BASICS OF CONCRETE SCIENCE L. Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin St-Petersburg ( Russia), Stroi-Beton, 2006 mailto: dvorkin.leonid@gmail.com L.Dvorkin and O.

Dvorkin Reviewers: Basics of Concrete Science Doct. Prof. Komohov P. 2006. 692 pages Doct. Prof. Krivenko P. . . , ..

Doct. Prof. Ysherov-Marshak A. , . , - ,

, 2006, 692 .

ISBN 590319702-7 ABSTRACT There are enlightened basic aspects of scientific concrete science. There is giv en summary of modern ideas about hardening and structure-forming of cement stone and concrete, rheological and technological properties of concrete mixes, stren gth, strain and other properties, which determine concrete operate reliability a nd durability. There are considered basic types of normal weight cement concrete , lightweight and cellular concrete, non-cement mineral binders concrete, mortar s. The book is addressed to students and post-graduate students of construction spe cialties of higher educational establishments, scientists and technologists. BAS IC MONOGRAPHS OF AUTHORS 1. L.I.Dvorkin "Optimum Design of Concrete Mixtures", Lvov, Vusha Skola, 1981, 1 59 p. (Rus.) 2. L.I.Dvorkin,.V.I.Solomatov, V.N. Vurovoi, S.M.Chydnovski "Cement Concrete with Mineral Admixtures", Kiev, Bydivelnik, 1991, 137 p. (Rus.) 3. L.I .Dvorkin, O.L.Dvorkin "Effective Cement - Ash Concrete", Rivne, Eden, 1999, 195 p. (Rus.) 4. O.L.Dvorkin "Design of Concrete Mixtures. (Bases of Theory and Meth odology)", Rivne, NUWMNR, 2003, 265 p. (Rus.) 5. V.I.Bolshakov, L.I.Dvorkin "Building Materials", Dniepropetrovsk, Dnipro-VAL, 2004, 677 p. (Rus.) 6. V.I.Bolshakov, L.I.Dvorkin, O.L.Dvorkin " Bases of Theor y and Methodology of Multi-Parametrical Design of Concrete Mixtures", Dniepropet rovsk, PGASA, 2006, 360 p. (Rus.) 7. L.I.Dvorkin, O.L.Dvorkin " Building materia ls from wastes of industry", Rostov-na-Dony, Phenics, 2007, 363 p. (Rus.) 2

CONTENTS Foreword Introduction 6.2. Concrete resistance to temperature influences 1. Concrete. Raw materials 6.3. Permeability 1.1. Concrete. General 6.4. Corrosion resistance 1.2. Binders. Classification. Nature of binding properties 7. Design of normal c oncrete mixture 1.3. Portland cement and its types 7.1. General and tasks 1.4. Hydraulic non Portland cement binders 7.2. Selection of raw materials and admixtures 1.5. Concrete aggregates 7.3. Calculations of basic parameters of concrete mixture 1.6. Admixtures composition 1.7. Mixing water 7.4. Correction of design concrete compositions 2. Concrete mixtures 8. Types of concrete 2.1. Structure and rheological properties 8.1. Fine-grained concrete 2.2. Technological properties of concrete mixtures 8.2. High-strength concrete 2.3. Consolidating (compaction) concrete 8.3. Polymer-impregnated and polymer-cement concrete 3. Concrete hardening and s tructure-forming 8.4. Fiber reinforced concrete 3.1. Hardening and structure of cement stone 8.5. Special concrete 3.2. Influence of aggregates on forming of concrete structure 9. Light-weight co ncrete

3.3. Influence of admixtures on concrete structure forming 9.1. Concrete on nonorganic porous aggregates 3.4. Optimization of concrete structure 9.2. Design of lightweight concrete with porous aggregates 4. Concrete strength 9.3. Concrete on the basis of organic 4.1. Theories of strength and mechanism of destruction (wood) aggregates 4.2. Law (rule) of water-cement ratio 9.4. No-fines and aerated concrete 4.3. Adhesion between aggregates and cement stone 9.5. Cellular concrete 4.4. Influence of terms and duration 10. Concrete on the basis of non-clinker binders. of hardening concrete Mortars and dry pack mixes 4.5. Kinds of strength. Tests for concrete strength 10.1. Silicate concrete 5. Deformations of concrete 10.2. Slag and fly-ash concrete 5.1. Concrete deformations at short-term load 10.3. Slag-alkaline concrete 5.2. Concrete deformation at long-term load. Creep 10.4. Gypsum concrete 5.3. Own deformations. Concrete shrinkage 10.5. Mortars 6. Concrete resistance to temperature-humidity influence. 10.6. Dry pack mixes Corrosion resistance 6.1. Frost resistance of concrete 3 Leonid Dvorkin Honored worker of science and technics of Ukraine, academician of Academy of Civil Engineering of Ukraine, Doctor of Technical Science, Professor, Head of Department of Building Material Science of National University of Water Management and Nature Resources (Ukraine). Prof. L. Dvorkin is an author of a series of researches, monographs, manuals, te xtbooks and reference books. His researches and scientific works are mainly devoted to chemistry and technolo

