhibits rigidity not unlike the typical -C=C- double bond. The peptide bond is, therefore, said to have partial double-bond character.

O C NH Classification:

O C NH +

There are basically three manor classifications for amino acid (1) those with nonpolar R group, (2) those with uncharged polar R groups, and (3) those with charged polar R group. The table below shows us all 20 amino acids with their codes. Table 1:20 Standard amino acids Sr. One-letter Three-letter Name
41

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

code A C D E F G H I K L M N P Q R S T V W Y Ala Cys Asp Glu Phe Gly His Ile Lys Leu Met Asn Pro Gln Arg Ser Thr Val Trp Tyr

code Alanine Cysteine Aspartic Acid Glutamic Acid Penylalanine Glycine Histidine Isoleucine Lysine Leucine Methionine Asparagines Proline Glutamine Arginine Serine Threonine Valine Tryptophan Tyrosine

Non-polar amino acids side chains have a variety of shapes and sizes; there are basically nine acids under this classification. Glycine has the smallest possible side chain, an H atom. Alanine, valine, leucine, and isoleucine have aliphatic hydrocarbon side chains ranging in size from a

42

methyl group for alanine to isomeric butyl groups for leucine and isoleucine. Methionine has a thiol ether side chain that resembles an nbutly group is man of its physical properties (C and A have nearly equal electronegativities, and S is about the size of a methylene group). Proline has a cyclinc pyrrolidien side group. Phenylalanine (with its phenyl moiety) and typtophan (with its indole group) contain aromatic side groups, which are characterized by bulk as well as nonoplarity. Uncharged Polar side chains have Hydroxyl, Amide, or Thiol Groups. There are six amino acids under this. Serine and threonine have hydroxylic R side chains of different sizes. Tyrosine has a phenolic group and is aromatic. Cystein is very unique among all 20 amino acid because it has a thiol group that forms a disulfide bond with other Cystein through oxidation. Charged Polar side chains, they are positivity or negatively charged. Five amino acids contribution to this types. The side chains are positively charged; they are lysine, which has a butylammonium side chain, arginine, which has a guanidine group, and histidine, which bears imidazolium moiety.

Physical Properties:
Melting Points: The amino acids re-crystalline solids with surprisingly high melting points. It is difficult to pin the melting points down exactly because the amino acids tend to decompose before they melt. Decomposition and melting tend to be it the 200-3000C range. For the size of the structure of an amino acid, you will see that it has both amine group and an acidic carboxylic acid group. basic group
43

NH2 R-CH-COOH acidic group There is an internal transfer of a hydrogen ion from the -COOH group to the- NH2 group to leave in ion with both a negative charge and positive charge. This is called zwitterions. NH3+ R-CH-COOa zwitterions Zwitterions are a compound with no overall electrical charge, but which contains separate parts which are positively and negatively charged. This is the form that amino acids exist in even in the solid state. Instead of the weaker hydrogen bonds and other intermiluecular forces that you might have expected, you actually have much stronger ionic attractions between one ion and its neighbors. These ionic attractions take more energy to break and so the amino acids have high melting points for the size of the molecules. Solubility: Amino acids are generally soluble in water and insoluble in nonpolar organic solvents such as hydrocarbons. This again reflects the presence of the zwitterions. In water, the ionic attractions between the ions in the solid amino acid are replaced by
44

strong attractions between polar water molecules and the zwitterions. This is much the same as any other ionic substance dissolving in water. The extent of the solubility in water varies depending on the size and nature of the R group. The lack of solubility in non-polar organic solvents such as hydrocarbons is because of the lack of attraction between the solvent molecules and the zwitterions. Without strong attractions between solvent and amino acid, there wont be enough energy released to pull the ionic lattice apart. Optical Activity: If you look yet again at the general formula for an amino acid, you will see that (apart from glycine, 2-aminoethanoci acid) the carbon at the centre of the structure has four different groups attached. In glycine, the R group is another hydrogen atom. NH3+ R-CH-COOfour different groups attached to this carbon atom This is equally true if you draw the structure of the zwitterions instead of this simpler structure. Because of these four different groups attached to the same carbon atom, amino acids (apart from glycine) are chiral. The lack of a plane of symmetry means that there will be two stereoisomers of an amino acid (apart from glycine) - one the nonsuperimposable mirror image of the other.

45

For a general 2-amino acid, the isomers are:

II

C R COOH NH2 mirror Optical Properties of the Amino Acids: COOH

C R

HN2

A tetrahedral carbon atom with 4 distinct constituents is aid to be chiral. The one amino acid not exhibiting chirality is glycine since its Rgroup is a hydrogen atom. Chirality describes the handedness of a molecule that is observable by the ability of a molecule to rotate the plane of polarized light either to the right (dextrorotatory) or to the left (levorotatory). All of the amino acids in proteins exhibit the same absolute steric configuration as L-glyceraldehyde. Therefore, they are all L--amino acids. D-amino acids are never found in proteins, although they exist in nature. D-amino acids are often found in polypeptide antibiotics. The aromatic R-groups are amino acids absorb ultraviolet light with an absorbance maximum in the range of 280nm. The ability of proteins to absorb ultraviolet light is predominantly due to the presence of the tryptophan which strongly absorbs ultraviolet light.
46

Chemical Nature of the Amino Acids:

