INTRODUCTION The aim of this project work is to experimentally investigate the mechanical properties of E Glass fiber reinforced Epoxy

composite and compare them with analytically derived properties in order to get an insight into their behavior. In its most basic form a composite material is one which is composed of at least two elements working together to produce material properties that are different to the properties of those elements on their own. In practice, most composites consist of a bulk material (the 'matrix'), and a reinforcement of some kind, added primarily to increase the strength and stiffness of the matrix. This reinforcement is usually in fiber form. Mankind has been aware composite materials for several hundred years before Christ and applied innovation to improve the quality of life using these materials. Although it is not clear as to how Man understood the fact that mud bricks made sturdier houses if mingled with straw, he used them to make dwellings that lasted. Ancient Pharaohs made their slaves use bricks with mud and straw to enhance the structural integrity of their buildings, some of which testify to wisdom of the dead civilization even today. Composites could be natural or synthetic.

Traditional composites- composite materials that have been produced by civilizations for many years Examples: wood, concrete, asphalted roads

- Naturally occurring composites include tendon, bone ,bamboo, rock, and many other biological and geological materials. Wood is a good example of a natural composite, combination of cellulose fiber and lignin. The cellulose fiber provides strength and the lignin is the "glue" that bonds and stabilizes the fiber.

Synthetic associated

composites with the

modern

material

systems in

normally which the

manufacturing

industries,

constituents are first produced separately and then combined in a controlled way to achieve the desired structure, properties, and part geometry Contemporary composites resulted from research and innovation during the past few decades and have progressed from glass fiber for automobile bodies to modern, advanced composites with carbon aramid fibers for aerospace and a range of other applications. Ironically, despite the growing familiarity with composite materials and ever-increasing range of applications, the term defies a clear definition. Loose terms like materials composed of two or more distinctly identifiable constituents are used to describe natural composites like timber, organic materials, like tissue surrounding the skeletal system, soil aggregates, minerals and rock.

Constituents of composite materials

Composites are combinations of two or more materials in which one of the material is called the reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or particles, and is embedded in the other material called the matrix phase. Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the matrix is usually a ductile or tough material. If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly, it combines the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a combination of desirable properties not available in any single constituent material

Basic Components of composite materials:

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES:
Composites that form heterogeneous structures which meet

the requirements of specific design function, imbued with desired properties limit the scope for classification. However, this lapse is made up for, by the new types of composites being innovated all the time, each with their own specific purpose like the filled, flake, particulate and laminar composites.
4

Fibers or particles embedded in matrix of another material would be the best example of modern-day composite materials, which are mostly structural.

Composite materials are commonly classified at following two distinct levels:

matrix based classification

reinforcement based (on form of reinforcement) .

Composites based on matrix constituent :

The first level of classification is usually made with

respect to the matrix constituent. The major composite classes include Organic Matrix Composites (OMCs), Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) and Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs). The term organic matrix composite is generally assumed to include two classes of composites, namely Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) and carbon matrix composites commonly referred to as carbon carbon composites.
5

Today, the most common man-made composites can be divided into three main groups:

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC's) :These are the most common and will be the main area of discussion in this investigation. Also known as FRP - Fibre Reinforced Polymers (or Plastics) - these materials use a polymer-based resin as the matrix, and a variety of fibers such as glass, carbon and aramid as the reinforcement.

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC's) - Increasingly used in the automotive industry. These materials use a metal such as aluminum as the matrix, reinforced with fibers such as silicon carbide.

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC's) - Used in very high temperature environments, these materials use a ceramic as the matrix and reinforce it with short fibres, or whiskers such as those made from silicon carbide and boron nitride. Carbon-carbon composites( though OMC) also fall in this category

Composites based on reinforcement form

The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form - fibre can be further divided into reinforced composites, laminated those containing discontinuous or composites and particulate composites. Fibre reinforced composites continuous fibres.

Fibre Reinforced Composites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a composite is considered to be a discontinuous fibre or short fibre composite if its properties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the length of the fibre is such that any further increase in length does not further enhance the elastic modulus of the composite, the composite is considered to be continuous fiber reinforced. Fibres are small in diameter and when pushed axially, they bend easily although they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to keep individual fibres from bending and buckling.

Laminated Composites are composed of layers of materials held together by matrix. Particulate Composites are composed of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be flakes or in powder form. Concrete and wood particle boards are examples of this category.

REINFORCEMENTS:
Strong (high strength & modulus) materials bonded to or into a matrix to improve mechanical properties are reinforcements. Materials, ranging from short fibers through complex textile forms combined with a resin to provide the composite with enhanced mechanical properties.

Reinforcements for the composites can be fibers, fabrics particles or whiskers. Fibers are essentially characterized by one very long axis with other two axes either often circular or near circular. Particles have no preferred orientation and so does their shape. Whiskers have a preferred shape but are small both in diameter and length as compared to fibers.

TYPES OF REINFOCEMENTS IN COMPOSITES: Reinforcing constituents in composites, as the word indicates, provide the strength that makes the composite what it is. But they also serve certain additional purposes of heat resistance or conduction, resistance to corrosion and provide rigidity. Reinforcement can be made to perform all or one of these functions as per the requirements. A reinforcement that embellishes the matrix strength must be stronger and stiffer than the matrix and capable of changing failure mechanism to the advantage of the composite. This means that the ductility should be minimum or even nil the composite must behave as brittle as possible.

Fiber Reinforcement :

Fibers are the important class of reinforcements, as they satisfy the desired conditions and transfer strength to the matrix constituent influencing and enhancing their properties as desired. Glass fibers are the earliest known fibers used to reinforce materials. Ceramic and metal fibers were subsequently found out and put to extensive use, to render composites stiffer more resistant to heat . Fibers fall short of ideal performance due to several factors. The performance of a fiber composite is judged by its length, shape, orientation, composition of the fibers and the mechanical properties of the matrix.

Types of Fibers :
Organic and inorganic fibers are used to reinforce composite materials. Almost all organic fibers have low density, flexibility, and elasticity. Inorganic fibers are of high modulus, high thermal stability and possess greater rigidity than organic fibers and not withstanding the diverse advantages of organic fibers which render the composites in which they are used. Mainly, the following different types of fibers namely, glass fibers, silicon carbide fibers, high silica and quartz fibers, aluminina fibers, metal fibers and wires, graphite fibers, boron fibers,
9

aramid fibers and multiphase fibers are used. Among the glass fibers, it is again classified into E-glass, A-glass, R-glass etc.