gy of binders and concrete, saving of resources in building materials production . 4 Oleg DvorkinDoctor of Technical Science, Professor of Department of Building Mate rial Science of National University of Water Management and Nature Resources (Uk raine). O. Dvorkin is an author of a series of researches, monographs and textbooks. His researches and scientific works are mainly devoted to concrete technology and s aving resources in building materials production. 5 REFERENCE REFERENCE on the manuscript of book on the manuscript of book of Doct. of Tech. Science, Prof. L. Dvorkin and of Doct. of Tech. Science, Prof. L. Dvorkin and Doct. of Tech. Science O. Dvorkin Doct. of Tech. Science O. Dvorkin Basics of Concrete Science Basics of Concrete Science Basically concrete science is engineering science, development By now concrete s cience became one of the fundamental material of which greatly defines a level o f modern construction technology. sciences, at which modern construction technol ogy is based. A large The series of editions educational chiefly prepared by pro fessors body of literature is devoted to certain problems and sections of B.G. S cramtaev, Y.M. Bazhenov and others are devoted to recitals concrete science. of concrete science essentials. Therewith dynamic development of In this connect ion famous monographs of V. Ramachandran, A. concrete science in recent years ca uses necessity of preparation Neville, F. Lee, A. Sheykin and other authors shou ld be mentioned. the works, where modern theoretical essentials of that science Chapter Concrete science in educational literature is adduced in would be generali zed and accessibly stated. The book prepared by manuals on concrete and reinforc ed concrete technology (manuals of famous specialists Doctors of Technical Scien ce, Professors O.Gershberg, Y.Bazhenov etc.). L.Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin subserves this purpose. Therewith wide theoretical and empirical date have been accrued till Therewith i t should be mentioned that the book presented can be present time that makes pre paration of the books with recital of general considered as in-depth course of c oncrete science basics which essentials of concrete science as independent disci pline order of the can be useful for wide readership students, post-graduate day . Discipline subject is studying of concrete structure and properties students, scientists and technologists. of different types and influence of various factors on them. Structure of the co

urse suggested is appeared to be straight Authors of the book under review attem pted to solve this problem. enough; authors sequentially enlighten peculiarities of raw The book consists of 10 chapters, comprising main subjects of material m aterials, rheological and technological properties of concrete science and enlig hting qualitative peculiarities of raw materials and mixes, issues of concrete s tructure forming, its influence on admixtures, chemical and physical processes i n concrete structure strength, deformability, concrete resistance to physical an d forming, complex of concrete properties which characterize concrete chemical a ggression effect. There are discovered interestingly and durability, types of ce ment and mostly wide-spread non-cement deeply enough the issues of concrete cree p and shrinkage. concrete and mortars. Distinctive features of the book accessib le and in Accessible logical recital, wide range of the problems the same time d eep enough recital of the data, generalization of wide enlightened, generalizati on of wide experimental data obtained by experimental data, accent on the proble ms of forecasting and large group of researchers including the authors themselve s, high management of concrete properties, their proportioning. level of using d iagrams, tables, quantitative dependences are To our opinion the book appeared t o be full-blooded and original. characteristic for the book under reference. Along with classical statements there are enlightened modern data and conception s. Honoured worker of science of Russia, Academician ofRussian Academy of Architect ure and Civil EngineeringDoct. of Tech. Science, Professor, Director of Scientif ic andScience, Doct. of Tech. Science, Professor of the departmentResearch Insti tute of Binding Materials at Kiev National University Building Materials and Technologies of St-Petersburg Stateof Civil Engineering and Architecture University of communication lines P.V. KRIVENKO P.G. KOMOHOV 6 FOREWORD L. Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin 7 Modern concrete science is dynamically developed applied science which subject i s studying of structure and properties of the composite materials received at ha rdening of binders and aggregates. The primary goal of concrete science is working out the theory of producing of c oncrete with given properties, maintenance of their working capacity and necessa ry durability in structures and constructions at influence of service factors. Considering many-sided nature of concrete science, huge luggage of theoretical w orkings out and the practical experience, saved up by present time, the statemen t of concrete science essentials is an uneasy problem. By preparation of the boo k authors pursued the goal to shine well and at the same time without excessive simplification such sections of concrete science as structure of a cement stone and concrete, its basic properties and types, design of concrete mixtures. Princ ipal views of noncement concrete and mortars are considered in short also.

The offered book as authors hope, can be used not only by students of building s pecialities of universities, but also to be useful to post-graduate students, sc ientists, a wide range of technologists. Authors are grateful to reviewers: Prof. P.Komohov, Prof. P. Krivenko and Prof. A.Ysherov-Marshak for valuable advices and remarks; and also PhD N.Lyshnikova wh o have assisted in preparation of presentation. 8 INTRODUCTION. SHORT HISTORICAL ESSAY L. Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin 9 Concrete science is a science about concrete, its types, structure and propertie s, environmental impact on it. Concrete science develops in process of developme nt of construction technology, improving of experimental methods of research. Concrete application in civil engineering can be divided conventionally into som e stages: 1. The antique 2. Application of a hydraulic lime and Roman cement. 3. Portland cement technolo gy formation and plain concrete application. 4. Mass application of concrete for manufacturing of reinforced concrete constructions. 5. Application of concrete for manufacturing of prestressed and precast reinforc ed concrete constructions 6. Wide use of concrete of the various types modified by admixtures. 10 1. Antique concrete Fig.1. Pantheon in Rome. Concrete domical building 43 m high (115-125 A.D.) 11 2. Pioneer research of cement concrete Fig.2. A. Le Shatelye (1850-1936) Fig.3. D. Mendeleev (1834-1907) The author of crystallization The great Russian chemist. theory of binders hardening He has investigated a series of issues of cement chemistry 12 Fig.5. N. Beleluskiy (1845-1922)