All peptides and polypeptides are polymers of -amino acids. There are 20 -amino acids that are relevant to the make-up of mammalian protein (see below). Several other amino acids are found in the body fee or in combined state (i.e. not associated with peptides or proteins). These non-protein associated amino acids perform specialized functions. Several of the amino acids found in proteins also serve functions distinct from the formation of peptides and proteins, e.g., tyrosine in the formation of thyroid hormones or glutamate acting as a neurotransmitter. The -amino acid in peptides and proteins (excluding proline) consist of a carboxylic acid (-COOH) and an amino (-NH2) functional group attached to the same tetrahederal carbon atom. This carbon is the carbon. Distinct R-groups, that distinguish one amino acid from another, also are attached to the alpha-carbon (except in the case of glycine where the R-group is hydrogen). The fourth substitution on the tetrahedral carbon of amino acids is hydrogen. Table of -Amino Acids Found in Proteins:
Amino Acid Symbol Structure pK1 (COOH) pK2 (NH2) pK R Group

Amino Acids with Aliphatic R-Groups Glycine Gly-G H-CH-COOH NH2 CH3-CH-COOH NH2 2.4 9.8 -

Alanine Valine

Ala-A Val-V

2.4 2.2

9.9 9.7

H3C H3C

CH-CH-COOH

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NH2

Leucine

Leu-L

H3C H3C
H3C-H2C H3C

CH2-CH-COOH NH2

2.3

9.7

Isoleucine

Ile-I

CH-CH-COOH NH2

2.3

9.8

Series

Ser-S

HO-CH2-CH-COOH NH2 H3C HO CH-CH-COOH NH2

2.2

9.2

13

Threonine

Thr-S

2.1

9.1

13

Amino Acids with Sulfur-Containing R-Groups Cysteine Cys-C HS-CH2-CH-COOH NH2 H3S-S-(CH2)2-CH-COOH NH2 1.9 10.8 8.3

Methionine

Met-M

2.1

93

Acidic Amino Acids and their Amides Aspartic Acdi Asparagine Gultamic Acid Gultamine Asp-D HOOC-CH2-CH-COOH NH2 H2N-C-CH2-CH-COOH O NH2 2.0 9.9 3.9

Asn-N

2.1

8.8

Asn-N

HOOC-CH2CH2-CH-COOH NH2 H2N-C-CH2-CH2-CH-COOH O NH2

2.1

9.5

4.1

Gln-Q

2.2

9.1

Basic Amino Acids

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HN-HC2-CH2CH2-CH-COOH Arginine Arg-R C=NH NH2 NH2 1.8 9.0 12.5

Lysine

Lys-K

H2N-(CH2)4-CH-COOH NH2 CH2-CH-COOH NH2

2.2

9.2

10.8

Histidine

His-H

1.8

9.2

6.0

Amino Acids with Aromatic Rings

Phenylalnine

Phe-F

CH2-CH-COOH NH2

2.2

9.2

Tyrosine

Tyr-Y

HO

CH2-CH-COOH NH2

Tryptophan

Trp-W

CH2-CH-COOH NH2

Amino Acids
Proline

Pro-P

COOH

2.0

10.6

Acid-Base Properties of the Amino Acids:

The -COOH and -NH2 groups in amino acids are capable of ionizing (as are the acidic and basic R-groups of the amino acids). As a result of their ionizability the following ionic equilibrium reactions may be written: R-COOH R-NH3+ R-COO-+H+ R=NH2+H+

49

The equilibrium reactions, as written, demonstrate that amino acids contain at least two weakly acidic groups. However, the carboxyl groups is a far stronger acid than the amino group at physiological pH (around 7.4) the carboxyl group will be unprotonated and the amino group will be protonated. An amino acid with no ionizable R-group would be electrically neutral at this pH. This species is termed zwitterions. Like typical organic acids, the acidic strength of the carboxyl, amino and ionizable R-group in amino acids can be defined by the association constant, Ka or more commonly the negative logarithm of Ka, the pKa. The net charge (the algebraic sum of all the charged groups present) of any amino acid, peptide or protein, will depend upon the pH of the surrounding aqueous environment. As the pH of a solution of an amino acid or protein changes so too does the net charge. This phenomenon can be observed during the titration of any amino acid or protein. When the net charge of an amino acid or protein is zero the pH will be equivalent to the isoelectric point: ph.

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Amino Acid Benefits:

Amino acids are vital to vibrant health. Put simply, amino acids are utilized to make crucial substance within the body. For example, they are utilized to make enzymes that support biochemical reactions, and hormones that influence bodys metabolism. They are also utilized to make hemoglobin that carries oxygen through the body, and antibodies that are infection fighters that help the immune system. Amino acids even have a role in repairing muscles, ligament, tendons organ, glands, nails, and hair. Moreover, some amino acids act as neurotransmitters, chemicals that play a crucial role in transmitting messages within the neurons of the brain, while others are involved in detoxification reactions and metabolic function. Amino acids also enable vitamins and minerals to carry out their jobs properly and efficiently. In other words, the lists of amino acid benefits are long because they are crucial to vibrant health and, as such, deficiencies in just one of them severely compromise your health.