There is a greater marker and higher degree of commercial movement of organic fibers. The potential of fibers of graphite, silica carbide and boron are also exercising the scientific mind due to their applications in advanced composites.

Glass fibers :
Over 95% of the fibers used in reinforced plastics are glass fibers, as they are inexpensive, easy to manufacture and possess high strength and stiffness with respect to the plastics with which they are reinforced. Their low density, resistance to chemicals, insulation capacity are other bonus characteristics, although the one major disadvantage in glass is that it is prone to break when subjected to high tensile stress for a long time. However, it remains break-resistant at higher stress-levels in shorter time frames. This property mitigates the effective strength of glass especially when glass is expected to sustain loads for many months or years continuously.

10

Period of loading, temperature, moisture and other factors also dictate the tolerance levels of glass fibers and the disadvantage is further compounded by the fact that the brittleness of glass does not make room for prior warning before the catamorphic failure. But all this can be easily overlooked in view of the fact the wide range of glass fiber variety lend themselves amicably to fabrication processes like matched die-moulding, filament winding lay-up and so on. Glass fibers are available in the form of mates, tapes, cloth, continuous and chopped filaments, roving and yarns. Addition of chemicals to silica sand while making glass yields different types of glasses Carbon fibers also come in a variety of grades and sizes, and were once limited to the aerospace industry due to their high cost. Carbon fiber imparts significantly more stiffness to a composite than glass fibers, at a lower weight, and as the cost of the fibers have decreased, the utilization of carbon fibers have made their way into other industries.

Aramid fibers, recognized more commonly by their trade names of Kevlar and Twaron, are very strong, lightweight, and heat resistant fibers. Aramid fibers are most commonly used in high-end composites that require optimal strength-to-weight performance.
11

Thermoplastic fibers are strands of thermoplastic resin, from polypropylene to ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene, that are lightweight, chemical resistant, and very tough. Natural Fibers have been in "composites" for thousands of years, dating back to the use of straw in mud bricks for primitive buildings. In more recent times, with a focus on renewable resources, there has been increased use of natural fibers in composites, focused mostly in thermoplastic composites. As with any natural resource there is natural variation in material and performance, variation that has thus far been too great for many composite manufacturing processes. As agri-tech and manufacturing process continue to evolve and expand with a focus on such. Fabrics are produced from all of the above fibers in a multitude of weaves. These fabrics, from unidirectional to three-dimensional weaves, are all designed and engineered to optimize particular mechanical properties in specific directions within the composite. Cores are materials that have been encapsulated within a composite laminate, typically designed to increase the stiffness or increase the insulative properties of the composite, without significantly increasing the weight of the system. The use of cores are even used to "tune" a composite's transparency to specific electromagnetic radiation (i.e. various radar bands). Examples of core material include a wide range
12

of materials, from polyurethane foam to thermoplastic or even aluminum honeycomb structures.

Multiphase Fibers : Spoolable filaments made by chemical vapour deposition processes are usually the multiphase variety and they usually comprise materials like boron, silicon and their carbides formed on surface of a very fine filament substrate like carbon or tungsten. They are usually good for high temperature applications, due to their reduced reaction with higher melting temperature of metals than graphite and other metallic fibers. Boron filaments are sought after for structural and intermediatetemperature composites. A poly-phase fiber is a core-sheath fiber consisting of a poly-crystalline core.

Whiskers : Single crystals grown with nearly zero defects are termed whiskers. They are usually discontinuous and short fibers of different cross sections made from several materials like graphite, silicon carbide, copper, iron etc. Typical lengths are in 3 to 55 N.M. ranges. Whiskers
13

differ from particles in that, whiskers have a definite length to width ratio greater than one. Whiskers can have extraordinary strengths upto 7000 MPa.

Matrix Materials

14

Although it is undoubtedly true that the high strength of composites is largely due to the fibre reinforcement, the importance of matrix material cannot be underestimated as it provides support for the fibres and assists the fibres in carrying the loads. It also provides stability to the composite material. Resin matrix system acts as a binding agent in a structural component in which the fibres are embedded. When too much resin is used, the part is classified as resin rich. On the other hand if there is too little resin, the part is called resin starved. A resin rich part is more susceptible to cracking due to lack of fibre support, whereas a resin starved part is weaker because of void areas and the fact that fibres are not held together and they are not well supported. Functions of a Matrix In a composite material, the matrix material serves the following functions: Holds the fibres together. Protects the fibres from environment. Distributes the loads evenly between fibres so that all fibres are subjected to the same amount of strain. Enhances transverse properties of a laminate. Improves impact and fracture resistance of a component. Helps to avoid propagation of crack growth through the fibres by providing alternate failure path along the interface between the fibres
15

and the matrix. Carry interlaminar shear. The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-carrying capacity of a composite structure. However, selection of a matrix has a major influence on the interlaminar shear as well as in-plane shear properties of the composite material. The interlaminar shear strength is an important design consideration for structures under bending loads, whereas the in-plane shear strength is important under torsion loads. The matrix provides lateral support against the possibility of fibre buckling under compression loading, thus influencing to some extent the compressive strength of the composite material.

The interaction between fibres and matrix is also important in designing damage tolerant structures. Finally, the processability and defects in a composite material depend strongly on the physical and thermal characteristics, such as viscosity, melting point, and curing temperature of the matrix. The fibres are saturated with a liquid resin before it cures to a solid. The solid resin is then said to be the matrix for the fibres

General types of Matrix Materials

In general, following general following types of matrix materials are available:

16

 Thermosetting material; Thermoplastic material; Carbon; Metals; Ceramics; Glass Matrix. A thermosetting material is the one which when cured by heat or chemical reaction is changed into an infusible and insoluble material. Thermosetting resins undergo irreversible chemical cross-linking reaction upon application of heat. On the other hand, thermoplastics do not undergo a chemical reaction on application of heat. They simply melt on application of heat and pressure to form a component. Thermoplastics can be softened and they undergo large and rapid change in viscosity with variation in temperature. Thermoplastics can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by cooling.