Fig.4. A. Shulyachenko (1841-1903) The author of a series of famous The author of a series of famous works works on methods of cement and on hardening theory concrete testing, design of reinforced of hydraulic binders, concrete corrosion concrete constructions 13 3. Golden age of concrete Fig.6. Roofed swimming pool, Hebveiler, France (1896) Fig.7. Roofed market, Muni ch, Germany (1912) 14 Fig.8. Central railway station, Leipzig, Germany (1915) Fig.9. Exhibition hall, Brunn, Czech Republik (1928) 15 Fig.11. Moscow subway station Red Gates. Monolithic concrete. The platform is ingr own 32.8 m (1935) Fig.10. Empire State Building, New-York, USA (1931) 381 m high 16 Fig.12. Concrete dam at Dnieper hydroelectric plant (1932) 17 Fig.13. Concrete dam at Sayano-Shushenskaya hydroelectric plant (1982) 18 Fig.15. Project of reinforced concrete petroleum extraction platform

Fig. 14. Ostankino television tower, Moscow, more than

530 m high (1967) 19 4. Concrete of century In I century concrete has entered as the basic building material appreciably defin ing level of a modern civilization. The world volume of application of concrete has reached 2 billion m3. Advantages of concrete are an unlimited raw-material b ase and rather low cost, an environmental acceptance, application possibility in various performance conditions and achievements of high architectonic-building expressiveness, availability of technology and possibility of maintenance of hig h level of mechanization and automation of production processes, which cause att ractiveness of this material and its leading positions on foreseeable prospect. Achievements concrete science and concrete technologies allow to project by pres ent time concrete, products and designs with demanded properties, to predict and operate its properties. 20 CHAPTER 1 CONCRETE. RAW MATERIALS L. Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin 1.1. Concrete. General Concrete can be classified as composite material and that is a combination of di fferent components which improve their performance properties. In general case binder component which can be in hard crystalline or amorphous s tate is considered as the matrix of composite material. In concrete matrix phase the grains of aggregates (dispersed phase) are uniformly distributed. 22 Concrete classification Classification Types of concrete indication Cement, Gypsum, Lime, Slag-alkaline, Polymer, PolymerTypes of binders cement Density Normal-weight, High-weight, Light-weight Normal-weight, Heavy-weight, Light-weight, Inorganic, Types of aggregates Organic Size of aggregates Coarse, Fine Workability of Stiff and Plastic consistency

concrete mixtures Porosity of concrete High-density, Low-density, Cel ular High-strength, Resistance to action of acids or alkalis, Sulfate Typical propert ies resistance, Rapid hardening, Decorativeness Structural concrete, Concrete for road and hydrotechnical Exploitation purpose construction, Concrete for thermal isolation, Radiationprotective concrete, Whit e and Coloured concrete 23 1.2. Binders. Classification. Nature of binding properties Concrete can be produced on the basis of all types of glues which have adhesion to the aggregates and ability for hardening and strength development. Organic glues Organic Inorganic glues mineral glues Molten Solutions, materials, pastes Pastes Solutions, bond Pastes solders Binding and production of composite materials Fig.1.1. Types of adhesives 24 Periodicity of chemical compounds binding properties Oxide of

Oxide chemical Al2O3 SiO2 Fe2O3 Cr2O3 Mn2O3 GeO2 SnO2 element BeO ----- - - - MgO ------- - - CaO ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ZnO --------- - SrO ++ ++ ++ + + + + CdO ----- - - - BaO ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ Note: fixed (++) and predicted (+) existence of binding properties; fixed (--) a nd foreseen (-) absence of binding properties. 25 1.3. Portland cement and its types Chemical composition of portland cement clinker is as a rule within following ra nge, %: -63...66

MgO-0.5...5 SiO2-22...24 SO3-0.3...1 Al2O3-4...8 Na2O+K2O-0.4...1 Fe2O3-2...4 TiO2+Cr2O3-0.2...0.5 Fig. 1.2. Crystals of alite Fig. 1.3. Crystals of belite 26 P P 28 days , thg h, nre trengt 3 days ve st ssire ssive s p re m p o m C