Amino acids and their functions in the body:

ARGININE : o Studies have shown that it has improved immune response to bacteria, viruses and tumor cells. Arginine promotes healing and regeneration of the liver. It also causes the release of growth hormones; considered crucial for optimal muscle growth and tissue repair.
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 L-ARGININE: Important for cardiovascular health and more. ALANINE : o This non-essential amino acid-which may be considered essential under some circumstances, is an important source of energy for muscle tissue, the brain and central nervous system. It helps in the metabolism of sugars and organic acids, and may also help stabilize the blood glucose levels in people with hypoglycemia. ASPRARTIC ACID : o Aspartic acid is a non-essential amino acid, aiding in the expulsion of harmful ammonia from the body. When ammonia enters the circulatory system, it acts as a highly toxic substance which can be harmful to the central nervous system. Its ability to increase endurance is thought to be a result of its role in clearing ammonia from the system. Athletes use it to promote stamina and endurance. The popular sweetener Aspartame is a combination of Aspartic acid and phenylalanine. Aspartic acid is considered nontoxic. Some research has shown that Aspartic acid might be useful in opiate withdrawal. CYSTINE : o It functions as a powerful antioxidant and an immune support substance, neutralization free radicals. It can help slow down the again process. It is necessary for the

52

formation of the skin, and aids in the recovery from burns and surgical operation. GLUCOSAMINE : o Glucosamine consists of glucose combined with the amino acid Glutamic Acid. Studies have shown that Glucosamine sulfate may be of use in treating osteoarthritis or degenerative joint disease. This natural provides the body with an important raw material that appears to halt the disease process. Itself. In the body, the main action of glucosamine on joints is to stimulate the manufacture of substance necessary for joint repair. o Glucosamine has also been shown to exert a protective effect against joint destruction and, when taken orally, is selectively taken up by joint tissues to exert a powerful therapeutic effect. GLUTAMIC ACID : o This amino acid has been shown to improve mental capacities, speeds, the healing process of ulcers, and gives a lift from fatigue. It also helps control alcoholism and the craving for sugar. GLYCINE : o These non-essential amino acids is required by the body for the maintenance of the central nervous system, and in men, glycine plays an essential role in maintaining healthy prostate functions. It helps trigger the release of oxygen to the energy requiring cell-making process as well as

53

providing nutrients to support a strong immune system and free radical fighters. ORNITHINE : o Ornithine is important since it induces the release of growth hormones in the body, which in turn helps with fat metabolism. It is further required for a properly functioning liver and immune system ornithine assists in the ammonia detoxification and rejuvenation of the liver. It is also useful in healing and reparing skin and tissue and is found in both these body parts. There are some unsupported claims that ornithine also promotes muscle building, but this has not been proven. PROLINE : o Proline is a non-essential amino acid, which improves skin texture, and proper functioning of joints and tendons. It also helps maintain and strengthen heart muscles. Proline is most effective when adequate Vitamin C is supplied at the same time. SERINE : o Serine is a non-essential amino acid that is needed for the metabolism of fats and fatty acids, for muscle growth, and for a healthy immune system. There is some concern that elevated serine levels (especially) in sausage and lunch meats) can cause immune suppression and psychological such as cerebral allergies. TYPROSINE :

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o Tyrosine is a non-essential amino acid that is used by the thyroid gland to produce one of the major hormones, Thyroxin. This hormone regulates growth rate, metabolic rate, skin health and mental health. It is used in the treatment to control anxiety, allergies and headaches. Tyrosine is known as the anti-depressant amino acid and serves as the building block for the hormones dopamine and nor epinephrine which create a sense of pleasure and well-being. Tyrosine can also act as a mild appetite suppressant. TAURINE : o Taurine is a non-essential amino acid that functions in electrically active tissues such as the brain and heart, to help stabilize cell membranes. Supplements decrease the tendency to develop abnormal heart arrhythmia after heart attacks. People with congestive heart failure have also responded to supplementation with improved cardiac and respiratory function. L-CARNITINE : o In the strictest sense L Carnitine is not an amino acid, but a substance related to the B vitamins. However, due to its chemical structure, which is similar to those amazing amino acids it is usually considered together with them. Learn all about its role in transporting fatty acids into energy producing units in cells.

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CHAPTER - III CROSS SECTION

The concept of the cross section, , has been introduced for the purpose of calculating the attenuation of the incident beam. Consider a beam of particles of intensity I incident on a thin sheet of material of thickness dt and caf area A. as a particles passes through the thin sheet there is some chance that it will be absorbed by a nucleus, if the particle happens to come close to it. Assume that is the effective area surrounding an atom, such that if the incident particle falls within this area (fig. 1), the nuclear reaction will take place. Let there be n target nuclei per unit volume of the sheet. It is assumed that the foil is so thin that none of the nuclei overlap each other so as to be equally probable to cause the nuclear reaction with the incident particles. With this notation in mind, we have n dt = number if nuclei per unit face area, A n dt = total number of nuclei in the face area A

Fig. 1: a beam of particles incident on a thin foil. Because with each nucleus is associated an effective area, , the total sensitive area or effective area available for a nuclear reaction is, A n dt = total effective area

56

The fractional effective, f, is given by f = total effective area = A n dt / A = n dt total face area This fraction effective area represents the fractional change in the intensity of the beam as passes through the foil. Thus the change in the intensity is given by dI = -fI (2) (1)

Note that because we are talking in terms of probabilities, f and, consequently have nothing to do with the geometrical size of the atom. Actually proportional to the probability for a nuclear reaction to take place. Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) we get -dI/I= n dt (3)

Where the negative sign means the intensity I decrease as thickness increases. Assuming I=I0 at t=0 and integrating Eq. (3) we get I=I0e-n (4)

Because the number of particles N in the beam is proportional to the intensity of the beam, Eq. (4) in terms of the number of particles, can be written as N=N0e-nt (5)

Where N0 is the number of particles incident on the foil, and N is the number of particles left after traversing a thickness t of the foil. The microscopic-cross-section or simply the cross section is usually denoted by . The unit of the cross section is the barn, or b, where 1b=10-24 cm2