Thermosetting Materials
The major group of materials used today in the industries contains thermosetting matrix resins. Thermoset Resin Polyesters, epoxy and other resins in liquid form contain monomers (consisting of simple molecules), which convert into polymers (complex cross-linked molecules) when the resin is cured. The resulting solid .is called thermosets, which is tough, hard, insoluble
17

and infusible. The property of infusibility distinguishes thermosets from the thermoplastics. Cure and polymerisation refer to the chemical reactions that solidify the resin. Curing is accomplished by heat, pressure and by addition of curing agents at room temperature. Thermosetting materials can be further divided into two groups depending on how they react to form their network structure. For example, epoxies and polyesters react to form a network structure without formation of a volatile by-product. Phenolics react to form a volatile by-product i.e., water. The fact that some thermosets form volatile by-products means that high pressure laminating techniques must be used to prevent the formation of voids or other defects. Epoxies and polyesters can be cured at atmospheric pressures and also at ambient temperatures. Polyester matrices have been in use for the longest period in the widest range of structures. Polyesters cure with the addition of a catalyst (usually a peroxide) resulting in an exothermic reaction, which can be initiated at room temperature. The most widely used matrices for advanced composites have been the epoxy resins. These resins cost more than polyesters and do not have the high temperature capability of the Bismaleimides or Polyimides. However, they are widely used due to the following advantages.

Adhesion to fibres and to resin No by-products formed during cure;

18

 Low shrinkage during cure; High or low strength and flexibility; Resistance to solvents and chemicals; Resistance to creep and fatigue; Wide range of curative options; Adjustable curing rate; Good electrical properties. Epoxies do have few inherent disadvantages also, viz . Resins and curatives are somewhat toxic in uncured form; Moisture absorption resulting into change in dimensions and physical properties; Limited to about 200C (392F) upper temperature use; Difficult to combine toughness and high temperature resistance; High thermal coefficient of expansion; High degree of smoke liberation in a fire; May be sensitive to ultraviolet light degradation; Slow curing.

19

Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Laminated Composites :

Laminate Lay-up : A structural laminate is designed to have a specific lay-up or ply arrangement, based on the various design criteria imposed on it. A laminate lay-up definition refers to the fibre orientation of successive pies in a laminate with respect to an established reference coordinate system. Ply Orientation definition : It designates the tape fibre direction or the warp It is important that for positive and negative angles should be consistent with the coordinate system chosen. One of the advantages of using a modern composite is its potential to orient the fibres to respond to the load requirement s. this means that the composite designer must take into consideration the characteristics of the material including the aspects of the fibre orientation in each ply and how the plies arte arranged. Each ply (lamina) is defined by a number representing the direction of the fibre in degrees with respect to the reference (x) axis. 0 fibres of both tape and fabric are oriented at angles equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, (+) and (-) are used. Each (+) or (-) sign represents one ply.
20

Criteria used during Ply Orientation Following criteria should be used during ply orientation: Attention to ply orientation on strength controlled laminates can prevent matrix and stiffness degradation. The 0 ply orientation is used to carry the longitudinal loading, the 90 ply orientation is suited to the transverse loading and the 45 ply orientation is for shear loading. In order to minimise the in-plane shear, place the 45 and -45 plies together; the in-plane shear is carried as tension and compression in the 45 plies. To minimise warpage and interlaminar shear within a laminate, maintain the symmetry about the centre line of the laminate. Stress orientation can be minimised by proper designing or by stepped laminate thickness changes. The placement of specific ply orientations can influence the buckling strength and damage tolerance. The outer ply orientations influence the laminate bending characteristics more than plies placed at or near the laminate bending characteristics more than the plies placed at or near the neutral axis. Influence of Fibre Orientation : Strength and stiffness of a composite laminate depends on the orientation of the plies with reference to the load direction. Proper selection of ply orientation is necessary to provide a structurally efficient design. As stated above, a composite part might require 0 plies to react to the axial loads, 45 to react to the shear loads and 90 plies to react to the side loads. For example, a lay-up of 50% of 0 plies and 50% of 45 plies will have strength and stiffness equivalent to those of aluminium when loaded in the 0 direction.
21

Special classification of Laminates : The laminates also classified based on the symmetricity of Reinforced fibres, viz: Symmetric laminates Anti-symmetric laminates Non-symmetric laminates

22

Designing the laminate : Many structural materials generally have isotropic properties and they are homogeneous, that is to say, they are uniform in all directions. A composite material can take a number of different forms. The material may be orthotropic, such as a unidirectionally reinforced polymer, where the strength and stiffness in the fibre direction considerably exceeds that at 90 to the fibre. It may be planarisotropic, such as a random chopped strand glass mat reinforced polymer. It may approach isotropy by the use of very short fibres randomly, placed in a polymer by injection moulding. In all cases, though, composite materials are inhomogeneous. It is these anisotropic properties of composite materials that are the key to developing highly efficient structures. Fibres can be strategically placed so that they locally engineer the required strength and stiffness properties. Furthermore, by combining different fibre types - glass, aramid, carbon, etc - the particular properties of each fibre can be exploited. For instance, the low cost of glass, the extreme toughness of aramid fibre and the high strength and stiffness of carbon can all be used within a single laminate. A composite material is not ductile like metal, and failure, when it occurs, is abrupt. The stiffness properties are generally lower
23

than those of steel, but the lower weight of composite materials results in excellent specific strength and stiffness properties, leading to reduced- weight components and structures. The properties of the laminate are affected by the amount of fibre in the matrix, which in turn is influenced by the manufacturing process.