oC Age of hardening, days Amount of alite, % Fig. 1.4. Rate of cement paste hardening under using cements with different grain Fig. 1.5. Relationship between amount sizes: of alite and compressive strength of 1<3 m; 2 39 m; 3 925 m; cement 4 2550 m 27 1.4. Hydraulic non portland cement binders Lime binders Hydraulic lime binders contain materials produced by grinding or blending of lim e with active mineral admixtures (pozzolans) natural materials and industrial by products. At mixing of active mineral admixtures in pulverized form with hydrate d lime and water, a paste which hardened can be obtained. Typical hydraulic lime binders are lime-ash binders. Slag binders Slag binders are products of fine grinding blast-furnace ivation hardening admixtures. Activation admixtures must their grinding (sulfate slag and lime slag binders) ons (slag - alkaline binders). Activation admixtures are ulfates which contain ions 2+, ()-and (SO )2-. 4 28 Calcium - aluminate (high-alumina) cements Calcium - aluminate (high-alumina) cements are quickly hardening hydraulic binde rs. They are produced by pulverizing clinker consisting essentially of calcium a luminates. h rcent trengt pe s slag which contains act be blended with slag at or mixing with water soluti alkaline compounds or s

h, trengt 28 day S of Age, days Fig. 1.6. Typical curves of cement strength increase: 1 - calcium - aluminate cement; 2 high-early strength portland cement; 3 ordinar y portland cement 29 1.5. Concrete aggregates Classification of aggregates for concrete Classification Characteristics Kind of aggregates indication of classification indication Fine aggregates 5 mm Grain size Coarse aggregates >5 mm Gravel Smooth particles Particle shape Crushed stone Angular particles Heavy 0>1100 kg/m3 Bulk density (0)

Light 01100 kg/m3 No mal and high - density P10% Po osity (P) Low - density P>10% No mal, high and low density conc ete, P ope ties of agg egates

must confo m to the hyd otechnical, oad and conc ete p ope ties othe kinds of const uction 30 Pe centage etained Pe centage etained (cumulative), by mass (cumulative), by mass Sieve sizes, mm Sieve sizes, mm Fig. 1.7. Cu ves indicate the limits specified in Uk ainian Standa d fo fine Fig. 1.8. Cu ves indicate the agg egates: ecommended limits

specified in 1,2 - Minimum possible (Fineness Uk ainian Standa d fo coa se

modulus=1.5) and

ecommended

Exploitation pu pose Conc ete fo

agg egates (Fineness modulus=2) limits of agg egate size; 3,4 - Maximum ecommended (Fineness modulus=2.25) and possible (Fineness modulus=2.5) limits of agg egate size 31 1.6. Admixtu es Chemical admixtu es Eu opean standa d (EN934-2) suggested to classify chemical admixtu es as follows . Admixtu es by classification (Standa d EN934-2) Type of admixtu e Technological effect

supe plasticize ** given wate content Inc ease bond of wate in P evention of losses of wate caused by conc ete mixtu e bleeding (wate gain)

conc ete du ing mixing and obtaining of unifo m Ai -ent aining dist ibution of ent ained-ai voids in conc ete st uctu e

Accele ato

of setting time

Ent ainment of equi ed amount of ai

in

consistency o

high imp ove wo kability fo

High wate

educe

Essentially educe wate

equi ed fo

imp ove wo kability fo a given wate

Wate

educe plasticize * content given

Reduce wate

equi ed fo

given consistency o

Sho ten the time of setting Note: Inc ease the ate of ha dening of conc ete with

change of setting time o without it.

Reta d setting time

Dampp oofing and Dec ease pe meability equi ed to p oduce conc ete of

pe meability- educing

a given slump at 5-12%.;

effects

educe) and eta d set effects

30 % and mo e. of setting time time of setting effects Influence on a few p ope ties Complex effect

quantity of mixing wate ate and sho ten the

eta de

at 12Wate

educe / Accele ato

Combination of supe plasticize (high wate

High wate

educe /

** Supe plasticize

eta de

educes the

Combination of

Wate

educe / educe wate and eta d set

quantity of mixing wate

Reta de

* Plasticize

educes the

Accele ato

of ha dening

Combination of educe w

of conc ete mixtu e and conc ete 32 Classification of plasticize s Plasticize effect Reduce the quantity of Catego y

(inc ease the slump

f om 2...4 sm) fo a given slump Superplasticizer to 20 sm and more no less than 20 % Plasticizer 14-19 sm no less than 10 % Plasticizer 9-13 sm no less than 5 % V Plasticizer 8 and less less than 5 % Air-entrained admixtures are divided into six groups (depending on chemical comp osition): 1) Salts of wood resin; 2) Synthetic detergents;

mixing wate

Type of plasticize

3) Salts of lignosulphonated acids; 4) Salts of petroleum acids; 5) Salts from proteins; 6) Salts of organic sulphonated acids. 33 As gas former admixtures silicon-organic compounds and also aluminum powder are used basically. As a result of reaction between these admixtures and calcium hyd roxide, the hydrogen is produced as smallest gas bubbles. Calcium chloride is th e most explored accelerating admixture. Adding this accelerator in the concrete, however, is limited due to acceleration of corrosion of steel reinforcement and decrease resistance of cement paste in a sulfate environment. As accelerators are also used sodium and potassium sulfates, sodium and calcium nitrates, iron chlorides, aluminum chloride and sulfate and other salts-electrol ytes. Some accelerating admixtures are also anti-freeze agents which providing hardeni ng of concrete at low temperatures. 34 In technological practice in some cases there is a necessity in retarding admixt ures. 4 Forsen has divided retarders into em four groups according to their tign influence on the initial setting tti 2 e time: 1 l s itiaIn 1. CaSO 2H O, Ca(ClO ) , 4