57

And a smaller unit is the mill barn, denoted by mb 1 mb=10-3 b The product of n and is called the macroscopic cross section = n absorption coefficient, is used instead of , where = n Eq. (5) can be written as N=N0e-t = N0e-t (8) (7) (6)

If we are dealing with absorption only, then sometimes the term

The meaning of a thin foil can now made clear. The foil is said to be thin if t<< 1, which is true either if the foil is sufficiently geometrically thin or if the cross section is sufficiently small in this case. e-t = 1 - t N=N0 (1-t) Thus the number of particles absorbed while traversing a thickness t, is given by dN = N0-N0 (1-t) = N0 t = N0n t fractional effective area (f=n dt) (9)

Note that this is in complete agreement with the definition of

Gamma Radiation:
Gamma radiation, also known as gamma rays (denoted as ), is electromagnetic radiation of high frequency (very short wavelength). They are produced by sub-atomic particles interactions such as electronpositron annihilation, neutral pion decay, radioactive decay (including isomeric transition which involves an inhibited gamma decay), fusion, fission or inverse Compton scattering in astrophysical processes. Gamma

58

rays have frequencies above 10 (1019 Hz), and therefore have energies above 100 keV and wavelength less than 10 picometers, often smaller than an atom. Gamma rays from radioactive decay commonly have energies of a few hundred keV, and almost always less than 10 MeV. The highest energy detected as of September 2009 is 33 GeV, and there is effectively no lower limit (they are sometimes classed as X-rays if their frequencies are lower than 1019 Hz). Because gamma rays are a form of ionizing radiation, they pose a health hazard. Paul, Villard, a French chemist and physicist, discovered, discovered gamma radiation in 1900, while studying radiation emitted from radium. Alpha and beta rays had already been separated and named by the work of Ernest Rutherford in 1899, and in 1903 Rutherford named Villards distinct new radiation gamma rays. The distinction between X-rays and gamma rays has changed in recent decades. Originally, the electromagnetic radiation emitted by Xrays tubes had a londer wavelength than the radiation emitted by radioactive nuclei (gamma rays). Older literature distinguished between X-and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10-11 m, defied as gamma rays. However, as shorter wavelength continuous spectrum X-ray source such as linear accelerators and longer wavelength gamma ray emitters were discovered the wavelength bands largely overlapped. The two types of radiation are now usually distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.

59

Absorption coefficient of Gamma ray photons:

The intensity of a beam of - rays passing through a material followed the exponential law of absorption, because the change in intensity is directly proportional to the incident intensity and the thickness of the material. Let us consider a beam of photons with intensity I falling perpendicular to material of thickness x. then the change in intensity, I, is given by I= - Ix coefficient. For a given material, is different for photons of different energies. The negative sing in Eq. (1) indicates that the intensity decreases with increasing thickness. Thus for a homogeneous radiation, : is constant and from Eq. (1) we get I=I0e-x intensity, I0, has crossed a thickness x of the material. Due to the exponential nature of their absorption, gamma rays do not have a definite range as do alpha and beta particles but are characterized by the attenuation absorption coefficient, . Also we may write I=hv (3) (2) (1)

Where is the proportionality constant and is known as the absorption

Where I is the intensity of the beam after the beam of initial

Where hv is the energy of each photon, is the number of photons crossing a unit area in a unit time and is called the flux. Combining Eqs. (2) and (3), we get =0e-x (4)
60

Where is the initial flux. Note that I denotes the energy flux (or intensity), and is the number of flux, is sometimes called as the liner absorption coefficient. Besides the liner absorption coefficient, , the other coefficient that are commonly used are mass absorption coefficient, m, atomic absorption coefficient e and electronic absorption coefficient e. These four coefficients are related to each other in the following way:
a

= Z e

= ( NA/A) a = ( NAZ/A) e m = (/) = (NA a/A) e Where Z is the atomic number, A is the atomic weight, is density in g/cm3, and NA is the Avogadros umber. Because x is a dimensionless quantity, x is expressed in cm, will be in cm-1. Accordingly, for the mass absorption coefficient, m, x is expressed in gm/cm2 and m in cm2/gm. Similarly if x is expressed in atoms/cm2 or electron/cm2, a and
e

are expressed as cm2/atom and cm2/electron, respectively. Because Z/A changes very slowly with increasing Z, and e is the

same for all elements in a certain energy range, this leads to the conclusion that m does not vary much for all elements in this energy range. The half-thickness, x1/2 is characteristics of the absorber as the half life of the decaying nucleus, x1/2 is defined as thickness that reduces the incident beam intensity to one-half of its initial intensity, i.e., I/I0=1/2=e-x1/2 or x1/2=0.693/=0.693/m (6)

61

If the incident beam consists of photons of different energies, Eq. (4) is replaced by the following equation =01e-1x+02e-2x+03e-3x+ (7)

Where 01, 02, 03, and 1, 2, 3 are the initial fluxes and absorption coefficient, respectively, of photons with energies hv1, hv2, hv3 Coefficient, , used above is actually the sum of two processes:
i)

The process in which the photon loses its energy in whole or in part to a particle, which in turn easily absorbed. The energy, therefore, is deposited inside the material, and

ii) The process in which photons are scattered outside the beam with no absorption of energy in the martial. We many write , therefore, as the sum of two terms, =a+s Where a corresponds to absorption and s to scattering. (8)

Interaction of gamma ray photon with matter:

There are numerous processes by which gamma rays interact with the matter and lose their energy. Fortunately, all these process do not contribute to the same extent for different energy photons. The gamma rays emitted in the nuclear decay usually have energies ranging from a fraction of a Mev to a few Mev. In this range, the three main processes by which photons lose their energies by interaction with matter are: a) Photoelectric effect (P.E.) b) Compton effect (C.E.) c) Pair production (P.P.)
62

These are not the only processes that gamma rays interact with matter. The other processes by which gamma rays interact with matter are, although they do not contribute much to the absorption coefficient that is in low energy of gamma rays.