The principles of design analysis : As in all structural designs the developed stress and strain levels in the polymer composite when it is under load must be determined and the material designed. The critical stress, strain and deformation values are then compared with the relevant design criteria to ensure that the component satisfies product requirements and material limitations. Polymer composites are usually macroscopically inhomogeneous and anisotropic because of the reinforcing fibres and, in addition, have visco elastic properties derived from the polymer matrix. Owing to the differing material descriptions between composites, further material properties are required to characterise polymer composites
24

completely, consequently, more complex analysis procedures are required to determine stress and deformation levels than are generally required for the more conventional materials. The three main aspects of material design which will be considered are: 1. The analysis which considers the anisotropy and non-homogeneity in polymer composites (the material properties & the fibre and matrix, ply orientation, layer thicknesses, etc.). 2. The short term load condition, in which the elastic stress and analysis methods may be used, provided anisotropy is taken into account. 3. The long term load conditions, in which viscoelastic and degradation effects may be significant; in this case it would be necessary to modify the short term elastic design procedures. Requirements of materials design Polymer composite materials generally consist of laminae of resin impregnated fibres which are unidirectionally or orthogonally aligned, angle-ply or randomly orientated systems. It is also possible to provide a mixture of fibre arrays in adjacent laminae when fabricating a composite material to meet the required loading situation. This freedom to tailor-make composite materials with specific required properties introduces an additional complexity in the design analyses of these systems over those of the conventional ones.

25

As

the

design

of

composite

structures

ideally

involves

the

simultaneous analysis and design of the material and the structural system, this approach may be undertaken by the finite element analysis. It can be expensive for small jobs and is really relevant only to the high technology of the aerospace industry; for the medium technology applications a simpler approach is to consider the material design independently from that of the structural one. Consequently, for the latter design application, the properties of a chosen fibre/matrix array are calculated or measured and are then utilised in the structural analyses. The majority of polymer composite structural systems are composed of relatively thin plates or shell laminates where the properties may be in terms of laminate structure and ply thickness using laminated plate theory or by commercially available PC software. Assuming that the laminates had orthotropic symmetry and that both in-plane direct and shear loads as well as bending and twisting moments were acting on the plate,the element properties would require two principal tensile stiffness, shear stiffness and two principal flexural rigidities. In addition, the corresponding strength values in tension, flexure and shear would be required; the latter three values would be obtained by either mechanical tests or by undertaking a laminate analysis and thus the laminate stiffness and strength characteristics would be known. To satisfy the necessary design criteria this relatively small number of properties would then be used in the structural analysis and design for the composite

26

MANUFACTURING OR FABRICATION PROCESS OF COMPOSITE LAMINATE: Manufacturing Processes : Manufacturing of composite materials involves distinct operations that may vary depending upon available technology, existing facilities and personnel skill. The manufacturing process may also vary due to wide variety of composite materials and their application. Each of the fabrication processes has characteristics that define the type of products to be produced. This is advantageous because this expertise
27

allows to produce the best composite. Factors considered for selection of most efficient manufacturing process are as follows: User needs Total production volume Performai1ce requirements Economic targets Size of the product Labour Surface complexity Materials Appearance Tooling/assembly Production rate Equipment The goals of the composite manufacturing process are to: Achieve a consistent product by controlling Fibre thickness Fibre volume Fibre direction Minimise voids Reduce internal residual stresses Process in the least costly manner The procedure to achieve these goals involves series of actions to select the three key components, viz.
28

 Composite material and its configuration Tooling Process As reinforcement for composite material, the choice between unidirectional tape and woven fabric is made on the basis of the greater strength and modulus attainable with the tape particularly in applications in which compression strength is important. Salient advantages and disadvantages of tape and fabric for their selection are given below: Tape Advantages Best modulus and strength efficiency High fibre volume achievable Low scrap rate Less tendency to trap volatiles Automated lay-up possible No discontinuities Fabric Advantages Better drape for complex shapes Single ply is balanced and may be essentially symmetric Can be laid up without resin Plies stay in line better during cure Cured parts easier to machine Better impact resistance
29

 Many forms available Fabric Disadvantages Fibre discontinuities (splices) Less strength and modulus Lower fibre volume than tape More costly than tape Greater scrap rates Warp and fill properties differ Fabric distortion can cause part warping

Another aspect considered important for composite fabrication is appropriate lay-up techniques along with composite cure control. Some of the considerations for choosing lay-up techniques are given below:

30

Classification of Manufacturing Processes

Most widely used manufacturing methods for laminated fibre composites are as follows:

Open Mold Process : Spray lay-up - Chopped roving and resin sprayed simultaneously, rolled. Hand lay-up - Lay-up of fibres or woven cloth, impregnate, no heat or pressure. Filament winding. Sheet molding compound. Expansion tool molding.
31

 Contact molding.

Closed Mold Process : Compression molding Load with raw material, press into shape. Vacuum bag, pressure bag, autoclave - Prepreg laid up, bagged, cured. Injection molding Mold injected under pressure. Resin Transfer Fibres in place, resin injected at low temperature.

Continuous Process : Pultrusion. Braiding.

Open Mold Processes:

Open molding offers a number of process and product advantage over other high volume and complex application methods. These include:. Freedom of design
32

 Easy to change design Low mold and/or tooling cost -Tailored properties possible High strength large parts possible On-site production possible Disadvantages associated with the open molding process include: Low to medium number of parts Long cycle times per molding Not the cleanest application process Only one surface has aesthetic appearance Operator skill dependent

As the resources are limited for us in our study of the composites ,we employed hand lay up process for the fabrication of composite laminate

Wet Lay-up/Hand Lay-up:

The hand (wet) lay-up is one of the oldest and most commonly used methods for manufacture of composite parts. Hand lay-up composites are a case of continuous fibre reinforced
33

composites.

Layers

of

unidirectional

or

woven

composites

are

combined to result in a material exhibiting desirable properties in one or more directions. Each layer is oriented to achieve the maximum utilisation of its properties. Layers of different materials (different fibres in different directions) can be combined to further enhance the overall performance of the laminated composite material. Resins are impregnated by hand into fibres, which are in the form of woven, knitted, stitched or bonded fabrics. This is usually accomplished by rollers or brushes, with an increasing use of nip-roller type impregnators for forcing resin into the fabrics by means of rotating rollers and a bath of resin. Laminates are left to cure under standard atmospheric conditions.