2 3 2 CaS . 2 2. CaCl , Ca(NO ) , CaBr , 2 3 2 2 3 CaSO 0.5H O. 4 2 3. Na CO , Na SiO . 2 3 2 3 Amount of retarder 4. Na PO , Na S O , Na AsO , 3 4 2 4 7 3 4 Ca(CH COO) . 3 2 Fig.1.9. Effect of retarding admixrures on initial setting time (from Forsen)

35 Mineral admixtures Mineral admixtures are finely divided mineral materials added into concrete mixe s in quantity usually more than 5 % for improvement or achievement certain prope rties of concrete. As a basis of classification of the mineral admixtures accepted in the European countries and USA are their hydraulic (pozzolanic) activity and chemical composi tion. Fly ash is widely used in concrete mixes as an active mineral admixture. Average diameter of a typical fly ash particle is 5 to 100 m. Chemical composition of fl y ash corresponds to composition of a mineral phase of burning fuel (coal). Silica fume is an highly active mineral admixture for concrete which is widely u sed in recent years. Silica fume is an ultrafine byproduct of production of ferr osilicon or silicon metal and contains particles of the spherical form with aver age diameter 0,1m. The specific surface is from 15 to 25 m2/kg and above; bulk de nsity is from 150 to 250 kg/m3. The chemical composition contains basically amorphous silica which quantity usua lly exceeds 85 and reaches 98 %. 36 A B Fig.1.10. Basic characteristics of silica fume: A Particle shape and size; B Gra ding curve 37 1.7. Mixing water Mixing water is an active component providing hardening of cement paste and nece ssary workability of concrete mix. Water with a hydrogen parameter H in the range of 4 to 12.5 is recommended for ma king concrete. High content of harmful compounds (chloride and sulphate, silt or suspended particles) in water retards the setting and hardening of cement. Organic substances (sugar, industrial wastes, oils, etc.) can also reduce the ra te of hydration processes and concrete strength. Magnetic and ultrasonic process ing has an activating influence on mixing water as shown by many researchers. 38 A B Fig. 1.11. Structure of a molecule of water (A) and types of hydrogen bonds (B) 39 CHAPTER 2

CONCRETE MIXTURES L. Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin 2.1. Structure and rheological properties Concrete mix is a system in which cement paste and water bind aggregates such as sand and gravel or crushed stone into a homogeneous mass. The coefficient of in ternal friction relies mainly on the coarseness of aggregates and can be approxi mately calculated on the Lermit and Turnon formula: where d - middle diameter of particles of f lgadb = , (2.1 ) aggregate; a and b - constants. The rheological model of concrete mixture is usually characterized by the Shvedo v-Bingam formula: dV = + , (2.2) max m dx w ere

max m

41 a b max

sys em wi e maximum des ruc ive s ruc ure; dV/dx gradien a ion during flow.

maximum ension; plas ic viscidi y of

of speed of deform

max Fig. 2.1. C ange of viscidly-plas ic proper ies of concre e mix ure depending on ensions: a c ange of s ruc ural viscosi y; b c ange of speed of deforma ion of flow (o nd m corners, which ch r cterizing coefficients of viscosity of the system);

42

dV = . (2.3) m dx max max

Fig. 2.2. C ar of r eological model of r eological model of S efild-Sko -Bler Bingam 43 , Pasec sm/sec sm/sec C/W Fig. 2.4. Dependence of s ruc ural viscosi y of concre e mix ure on: 1-speed (v); 2 - reverse speed

Fig. 2.3. C ar of

T e conduc of concre e mix ures a New on formula :

vibra ion approxima ely can be described by

max maximum ension; o m plas ic viscosi y of c ive and des ruc ive s ruc ure

e sys em accordingly wi

nondes ru

Fig. 2.5. Dependence of viscosi y of of vibra ions (1/v) concre e mix ure on cemen wa er ra io (C/W): 1 from formula (2.4); 2 from A.Desov experimen al da a 44 Influencing of concen ra ion of dispersed p ase ( ) on viscosi y of colloid pas e () a firs was described by A. Eins ein: = 0(1+ 5 , 2 ) (2.3) , w ere viscidi y of environmen . 0 Experimen al da a permi ed o L.I.Dvorkin and O.L.Dvorkin o wri e down formula of viscosi y of concre e mix ure as follows: = c.p z , (2 .4) 0 w ere viscosi y of cemen pas e; volume

0 propor ion coefficien . 45 2.2. Tec nological proper ies of concre e mix ures 1 group 2 group 3 group

concen ra ion of aggrega es in

c.

e cemen pas e; K

4 group Fig. 2.6. C ar of me ods of de ermina ion of s ruc uralmec anical proper ies ( workabili y) of concre e mix ures: 1 cone; 2 Skram aev's me od; 3me od Vebe; 4 ec nical viscome er; 5 Slovak me od; 6 modernized viscome er; 7 Englis me od; 8 me od of building NII; 9 viscome er NIIGB 46 Formula of wa er balance of concre e mix ure: W = C + S +

+ , (2.5 ) n c . m s .