They are as follows:

Rayleigh scattering : This is the famous classical coherentscattering (elastic scattering), and it takes place whenever the incident photons fall on bound electrons, provided the electrons do not get enough energy to the ejected from the atom. Thus, it will be more prominent at low photon energies and absorbs with high Z.

Thomson scattering: This may also be called Nuclear Compton-

scattering and takes places between the incident photon and a nucleus instead of a free electron. Because of the large mass of the nucleus, the effect is very small.

Nuclear photoelectric effect: In this process the high-energy photon

may be absorbed by the nucleus, resulting in the ejection of a nucleon. This is the so called photodisintegration, and it is more prevalent for high Z.

Nuclear-resonance scattering: In this process the nucleus is excited

by the absorption of incident photon haven energy equal to the difference between two nuclear energy levels. This is followed by the de-excitation of the nucleus.

Elastic nuclear-scattering (or Delbruck scattering): The scattering

of a photon may be caused by the electromagnetic field of the nucleus. The three process i.e. Photoelectric (P.E.), Compton Effect (E.E.), Pair Production (P.P.) are dominant in different range of the photon energy.

63

The photoelectric effect from ~ 0.01 Mev to ~0.5 Mev, the Compton scattering from ~0.1 Mev to ~10 Mev, and Pair production start at 1.02 Mev and increase with increasing gamma energy. All three are independent of each other and by analogy with I=Ix We may write, (I)P.E. =-Ix (I)C.E. = -Ix (I)P.P. = -kIx (1) (2) (3) (a)

Where and k are absorption coefficients for the photoelectric effect, the Compton Effect, and pair production, respectively. Adding all three together, we may write. I= +(I)P.P. + (I)C.E. + (I)P.E. = - (++k) Ix and comparing with Eq. (a), we get =++k (5) (4)

(a) Photoelectric effect (P.E.): (predominates in the energy range 0.1 Mev to 5 Mev). This effect is more prominent at low energies of the incident photon. The incident photon is absorbed by one the electrons of the atom. In the process the photon disappears and electron in ejected (Fig. 1), kinetic energy Ke, is given by Ke=hv-IB (6)

64

Where hv is the energy of the incident photon, and IB is the binding energy of the orbital electron. It is impossible for a free electron to absorb a photon because it will not converse both momentum and energy. But in the case of a bound electron, the atom recoils and therefore, conserves the momentum. Because the mass of the atom is very large, its recoil energy is small, and it has been neglected in Eq. (6)

Fig. 1 The photoelectric effect; absorption of a photon results in the emission of K-electron The theoretical calculations for the cross section of the photoelectric effect involve the use of Diracs relativistic equation for a bound electron. This makes evaluation difficult. For different regions of energy of the photons, the cross sections have been evaluated by different authors. The calculations become somewhat simpler if the energy of the photon, is small enough to neglect the relativistic effects and large enough to neglect the binding energy of the orbital election. Neglecting the binding energy of the K-electron, W. Heitler obtained the following expression for the photoelectric absorption cross-section (in the range 0.1 Mev to 0.35 Mev).
a k

= 0Z5 (1/137)44 2(n)7/2

(7)

Where 0 = (8/3) (e2/m0c2)2=6.651*10-25cm2 And n=m0c2/hv (9) (8)

65

Where, z is the atomic number of the absorber, e is the charge of the electron, c is the velocity of light, and m0 is the rest mass of an electron. Eq. (7) applies only to the ejection of electros from the K-shell of the atom, which usually accounts for about 80 per cent of the photoelectric absorption. In general, a depends on Z and hv in the following fashion
a

Z5

(10 a) (10 b)

1/(hv)7/2 the binding energy of the K-electron.

As the energy of the photon becomes lower, it is not possible to neglect

b) Compton effect (C.E.): (predominates in the energy range 100 Kev to 1.0 Mev). This is the process by which the incident photon interacts with a free electron and is scattered with a lower energy, the rest of the energy being taken by the recoiling electron. Because the electrons in an atom are loosely bound and the energies of the incident photons are comparatively high, we may include the scattering of photos by the electrons of the atom as Compton scattering. An incident photon of energy hv strikes a free electron with a rest mass m0. The interaction results in a scattered photon of energy hv(<hv) at an angle and a recoiling electron with kinetic energy ke at an angle (Fig. 2). Form the conservation of momentum and energy using the relativistic expressions, we obtain hv/c=(hv/c) cos +m0c (1-2)-1/2cos (11 a)

66

(hv/c) sin = m0c(1-2)-1/2 sin And, hv=hv+m0c2 [(1-2)-1/2-1] (11 c)

(11 b)

Where =v/c, v being the velocity of the electron after the collision. Elimination and from the above equations, we get the chance in wave length given by - = (h/m0c) (1-cos) (12)

We can establish the following relations by using Eqs. (11a, b, c) hv'=hv/1+(1-cos) ke=hv-hv'=hv[1-(1/1+(1-cos))] and cos = 1-[2/(1+)2 tan2 +1] units of the rest-mass energy of the electron. (15) (13) (14)

Where =hv/m0c2, i.e., is the energy of the incident photon expressed in

Fig. 2 Compton scattering; the incident photon energy is shared between the scattered photon of energy hv where (v<v) and an electron. In order to calculate the Compton scattering cross-section, and the attenuation coefficients due to the Compton Effect, the problem is to be treated quantum mechanically, making use of the Dirac equation for the

67

electron. Such calculations have been carried out theoretically by O. Klein and Y. Nishina. There are many quantities of interest that may be calculated. Some of these are:
1)
e

= total Compton cross-section for the number of photons scattered.