34

Materials used for fabrication:

Resin: Epoxy resin( LY-556 BIFUNCTIONAL RESIN) fibers: Woven Glass fibre reinforcement 13 mill cloth

ESTIMATING MATERIAL REQUIREMENT Required size of the laminate = 350 x 300 mm. Thickness of each 13 mill cloth layer = 13* (25.4/1000)= 0.3 mm Total no. of layers reqd. in order to achieve a total thickness of 3 mm= 3/0.3=~ 9 layers. Total no. of layers laid = 6 layers. Target vol. fraction = 60% So weight fraction considered= 65% Weight of 1 layer of 350x300 mm cloth = 48.3 gm. Weight of total 6 layers = 290 gms. Weight of total resin required=156.15 gms. Amount of resin per lamina = 22.3 gms. Amount of resin for gelcoat= 11.15gms.*2

35

STEPS INVOVLED IN HAND LAY UP PROCESS:

1. PREPARING THE MOLD The mold plates are made up of the commercially available inch mild steel plates. The surface of the plates is highly finished by milling up to order of micron. The plates are then cleaned using zero-grade emery sheets to obtain a smooth finish and surface accuracy. The plates are then cleaned with acetone to dissolve any remaining dirt or oil from the surface. The plates are then allowed to dry. Once the plates are dried, a layer of soft wax polish is applied using a soft towel made in form of a buff. The entire surfaces of the plates are covered with wax, and then it is allowed to dry. Two layers of wax are applied to ensure proper parting, while removing the laminate after curing.

2. PREPARATION OF THE RESIN SOLUTION The resin and the constituent hardener and the diluents are to be mixed in the prescribed proportion of 100:24:24.

36

That implies that for every 100 units of resin, we add 24 parts of hardener and 24 parts of diluents. We make up the resin solution as per the above given ratio, as per our requirements.

3. LAYING OF LAMINATE

The

6 layers of glass cloth are cut to the required dimensions of

350X300 mm. The resin is divided into 7 equal parts that are to be evenly applied on 6 fibre glass layers. The 1st part of the resin is spread evenly on the mold plate using a smooth brush. Then the glass cloth is placed on the wetted part of mold and rolled using a roller. So that the resin percolates upwards through the fabric and the wets the cloth. Then the 2 nd part of the resin is spread on the glass fabric layer and nicely rolled and another layer of fabric layer is placed on it and the process is repeated again for all the 6 layers. Any remaining resin is to be spread evenly on the top and the freshly laid laminate is to be rolled for few minutes so as to remove any air bubbles trapped in between. Any fiber loosely hanging from the
37

laminate are to be cut using a sharp razor blade or pulled towards the laminate.

4. COVERING THE MOLD The mold plate upon which the laminate is laid is again covered with a top plate. The surface of the top plate is also equally prepared as the bottom plate.Care has to be taken so as not to disturb the laminate while putting the top plate. curing Main Advantages of Hand Layup Process: Low capital Investment. Simple principles to fabricate the part. Low cost tooling, if room-temperature cure resins are used. Wide choice of suppliers and material types Disadvantages: Only one molded surface is obtained. Quality is related to the skill of the operator. Low volume process. Longer cure times required. Resins need to be low in viscosity to be workable by hand. This generally compromises their mechanical/thermal properties. The waste factor can be high.
38

Then the mold is kept in the oven for

CURING OF COMPOSITES:
DEFINITION OF CURING: Curing is a term in polymer chemistry and process engineering that refers to the toughening or hardening of a polymer material by cross-linking of polymer chains, brought about by chemical additives, ultraviolet radiation, electron beam or heat. In rubber, the curing process is also called vulcanization.

Resin curing:
Despite the wide variety of thermoset resin formulations (epoxy, vinylester, polyester, etc.), their cure behavior is qualitatively identical. The resin viscosity drops initially upon the application of heat, passes through a region of maximum flow and begins to increase as the chemical reactions increase the average length and the degree of cross-linking between the constituent oligomers. This process continues until a continuous 3-dimensional network of oligomer chains is created this stage is termed gelation. In terms of process ability of the resin this marks an important watershed: before gelation the
39

system is relatively mobile, after it the mobility is very limited, the micro-structure of the resin and the composite material is fixed and severe diffusion limitations to further cure are created. Thus in order to achieve vitrification in the resin, it is usually necessary to increase the process temperature after gelation. A very important aspect of thermo set resins is their cure cycle. Unsaturated polyester and vinyl ester, along with epoxy, require time and temperature in order to achieve what we call Cross linking. This is the set part of thermo set, and is the permanent and irreversible chemical bonds in the resin. The amount of time and temperature is dependent upon the formulation of the resin, the ratio of resin-tohardener, and the presence of additional chemicals used to modify the properties.

Curing Mechanisms Temperature plays an important role in the curing process of the resins used in composites. Many of the resins are setup for room-temperature curing. This requires that the temperature is ideally set between 65 and 75oC. And that the resin itself is near this temperature. Some resins cure with time and elevated temperatures, which are achieved with the use of ovens. These allow for nearly unlimited open working time before cure. When things are satisfactorily placed, the temperatures are elevated to start the cure process.
40

COMPOSITE MACHINING:

Due to the toughness and abrasive nature of modern composites, there is a need for harder and longer lasting cutting tools. A large variety of machining methods are available for machining metal, wood and some thermoplastics. However, much of this methods cannot be applied to machining composites . Modern composites like graphiteepoxy, aramid-epoxy and carbon carbon each have their own machining characteristics. Composites are not homogeneous or isotropic, therefore the machining characteristics are dependent on the tool path in relation to the direction of the reinforcing fibers. Metals or metal alloys have nearly homogeneous properties throughout the work piece, but each material in a composite retains its individual properties.

Advantages of machining composites are: improved surface finish unless part surface was directly in contact with the mold surface; machined surfaces provide accurate mating surfaces for parts to be assembled;
41

 eliminates the majority of the problems associated with part shrinkage and insert movement during the fabrication processes

DISADVANTAGES: The disadvantages associated with machining of composites include controlling dust particles produced due to machining, confining them to a small area and having an adequate collection system. A second problem is controlling the outer layers of the composite so that the fibers will shear instead of lifting up under the force of the cutting action and leaving extended fibers beyond the cut surface. Also when cutting perpendicular to the lay of composite fibers, edge break-out can occur. This can be controlled by designing a backup structure in the tool. Delamination of composite is also another major disadvantage while machining .The fiber glass reinforcement tend to separate from the matrix material due to delamination .This tend to happen during machining due to improper curing and insufficient compaction pressure .If the curing temperature is not maintained properly then there will be weak cross linking Of the resin with the reinforcement .Therefore care should be taken while Curing the composites and machining of the composites.