. pores fm w ere W e wa er quan i y w ic de ermined o e necessary workabili y of mix ure, kg/m3; C, S and S accordingly quan i ies of cemen , sand and coarse aggreg a e, kg/m3; Kn. , Km.s, Km.st normal consistency of cement paste and coefficients of moistening of fine and coarse aggregates; = (V/C)p/Kn.d relative index of moistening of cement paste in the concrete mixture ((V/C)p water-cement ratio of cement paste); Vpores the water taken in by the pores of a ggregates, kg/m3; Vfm water which physically and mechanically retained in pores space between the particles of aggregates (free water), kg/m3. Approximately sim ultaneously (at the beginning of 30th of 20 century) and independently from each other V.I. Soroker (Russia) and F. McMillan (USA) had set the rule of constancy of water quantity (RCW). It was found that at unchanging water quantity the cha nge of cement quantity within the limits of 200-400 kg/m3 does not influence sub

m s

stantially on workability of concrete mixtures. 47 W, kg/m3 C/W Fig. 2.7. Influence of cement-water ratio (C/W) on water quantity 1.3 slump of concrete mixtures: 10, 5, 2 sm. 4.6 workability (Vebe): 30, 60, 100 sec The top limit (W/C) of the rule of constancy of water cr quantity(RCW) can be calculated by formula: where Km.s, Km.st coefficients of moistening of + fine and coarse aggregates; (W / C) = + cr ( 35 , 1 ... , 1 65) S

m s .

. (2.6) ,

m s

n.c C

quan i ies of sand and coarse aggrega e, kg/m3 48 Applica ion of aggrega es subs an ially mul iplies e wa er con en of concre e mix ures, necessary for ac ievemen of e se mobili y (workabili y). For e c oice of con inuous grading or par icle-size dis ribu ion of aggrega es differen formulas, are offered: Formula Au or d = 100 D (2.7) Fuller = + (100 ) d D (2.8) Bolomey n d = 100 D (2.9) Gummel

maximum par icle-size of aggrega e; A coefficien equal 8-12 depending on e ki nd of aggrega e and plas ici y of concre e mix ures; n index of degree equal in mix ures on a crus ed s one 0,2...0,4, on e gravel 0,3...0,5 (in Gummel's form ula index of degree equal 0,1 o 1). 49

In formulas (2.7-2.9): d size of par icles of

e given frac ion of aggrega e; D

S and S

accordingly

Correc ion of parame ers of aggrega es by mixing, for example, wo kinds of sand can be execu ed by formula: P P n 1 = , (2 .10) P P 1 2 where R the required v lue of the corrected p r meter (fineness modulus of ggre g te, specific surf ce, qu ntity of ggreg te of definite fr ction); P1 nd P2 v lues of the corrected p r meter of ggreg te ccordingly with l rge nd less i ts v lue; n volume content of ggreg te with the less v lue of the given p r mete r in the sum of volumes of the ggreg tes mixed up. 50 2.3. Consolid tion (comp ction) concrete

ties oper ues of pr V l Porosity Fig. 2.8. Influence of porosity of concrete on compressive strength (1), tensile strength (2), dyn mic modulus of el sticity (3) 51

comp ction r tio:

The comp cting f ctor (D ) of fresh concrete is determined by

cp

Achievement of necess ry high qu lity concrete is possible only onsolid tion of concrete mixtures.

t the c reful c

D = 1 P ( , 2.11) cp where P porosity of comp cting fresh concrete.

A.Desov nd V.Shmig lsky h d offered the p r meter of intensity of vibr tions (I ) s criterion of efficiency of vibr tion (fig.2.9): 2 = W3 (2.12) , w ere A ampli ude of vibra ions; W frequency of vibra ions. 52 mm sm2/sec3 Hz Fig. 2.9. Rela ions ip be ween ampli udes (A) and frequency of vibra ions (W ) o f a differen in ensi y of vibra ion (I) Dura ion of vibra ion () for no-slump mix ures is offered o calcula e by formula : = Vb / , (2 .13) c u where u minimum intensity of vibrations of mixture in the construction; intensity which workability (Vebe) of mixture is determined (Vb); c coefficient r elying on configur tion of construction nd degree of its reinforcement. 53 CHAPTER 3

More th n 90% of ll concrete constructions nd units tion.

re m de by method of vibr

CONCRETE HARDENING AND STRUCTURE FORMING

3.1. H rdening nd structure of cement stoneHydr tion of cement A chemic l process of cement h rdening is the processes of hydr tion which occur s t mixing cement with w ter. Composition of new compounds is determined by che mic l n ture of w terless compounds, r tio between solid nd liquid ph se, tempe r ture conditions. 55 % de, oxidr m hyiulc c tity of Qu n Age, d ys Fig.3.1. R te of re ction of the c lcium hydroxide C (OH)2 forming during hydr t ion of c lcium silic tes:

1 tric lcium silic te (3 SiO2); 2 - - modification dicalcium silicate (-2CaOSiO2); 3 modification dicalcium silicate ( -2CaOSiO2) Fi .3.2. Plane section of tricalcium silicate (C3S) structure 56 Hi h hydration activity of aluminates minerals is caused y possi ility of struc tural transformations due to the insta ility of the concentration of Al3+ ions i n the crystalline rate of these minerals. All clinker minerals are disposed in a row concordant with their hydration activity: tricalcium aluminate (C A) 3 tetracalcium aluminoferrite

Concrete h rdening includes the complex of processes of cement hydr tion. Physic l nd chemic l processes of structure form tion of cement p ste m ke subst nti l influence on concrete h rdening. Concrete h rdening nd forming of concrete pr operties depend gre tly on the mixing w ter, ggreg tes nd dmixtures used.