2) 3)

e s

= Compton cross-section for the energy of the photon scattered, = Compton cross-section for the energy absorbed by the electrons,

e a

4)

2 = cross-section for the number of photons scattered between 0 and 0,

5) 6)

e s

0 = cross-section for energy scattered between 0 and 0, and = cross-section for the number of photos scattered forward.

e f

We shall state the calculated cross section for the first three of them are related by the following equation.
e

= es + ea

(16)

The theoretical values of e and es are,

e

= 0{(a+/2) [(2(1+)/1/2)-1/ ln (a+2)] + 1/2ln (1+2) -

1+3/(1+2)2] And
e s

= 3/8 0 {1/3 ln (1+2) + 2(1+)(22-2-a)/2(1+2)2 + 82/3(1+2)3} (18)

There, as already stated, 0 = (8/3)(e2/m0c2)2 = 6.651*10-25 cm2 and = hv/m0c2.

68

The corresponding absorption coefficients , es, and a are related to s, es, and ea in the following manner = (NAZ/A) e, s = (NAZ/A) es, a = (NAZ/A) ea (19) The following observations are made from Eqs. (17), (18) and (19) : i) e, es, and ea (cm/electron) are independent of the properties of the absorber while , s, and a are functions of the atomic umber of the material, i.e., the scattering is proportional to Z. ii) The mass absorption coefficient / given by / =NA (Z/A) e (20)

Because for light elements Z/A ~ , Eq. (20) implies that the mass absorption coefficient for a given photon energy is practically constant for light elements. iii) The decrease of the total scattering coefficient per electron, e, is slow for photon energies up to 0.5 Mev, but beyond that the decrease is roughly proportional 1hv. C) Pair production (P.P.): (possible only when energy is above 1.02 Mev.) The third most important process by which photons lose there is electron-positron pair formation. The threshold energy for this process is 2m0c2. It is found that if a photon of energy greater than 1.02 Mev strikes a foil of high Z, the photon disappears and in its place an electron positron pair is formed (Fig. 3). If a pair is produced in cloud chamber and a magnetic field is applied, the electrons and positrons are deflected in the opposite direction which equal curvature.

69

The conservation of momentum requires the presence of a heavy body. Actually the pair formation takes place in the filed of the nucleus and the conservation of energy gives hv=2m0c2+E++E_+Enuc where and the positron; E+, E_, Enuc = the kinetic energies of the positron, electron, and the recoiling nucleus, respectively. Because the mass of the nucleus is very large, it takes away a very small amount of kinetic energy, and so Enuc am be neglected. Thus Eq. (21) takes the form hv = 2m0c2 + E++E Mev. (22) (21)

hv=energy of the incident photon,

2m0c2 = energy of the equivalent to the reset mass of the electron

which clearly shows that the threshold for pair formation is 2m0c2 or 1.02

Fig. 3 Electron-positron pair formation, Pair production is also possible in the field of light particles, but the threshold is such cases are higher. The theoretical calculation has been accomplished by H. Bethe and W. Heilter. The absorption coefficient aK per atom increase with increasing energy of the photon and also increase with Z2.
70

CHAPTER - IV RESULT & DISCUSSION

Table 1 Counts per 60 second for Alanine at 0.662 MeV.

I0 = 6683 Back ground counts: 58 Source used Cs 137 Photo Peak 5.3

Sr. No.

Thickness (g/cm2)

Trial I

Trial II

Mean I/

I0/I

0.474

6678

6670

6674

6616

1.01

0.548

6300

6306

6303

6245

1.07

1.423

5969

5975

5972

5914

1.13

1.897

5860

5878

5869

5811

1.15

2.371

5778

5760

5769

5711

1.17

71

1 .2 1 .1 6 1 .1 2
I 0 /I

1 .0 8 1 .0 4 1 0 0 .5 1 1 .5

In t e r c e p t o n Y a x i s = 0 .9 8 6 S l o p e = 0 .0 8 4

2 .5

T h ic k n e 2s s ( g / c m )

Figure 1.Plot of I0/I Vs thickness t for Alanine at 0.662 MeV.

Table 2 Counts per 60 second for Alanine at 1.17 MeV.

72

I0 = 1988 Back ground counts: 38 Source used Co 60

Photo Peak 6.1

Sr. No.