42

SAFETY WHILE MACHINING OF COMPOSITES:

Safety is something that needs lots of attention. The processes are very operator dependent and we are working with chemicals here, so workers must be protected. Many of these chemicals are regulated by several government agencies. This is why these chemicals are generally difficult to obtain on the street. The styrene-based polyesters and vinylesters require respiratory protection and skin protection, as styrene is considered by some to be a possible carcinogen. There is a time weighted average for breathing the esters, specific to the percentage of styrene in the mixture. Excessive inhalation can lead to headaches, sinus irritation, and watering eyes. Skin contact is permissible, but can be difficult to remove and can enter the bloodstream. The epoxy-based resins are more forgivable with regards to respiratory issues, but dermal protection is much more important. Short term occasional exposure is not serious, but can develop into allergic reactions. Therefore while machining of the composites a lot of dust is generated and must be eliminated in order for the safety of the workers .For this, a vaccum pump is provided while machining process so that the dust
43

produced is eliminate by vacuum pump by sucking of the dust produced while machining process ensuring the safety of the workers. As a safety measure very every worker need to wear a protective mask around his face and cover his body with a apron to prevent any health problems.

MACHINING PROCESS: Due to the toughness and abrasive nature of the modern composites it is not possible to machine the composites through the conventional methods as the tool wear out is at a larger scale. So , non conventional machining process are employed for the machining of the composites. The various non convectional machining process employed are ABRASIVE WATER JET MACHINING WATER JET MACHINING LASER MACHINING ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING ULTRASONIC MACHINING

MACHINING OF THE PREPARED LAMINATE

44

A TUNGSTEN CARBIDE CUTTING TOOL is employed for the machining process. The tool is mounted on to a flat table with a suitable position and is connected to a electric motor. The tool is made to rotate at a speed of 12000 RPM and the machining of the composite is done. The high shear action is required to machine the composites. The dust produced from the glass fiber composite is much higher compared to other composites. so to prevent the dust to disperse water is used a preventive measure so that the dust get mixed in the water and does get dispersed into air. The operator should wear a protective mask and an apron to cover his body to prevent any health problems. The machining should be done very skillfully and precaution should be taken while machining to avoid delamination.

ASTM Standard Test

D3039 Method for

Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite Materials This test method determines the in-plane tensile properties of polymer matrix composite materials reinforced by high-modulus fibers. The composite material forms are limited to continuous fiber or discontinuous fiber-reinforced composites in which the laminate is balanced and symmetric with respect to the test direction.
45

Test method The specimen machined as per above shown dimensions is mounted on to Universal Testing Machine (UTM). The specimen is subjected to static loading under a constant cross head speed of 2mm/min. The values of the load and the corresponding extensions within the specimen is recorded and the values of tensile stress and the tensile modulus is computed. The extension is measured using an extenso-meter . CALCULATIONS Load applied = P Newton (N) Change in length = L mm Original length (Gauge length) =L mm Width = W mm Thickness = T mm Cross sectional area = W*T mm2 Stress developed () = Load/CS area N/mm2 (or) MPa Strain () = L/L
46

Youngs modulus (E) = Stress/Strain = / GPa

STRESS v/s. STRAIN curve for E-glass/epoxy

47

specimen.- A

Length

= 250 mm.

Strain rate

= 2 mm/min. Width Extensometer length = 60 mm. Thickness= 3 mm. = 50 mm Gripping length = 18 m

SCALE: X-Axis : 1unit = 0.005 mm/mm

48

Y-Axis : 1unit = 50 N/mm2

250

200

150

100

50

0 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02

49

S.N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Load( N) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 10500 11000 11500 11700

Extension(micr on) 60 90 140 190 230 270 310 350 390 430 480 530 560 620 650 700 750 800 840 880 930 960 1020

Corrected strain(mm) 0.06 0.09 0.14 0.19 0.23 0.27 0.31 0.35 0.39 0.43 0.48 0.53 0.56 0.62 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.84 0.88 0.93 0.96 1.02

Strain (mm/mm) 0.001 0.0015 0.002333333 0.003166667 0.003833333 0.0045 0.005166667 0.005833333 0.0065 0.007166667 0.008 0.008833333 0.009333333 0.010333333 0.010833333 0.011666667 0.0125 0.013333333 0.014 0.014666667 0.0155 0.016 0.017

Stress(N/m m2) 18.51851852 27.77777778 37.03703704 46.2962963 55.55555556 64.81481481 74.07407407 83.33333333 92.59259259 101.8518519 111.1111111 120.3703704 129.6296296 138.8888889 148.1481481 157.4074074 166.6666667 175.9259259 185.1851852 194.4444444 203.7037037 212.962963 216.6666667

Modulous (GPa)

18.51851852 18.51851852 15.87301587 14.61988304 14.49275362 14.40329218 14.33691756 14.28571429 14.24501425 14.2118863 13.88888889 13.62683438 13.88888889 13.44086022 13.67521368 13.49206349 13.33333333 13.19444444 13.22751323 13.25757576 13.14217443 13.31018519 12.74509804

50

SPECIMEN-A
STRESS v/s. specimen.- B STRAIN curve for E-glass/epoxy

Length

= 250 mm.

Strain rate

= 2 mm/min.
51

Width Extensometer length = 60 mm. Thickness= 3 mm. = 50 mm SCALE:

18

Gripping length

X-Axis : 1unit = 0.005 mm/mm Y-Axis :

2 300 1unit = 50 N/mm

250 200 150 100 50 0 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018

52

53

S.N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

Load( N) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 10500 11000 11500

Extension(mic ron) 30 40 50 70 90 100 140 180 210 250 300 330 380 430 450 510 560 610 650 700 750 780

Corrected strain(mm) 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.1 0.14 0.18 0.21 0.25 0.3 0.33 0.38 0.43 0.45 0.51 0.56 0.61 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.78

Strain (mm/mm) 0.0005 0.000666667 0.000833333 0.001166667 0.0015 0.001666667 0.002333333 0.003 0.0035 0.004166667 0.005 0.0055 0.006333333 0.007166667 0.0075 0.0085 0.009333333 0.010166667 0.010833333 0.011666667 0.0125 0.013