L. Dvorkin

nd O.Dvorkin

(C AF) - tricalcium silicate 4 (C S) - dicalcium silicate 3 (-2CaOSiO ). 2 Oxy en Calcium Aluminium Fi .3.3. Structure of elementary cel of crystalline structure of tricalcium aluminate (C3A) 57

water is accelerated if there is increasin in temperature, that is characteristic for all chemical reactions. Kinetics of hydration of compounds of portland cement clinker and their mixture in portland cement is descri ed y formula: +

, (3.1 )

ime; k and B cons an s.

Level of ydra ion de ermines quan i y of

wi

wa er grain

Fig.3.4. Sc ema ic image of

w ere

L = k l

e L level of ydra ion;

e reac ive

The rate of reaction

etween cement and

of ricalcium alumina e (C3A):

3-second finely crys alline calcium silica e se ing ime. ydra e (in ernal produc ); 4- ird crys alline

calcium silica e ydra e (ex ernal produc ); 5separa e large crys als 58 Hardening and s ruc ure of cemen s one

c emical mec anics P.Rebinder divides

a) Dissolu ion in wa er of uns eady clinker p ases and selec ion of crys als; b) Forma ion of coagula e s ruc ure of cemen pas e;

Fig.3.5. C ar of coagula e s ruc ure of cemen pas e (from Y.Bagenov): 1 grain of cemen ; 2 - s ell; 3 free (mobile) wa er; 4 en rapped (immobile) wa er 59 A cemen s one is pierced by pores by a size from 0.1 o 100 m. Fig.3.6. T e simplified model of s ruc ure of cemen s one 60

c) Grow

and accre ion of crys als.

pas e on

ree s ages:

e process of ardening of cemen

From posi ions of

e p ysical and

1-non- ydra ed kernel; 2-primary

cemen reac ing wi

wa er

roug

ydra e;

a b

61 3.2. Influence of aggrega es on forming of concre e s ruc ure

a b c Fig.3.8. C ar s of concre e s ruc ure: a floa ing s ruc ure; b in ermedia e s ruc ure; c con ac s ruc ure 62 T e impor an s ruc ural elemen s of concre e w ic de ermining p ysical and mec anical proper ies are cracks.

In e real ma erial always ere is a plen y of microscopic cracks arising up o n ec nological or opera ing reasons. Cracks are c arac erized by a leng , wid , radius, and fron .

a b c d Fig.3.9. Models of cracks: a from Griffi s; b from P.Rebinder; c from G.Bar enev (a, b, c models of cracks in ideally easily broken ma erial); d crack in e real rocklike ma erial (from G.Bar enev) 63 3.3. Influence of admix ures on concre e s ruc ure forming Influence of c emical admix ures

Aggrega es along wi nglomera e) mass.

a cemen s one form

e concre e s ruc ure of rocklike (co

a-Level of ydra ion = 0.3; b Level of ydra ion = 0.7 1-no fully n of cemen ; 2-capillary pores; 3-cemen ydra e gel

ydra ed grai

Fig.3.7. C ange of capillary porosi y in cemen pas e (s one) in of proceeding ydra ion of cemen :

e condi ions

n, %io

Level of Age, days Fig.3.10. Kine ics of c ange of level of ydra ion of cemen silica e p ase:

64 H2C CH2 H2C CH2 m -10 10 1.1 OH Fig.3.12. Adsorbed layer of

e surface of a solid

2010-10 m Fig. 3.11. C ar of molecule of surfaceac ive subs ance 65 Influence of mineral admix ures Finely divided mineral admix ures w ic are ei er pozzolanic or rela ively iner c emically make ac ive influence on e processes of ardening and forming of cemen s one s ruc ure. days

Fig.3.13. C ange of ining

e quan i y of calcium ydroxide Ca(OH)2 in solu ions con a

surface-ac ive subs ance a

1-wi ou admix ures; 2-calcium ni ri e-ni ra e (3%); 3-calcium ni ri e-ni ra ec loride (3%); 4-calcium c loride (3%)

dra y

66 3.4. Op imiza ion of concre e s ruc ure Concre e s ruc ure is a cover-up of i s s ruc ure a a differen levels from a o mic - molecular for separa e componen s o macro-s ruc ure as composi ion ma eri al. a b Resource Resource Fig.3.14. Kinds of op imiza ion asks (from V.Voznesensky): a ac ievemen of e se level of cri erion of efficiency (J) a e minimum expense of resources; b ac ievemen of maximal level of cri erion of efficiency a e comple e expense of resources for ac ievemen of purpose 67 Some s ruc ural cri eria of proper ies of concre e S ruc ural cri eria Formula Deno a ions V Densi y of c, W ,Vair - absolu e volumes of cemen , c V d =

concre e (d) c V + W + ai V r concre e, li ers per cubic me er (l/m3) General porosi y W .