Thickness (g/cm2)

Trial I

Trial II

Mean I/

I0/I

0.474

1976

1960

1968

1930

1.03

0.548

1932

1830

1931

1893

1.05

1.423

1860

1862

1861

1823

1.09

1.897

1816

1810

1813

1775

1.12

2.371

1780

1782

1781

1743

1.14

73

1.16 1.14 1.12 1.1

I0/ I

1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 0 0.5 1 1.5

Intercept on Y axis=0.999 Slope = 0.061

2.5

2) Thickness (g/ cm

Figure 2.Plot of I0/I Vs thickness t for Alanine at 1.17 MeV

Table 3 Counts per 60 second for Alanine at 1.280 MeV. I0 = 17022

74

Back ground counts 58 Source used : Na22 Photo Peak 9.1

Sr. No

Thickness Trial I (g/cm2)

Trial II

Mean I/

I0/I

0.474

16752

16740

16746

16688

1.02

0.548

16420

16430

16425

16367

1.04

1.423

16122

16110

16116

16058

1.06

1.897

15670

15678

15674

15616

1.09

2.371

14993

14985

14989

14931

1.14

75

1 .1 6 1 .1 4 1 .1 2 1 .1
I 0/ I

1 .0 8 1 .0 6 1 .0 4 1 .0 2 1 0 0 .5 1 1 .5 2 2 .5
2) Thickness (g/ cm

In te r ce p t o n Y axis =0 .9 8 7 Slo p e = 0 .0 6 1

Figure 3 .Plot of I0/I Vs thickness t for Alanine at 1.280 MeV.

Table 4 Counts per 60 second for Alanine at 1.33 MeV. I0 = 2536

76

B. C Background count: 40 Source used: Co60 Photo peak: 7.8

Sr No

Thickness Trial I (g/cm2)

Trial II Mean I/

I0/I

0.474

2532

2520

2526

2486

1.02

0.548

2430

2434

2432

2392

1.06

1.423

2415

2405

2410

2370

1.07

1.897

2300

2308

2304

2264

1.12

2.371

2288

2280

2284

2244

1.13

77

1 .1 6 1 .1 4 1 .1 2 1 .1
I 0/ I

1 .0 8 1 .0 6 1 .0 4 1 .0 2 1 0 0 .5 1

In te r c e p t o n Y axis =0 .9 9 6 Slo p e = 0 .0 5 9

1 .5

2 .5

Th ickn e ss 2) g/ cm (

Figure 4.Plot of I0/I Vs thickness t for Alanine at 1.33 MeV.

78

Table 5: Linear attenuation coefficient (cm-1) and mass attenuation coefficient / (cm2/g) of Alanine absorber at Photon energies 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV _______________________________________________ Sr. No. 1 Energy MeV 0.662 (cm-1) / (cm2/g) 0.084 a 0.083 b -1.205 c 0.061 a 0.063 b 3.174 c 0.061 a 0.060 b -1.666 c 0.059 a 0.059 b 0.000 c __________________________________________________ 0.121 a 0.119 b -1.256 c 2 1.170 0.088 a 0.091 b 3.297 c 3 1.280 0.087 a 0.086 b -1.162 c 4 1.330 0.085 a 0.085 b 0.000 c

___________________________________________________
a (experimental) b (Hubbell and Seltzer) values. c (Percentage deviation)

79

Table 6 Linear attenuation coefficient for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.

Energy MeV 0.662

(cm-1) 0.121 a 0.119 b

1.170

0.088 a 0.091 b

1.280

0.087 a 0.086 b 0.085 a

1.330

0.085 b

a (experimental) b (Hubbell and Seltzer) values.

80

0.13 a 0.11 b

m c 1 ( -)

0.09

0.07 0.5 1 E nerg (MeV) y 1.5

Figure 5 Linear attenuation coefficients for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.

81

Table 7 Mass attenuation coefficient for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.

Energy MeV

/ (cm2 /gm)

0.662

0.084 a 0.083 b

1.170

0.061 a 0.063 b

1.280 0.061 a 0.060 b 1.330 0.059 a 0.059 b

a (experimental) b (Hubbell and Seltzer) values.

82

0.09 0.08
c / ( 2/ m g )

/ a / b

0.07 0.06 0.05 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 Energy (MeV)

Figure 6 Mass attenuation coefficients for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.

83

Table 8 Total attenuation cross sections for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.

Energy MeV

tot (barn/molecule) Experimental (a) Theoretical (b) 12.280 9.321 9.025 8.729

0.662 1.170 1.280 1.330

12.428 9.025 8.877 8.729

13 total cross section a 11 total cross section b

t ( ) u c e l o m / n r a ob

7 0.5 1 Energ (MeV) y 1.5

Figure 7 Total attenuation cross sections for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.

84

Table 9 Effective atomic number (Zeff) for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.
Energy KeV 662 1170 1280 1330 Zeff 3.6684 3.6494 3.6498 3.6500

3.67 Z eff 3.66

Z f e
3.65 3.64 600 800 1000 E nerg (keV) y 1200 1400

Figure 8 Effective atomic number (Zeff) for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.

85

Table 10 Electron densities for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.
Energy KeV 662 1170 1280 1330 3.2232 3.2066 3.2069 3.2071 Ne (10 23 g-1)

3.228 3.224

3 -) 2 g1

3.22 3.216 3.212 3.208 3.204 600 800 1000 E nerg (keV) y 1200

Ne

0 1 ( e N

1400

Figure 9 Electron densities for Alanine at 662, 1170, 1280 and 1330 keV.

86

* Aeff i.e. Effective atomic weight =

______A_______________ Total number of Molecules Present in the sample

Aeff

89.1 13

= 6.8538 * < Z > Mean Atomic number = _________Z___________ Total number of Molecules Present in the sample < Z > = 48 13 = 3.6923 * Density of Alanine = 1.437 gm/cm3

Molar Extinction coefficient = 1/ln 10 NA

87

Table 11 Molar Extinction coefficient for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.
Energy MeV (cm2 mol-1) Experimental (a) 0.662 1.170 1.280 1.330 3.250 2.360 2.321 2.282 3.217 2.437 2.437 2.282 Theoretical (b)

3.5 3.1 2.7 2.3 1.9 1.5 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 E nerg (MeV) y Molar extinction coefficient exp. Molar extinction coefficient theo.