Stress(N/m m) 18.51851852 27.77777778 37.03703704 46.2962963 55.55555556 64.81481481 74.07407407 83.33333333 92.59259259 101.8518519 111.1111111 120.3703704 129.6296296 138.8888889 148.1481481 157.4074074 166.6666667 175.9259259 185.1851852 194.4444444 203.7037037 212.962963
2

Modulous (GPa) 37.03703704 41.66666667 44.44444444 39.68253968 37.03703704 38.88888889 31.74603175 27.77777778 26.45502646 24.44444444 22.22222222 21.88552189 20.46783626 19.37984496 19.75308642 18.51851852 17.85714286 17.30418944 17.09401709 16.66666667 16.2962963 16.38176638

23

12000

830

0.83

0.013833333

222.2222222

16.06425703

24 12500 890 0.89 0.014833333 231.4814815 15.60549313

25

13000

930

0.93

0.0155

240.7407407

15.53166069 54

26

13500

970

0.97

0.016166667

250

15.46391753

Specimen-B

STRESS v/s. specimen.- C

STRAIN

curve for

E-glass/epoxy

Length

= 250 mm.

Strain rate

= 2 mm/min. Width Extensometer length = 60 mm. Thickness= 3 mm. = 50 mm SCALE: X-Axis : 1unit = 0.002 mm/mm Gripping length = 18 m

55

Y-Axis : 1unit = 50 N/mm2

250

200

150

100

50

0 -0.002 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018

56

S.N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Load( N) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 10500 11000 11500 12000 12500 12700

Extension(micr on) 0 0 10 40 70 120 150 190 250 280 320 370 400 450 500 540 590 630 670 710 760 810 860 920 950

Corrected strain(mm) 0 0 0.01 0.04 0.07 0.12 0.15 0.19 0.25 0.28 0.32 0.37 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.54 0.59 0.63 0.67 0.71 0.76 0.81 0.86 0.92 0.95

Strain (mm/mm) 0 0 0.000166667 0.000666667 0.001166667 0.002 0.0025 0.003166667 0.004166667 0.004666667 0.005333333 0.006166667 0.006666667 0.0075 0.008333333 0.009 0.009833333 0.0105 0.011166667 0.011833333 0.012666667 0.0135 0.014333333 0.015333333 0.015833333

Stress(N/m m2) 18.51851852 27.77777778 37.03703704 46.2962963 55.55555556 64.81481481 74.07407407 83.33333333 92.59259259 101.8518519 111.1111111 120.3703704 129.6296296 138.8888889 148.1481481 157.4074074 166.6666667 175.9259259 185.1851852 194.4444444 203.7037037 212.962963 222.2222222 231.4814815 235.1851852

Modulous (GPa) 0 0 222.2222222 69.44444444 47.61904762 32.40740741 29.62962963 26.31578947 22.22222222 21.82539683 20.83333333 19.51951952 19.44444444 18.51851852 17.77777778 17.48971193 16.94915254 16.75485009 16.58374793 16.43192488 16.08187135 15.77503429 15.50387597 15.09661836 14.85380117

Specimen-C
57

STRESS v/s. specimen.- D

STRAIN

curve for

E-glass/epoxy

Length

= 250 mm.

Strain rate

= 2 mm/min. Width Extensometer length = 60 mm.

58

18

Thickness= 3 mm. = 50 mm

Gripping length

SCAL E: X-Axis : 1unit = 0.005 mm/mm Y-Axis :

250

1unit = 50 N/mm2

200

150

100

50

0 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02

59

60

S.N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Load( N) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 10500 11000 11500 12000 12500 12700

Extension(micr on) 30 70 100 140 180 225 265 310 330 390 430 480 540 580 630 690 740 790 830 870 930 990 1030 1100 1130

Corrected strain(mm) 0.03 0.07 0.1 0.14 0.18 0.225 0.265 0.31 0.33 0.39 0.43 0.48 0.54 0.58 0.63 0.69 0.74 0.79 0.83 0.87 0.93 0.99 1.03 1.1 1.13

Strain (mm/mm) 0.0005 0.001166667 0.001666667 0.002333333 0.003 0.00375 0.004416667 0.005166667 0.0055 0.0065 0.007166667 0.008 0.009 0.009666667 0.0105 0.0115 0.012333333 0.013166667 0.013833333 0.0145 0.0155 0.0165 0.017166667 0.018333333 0.018833333

Stress(N/m m2) 18.51851852 27.77777778 37.03703704 46.2962963 55.55555556 64.81481481 74.07407407 83.33333333 92.59259259 101.8518519 111.1111111 120.3703704 129.6296296 138.8888889 148.1481481 157.4074074 166.6666667 175.9259259 185.1851852 194.4444444 203.7037037 212.962963 222.2222222 231.4814815 235.1851852

Modulous (GPa) 37.03703704 23.80952381 22.22222222 19.84126984 18.51851852 17.28395062 16.77148847 16.12903226 16.83501684 15.66951567 15.50387597 15.0462963 14.40329218 14.36781609 14.10934744 13.68760064 13.51351351 13.36146273 13.38688086 13.40996169 13.14217443 12.90684624 12.94498382 12.62626263 12.48770895

61

STRESS v/s. specimen.- E

STRAIN

curve for

E-glass/epoxy Length

= 250 mm. mm/min. Width Extensometer length = 60 mm. Thickness= 3 mm. = 50 mm

Strain rate

=2

18

Gripping length

SCALE: X-Axis : 1unit = 0.005 mm/mm

62

Y-Axis :

250

1unit = 50 N/mm2

200

150

100

50

0 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02

63

S.No.