Figure 10 Molar Extension coefficient for Alanine at 0.662, 1.170, 1.280 and 1.330 MeV.

( 2 -) m o c m 1 l

88

CHAPTER V Conclusions :1.

For (linear attenuation coefficient):- From Fig.(5) in chapter IV we can conclude that as energy increases the value of linear attenuation coefficient goes on decreasing. For low energy region (i.e.0.662 MeV) there is a large value of linear attenuation coefficient but as energy increases there is sudden decrease in linear attenuation coefficient ( cm-1) value in the energy region (1.17-1.33 MeV). After this the value of decreases slowly and then nearly remains constant. For / (mass attenuation coefficient):- From fig (6) in chapter IV we can also seen that as energy increase the value of mass attenuation coefficient goes on decreasing. For low energy region (i.e.0.662 MeV) there is a large value of mass attenuation coefficient but as energy increases there is a sudden decrease in mass attenuation coefficient (/ cm2/g) value in the energy region (1.77-1.33 MeV). After this the value of / decrease slowly and then nearly remains constant.

2.

3.

For

tot

(total attenuation cross-section):- From fig (7) in chapter

IV we can also seen that as energy increase the value of total attenuation cross-section goes on decreasing. For low energy region (i.e.0.662 MeV) there is a large value of total attenuation cross-section but as energy increases there is a sudden decrease in total attenuation cross-section (
tot

barn/molecule) value in the

energy region (1.77-1.33 MeV). After this the value of tot decrease slowly and then nearly remains constant.

89

4.

For Zeff. (effective atomic number) from fig. (8) From chapter IV we can conclude that at lower energy i.e. (0.662 MeV) there is a large value of Zeff it is (3.6684) but as energy increases then there is no considerable change is observed in our reading. For higher energies the value of Zeff remains nearly constant. For Ne (electron density): From fig. (9) in chapter IV we can conclude that at lower energy i.e.(0.662MeV) there is a large value of Ne It is 3.2232 x 10
23

5.

-1

but as energy increases then

there is no considerable change is observed in our reading. For higher energies the value of Ne remains nearly constant.
6.

For (molar extinction coefficient) From fig (10) in chapter IV we can conclude that at lower energy i.e. (0.662 MeV) there is a large value of . It is 3.250 but as energy increases then there is no considerable change is observed in our reading .For higher energies the value of remains nearly constant.

7. (Z):- Mean atomic number for Alanine is (3.6923)

8. 9.

Density of Alanine is:- (1.437)gm/cm3 The effective atomic number Zeff and the corresponding effective electron density Ne of Alanine have been calculated in the energy region from (5-1500kg.) using with XCOM programe. The ratio Zeff/Aeff was (0.5) for Alanine containing (H, C, N & O) elements in the energy region (5-1500) kev. For example if we consider Zeff value of energy 0.662 is 3.6684 and the Aeff value of it is = 6.8538 than we have Zeff/Aeff = 3.6684/6.8538 = 0.5 It has been observed that the same value of total attenuation cross-section for all the compounds of the same molecular weight but different chemical structure at a given energy.

10.

11.

90

References :
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Irving Kaplan Nuclear Physics G.T. Young Amino acids, Petides and proteins. K.P. Gopinathan Nair, T.K. Umesh, R. Gowda, Nucl. Sci. Eng 117 (1994) 251. Kulwant Singh, Gagandeep Kaur, Radiate Phy. Chem. 53 (1998) 123. Textbook of Nuclear Physics RD Evan. J.H. Hubbell Phys. Med. Bio. 44, (1999) RI-R 22. N.C. Yang, P.K. Leachier and W.G. Hawkins Med. Phys. 14, (1987), 759-766. V Manjunathaguru and T.K. Umesh J Phys. B: At. Mol. Phys. 39, (2006), 39-69-39-81. E Kinci N. and Astam N. Radi. Measurement 42, (2007). 10. D.R. White Phys. Med Biol 22, (1977), 219-228. 11. D.F. Jackson and D.J. J. Hawkes Phys. Rev. 70, (1981) 169. 12. K. Parthasarchin K. Indian. J. Pure Applied. Phys. 6, (1968), 609. 13. S. Jamila Al. Bahri and M. Nicholas Spyrou Appl. Radfat. Isot, 47, (1996), 777-784. 14. G.S. Sidhu, S.P. Singh and G.S. Mudahar J. Ridiol, Prot 20, (2000), 53-80. 15. P.P. Pawar and G.K. Bichile Archives of Physics Research 2(3), (2011), 146-152. 16. A. Perumallu, A.S.Nagesware Rao and G. Krishna Rao Can, J. Phys. 62. (1984)m 454. 17. S.R.Manohara, S.M. Hanagodimatha and L.G. Gerward Phys. Med. Biol, 53 (2008), N.377-N386. 18. Henriksen and Baarli the effective atomic Number Radiation Research, 6 (1957), 915-423.
91

19. D.C. Tayal Basic Nuclear Physics, 1971. 20. R.C.Sharma Nuclear Physics.
21.

M.J. Berger,J.H Hubbell XCOM; photon Cross sections Database,Web Version 1,2 National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,MD20899-8460,USA(199).1987/99

22.

Pravina P. Pawar and Govind K. Bichile, Effective atomic numbers and electron densities of amino acids containing H, C, N and O, Archives of Physics Research, 2011, 2(4), 91-103.

92