Load(N)

Extension(micron)

Corrected strain(mm)

Strain (mm/mm) 0.0005 0.001166667 0.001666667 0.002333333 0.003 0.00375 0.004416667 0.005166667 0.0055 0.0065 0.007166667 0.008 0.009 0.009666667 0.0105 0.0115 0.012333333 0.013166667 0.013833333 0.0145 0.0155 0.0165 0.017166667

Stress(N/mm2)

Modulous (GPa)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 10500 11000 11500 12000

30 70 100 140 180 225 265 310 330 390 430 480 540 580 630 690 740 790 830 870 930 990 1030

0.03 0.07 0.1 0.14 0.18 0.225 0.265 0.31 0.33 0.39 0.43 0.48 0.54 0.58 0.63 0.69 0.74 0.79 0.83 0.87 0.93 0.99 1.03

18.51851852 27.77777778 37.03703704 46.2962963 55.55555556 64.81481481 74.07407407 83.33333333 92.59259259 101.8518519 111.1111111 120.3703704 129.6296296 138.8888889 148.1481481 157.4074074 166.6666667 175.9259259 185.1851852 194.4444444 203.7037037 212.962963 222.2222222

37.03703704 23.80952381 22.22222222 19.84126984 18.51851852 17.28395062 16.77148847 16.12903226 16.83501684 15.66951567 15.50387597 15.0462963 14.40329218 14.36781609 14.10934744 13.68760064 13.51351351 13.36146273 13.38688086 13.40996169 13.14217443 12.90684624 12.94498382

Specimen-E

64

STRESS v/s. specimen.- F

STRAIN

curve for

E-glass/epoxy

Length

= 250 mm.

Strain rate

= 2 mm/min. Width Extensometer length = 60 mm.

65

18

Thickness= 3 mm. = 50 mm

Gripping length

SCALE: X-Axis : 1unit = 0.002 mm/mm Y-Axis :

250

1unit = 50 N/mm2

200

150

100

50

0 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018

66

S.N o. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Load( N) 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 6000 6500 7000 7500 8000 8500 9000 9500 10000 10500 11000 11500 12000 12500

Extension(mic ron) 30 70 100 140 180 225 265 310 330 390 430 480 540 580 630 690 740 790 830 870 930 990 1030 1100

Corrected strain(mm) 0.03 0.07 0.1 0.14 0.18 0.225 0.265 0.31 0.33 0.39 0.43 0.48 0.54 0.58 0.63 0.69 0.74 0.79 0.83 0.87 0.93 0.99 1.03 1.1

Strain (mm/mm) 0.0005 0.001166667 0.001666667 0.002333333 0.003 0.00375 0.004416667 0.005166667 0.0055 0.0065 0.007166667 0.008 0.009 0.009666667 0.0105 0.0115 0.012333333 0.013166667 0.013833333 0.0145 0.0155 0.0165 0.017166667 0.018333333

Stress(N/m m2) 18.51851852 27.77777778 37.03703704 46.2962963 55.55555556 64.81481481 74.07407407 83.33333333 92.59259259 101.8518519 111.1111111 120.3703704 129.6296296 138.8888889 148.1481481 157.4074074 166.6666667 175.9259259 185.1851852 194.4444444 203.7037037 212.962963 222.2222222 231.4814815

Modulous (GPa) 37.03703704 23.80952381 22.22222222 19.84126984 18.51851852 17.28395062 16.77148847 16.12903226 16.83501684 15.66951567 15.50387597 15.0462963 14.40329218 14.36781609 14.10934744 13.68760064 13.51351351 13.36146273 13.38688086 13.40996169 13.14217443 12.90684624 12.94498382 12.62626263

Specimen-F Specimen A
67

Max load sustained: 11700 N Max deflection seen: 1.02 mm Peak tensile stress: 216 Mpa Avg. modulus: 14.05 GPa Remarks: failure at lower end of the specimen. Delamination is observed of two layers in front.

Specimen B Max load sustained: 13700 N Max deflection seen: 1.02 mm Peak tensile stress: 253.7 MPa Avg. modulus: 24.09 GPa Conclusion: fracture originating from upper grip. Delamination is seen at the gauge length.

Specimen C

Max load sustained:12700 N Max deflection seen: 0.95 mm

68

peak tensile stress:235.18 MPa Avg. modulus: 29.17 GPa Conclusion: fracture at lower grip ends. Delamination is seen in gauge length. Specimen D

Max load sustained:12700 N Max deflection seen: 1.13 mm Peak tensile stress:235.18 MPa Avg. modulus: 16.36 GPa Conclusion: fracture at upper grip ends.

Specimen E

Max load sustained:12000 N Max deflection seen: 1.05 mm Peak tensile stress:222.22 MPa Avg. modulus: 15.325 GPa

69

Conclusion: fracture at lower grip ends. Delamination is seen in gauge length

Specimen F Max load sustained:12300 N Max deflection seen: 1 mm Peak tensile stress:227.77 MPa Avg. modulus: 18.81 GPa Conclusion: fracture at lower grip ends. Delamination is seen in gauge length.

Rule of Mixtures

Ec = Ef V f + Em Vm

Ec = Youngs modulus of composite Ef = Youngs modulus of fiber Em = Youngs modulus of matrix material
70

Vm = Volume fraction of matrix Vf = Volume fraction of fiber

ASTM D 3171 STANDARD TEST METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF CONSTITUENT MATERIAL FRACTIONS IN POLYMER MATRIX COMPOSITE
71

We use the resin burn test to eliminate matrix from the composite system. In this method we burn a know mass of a sample in furnace to an elevated temperatures of 5000 C for about 3 hours. The epoxy resin completely burns of from the system leaving behind the glass fibres which are resistant to elevated temperatures. The left over fiber is weighed and suitably the weight of matrix is computed. The volume is computed from densities and mass obtained

Calculation:

Vf = 55% Vm =45% Em = 30MPa Ef = 70 GPa

Ec = Ef Vf + Em Vm
= (0.55 x 70) + (0.45 x 0.03) GPa
72

Ec = 38.51
GPa

Conclusion & discussions

It is observed that most of the specimens develop fracture at the lower grip ends.

Delamination is prominently seen. This indicates a poor interlaminar matrix inter face.

the peak strengths are ranging between a min of 216 MPa to a max of 253 MPa with an average of 225 MPa.

The average modulus value also tends to be around 19.6 GPa The modulus value obtained from the law of mixtures is observed to be around 22 GPa for the 55% fibre vol. fraction The variation is results can be attributed to a variety of reasons (i) non uniform spreading of resin. (ii) presence of void pockets with in the laminate, which brought down

The modulus value obtained from the law of mixtures is observed to be around 38.51 GPa for the 55% fiber vol. fraction

The variation is results can be attributed to a variety of reasons

73

(i) non uniform spreading of resin. (ii) presence of void pockets with in the laminate, which brought down The strength of the FRP (iii) parallality of the machining axis with warp direction. (iv) sundry losses

74

75