wa er and air in

e general volume of

me akaoline (finely divided produc

a resul s from burning of kaolin)

0 23C + V P ir

of concrete (P s s) 1000 cement hydr tion Volume concentr tion of

cement paste + p (W /C)

cubic liter (generally 3.1); W/C water 1000 c

(stone) in the

conc ete (Cp) 68 Decision of tasks of conc ete st uctu e optimization is possible by mathematical methods supposing dete mination and analysis of mathematical models. Fo mulation of

cement

atio

c specific g avity of cement, kg pe

qu ntity of cement, kg/m3;

level of

Fo mulation of Planning of Conducting of pu pose hypotheses expe iments expe iments No No T eatment and Ve ification of Ve ification of analysis of ightness of the

te ms of Finish expe iments fo mulated hypotheses Yes expe iments Yes finish Fig.3.15. St ategy of dete mination of mathematical model 69 CHAPTER 4 CONCRETE STRENGTH L. Dvo kin and O.Dvo kin St ength is a p ope ty of mate ials to esist to dest uction unde action of the exte nal loading. 4.1. Theo ies of st ength and mechanism

of dest uction The existing theo ies of conc ete st ength a e divided into th ee g oups: phenom enological, statistical and st uctu al. Phenomenological theo ies conside conc ete, as homogeneous isot opic mate ial. All attention is paid to dependence of s t ength on the exte nal loading, they set easons on which it is possible to jud ge about beginning of mate ial dest uction at the tense state, if the behavio a t simple tension, comp ession o shea is known. 71 Acco ding to statistical theo ies the existence in the conc ete of continuous isot opic envi onment, in which the e a e mic oscopic c acks (confo mable to the statistical laws) is also assumed. These theo ies allow to explain eno mous distinction between theo etical and actual st ength, dete mined by the defects of st uctu e of substance, without conside ation of st uctu e. Fig. 4.1. Cha t of dest uction of easily b oken mate ial at the axial comp ession if the e is default of f iction on suppo ting flags of the p ess 72 Development of c ack unde action of the attached comp ession takes place at ed uction of gene al ene gy of the system. Stability C ite ion of easily b oken mat e ial with a c ack: can be calculated by the following fo mula: = 2 / l , (4 .1)

where -the attached com re io ; E-modulu th of crack.

of ela ticity; - urface e ergy; l- le g

I accorda ce with the tati tical theory of the tre gth (from Weibull) te ile a d flexural tre gth (R) cha ge i ver ely ro ortio al to a volume : R = (4 , .2) 1/ m where m degree of homogeneity of material, taking into acco nt the character of defects distrib ting; A constant val e. 73 Development of str ct ral theory of concrete strength began at the end of the 19 cent ry after establishment by Feret dependence between strength of concrete an d density of cement paste, modified late by Powers taking into acco nt the level of cement hydration. The Feret dependence became a basis for development of Abr am's law (r le of water-cement ratio) - the f ndamental dependence sed at the c alc lation (proportioning) of concrete mixt res. In accordance with Powers compressive strength (R) of the specimens of a differe nt age and made at a different water-cement ratio can be calc lated from: R n = , (4 .3) where X-ratio between volume of cement hydrate gel and the sum of volumes of cem ent gel and capillary space; A-coefficient characterizing strength of cement gel ; n-constant (from 2.6 to 3). The parameter can be considered as a relative dens ity of cement paste (stone). 74 a P , M cmpR Middle radius of pores (r10-10 m) Fig. 4.2. Relationship between compressive strength (Rcmp) and middle size of pores of cement paste (stone)

 

75 The condition of development of crack in concrete can be determined from Griffit h and Orovan formula: = / d = kd 1 / 2 , (4 .4)

where -te ile tre ; E-modulu of ela ticity; -effective e ergy of de tructio ; d - average ize of a cry tal;

k = (E)1/ 2 coefficient of viscidity of destruction. Strength of concrete depend s on deform tions rising up t lo ding. 76

d as , 10-6m Fig. 4.3. Relationship of strength of the cement stone Rc.s and average size of crystals das 77 4.2. Law (rule) of water-cement ratio The fundamental works of Feret, Abrams, Bolomey and other researchers determined wide application in practical technology of the water-cement (W/C) law (rule) a nd based on it computation formulas. After processing results more than 50 thous and tests, Abrams offered a formula: k R = , (4. 5) Ax where R-strength of concrete; k strength coefficient, A constant value, x ratio between volume of water and volume of cement. Graf offered at the end of 20th ye ars of 20 century the formula of concrete strength (specifying the Abrams formul a for practical calculations) as follows: R

Rc.s, MP

R c = (W/C) , (4 .6) n w ere R compressive s reng of por land cemen ; and n c coefficien s (from Graf =4...8, n=2); W/C wa er-cemen ra io. 78 Bolomey (based on Fere dependence) de ermined a formula: R = (C / W 0.5) (4 , .7) where R strength of concrete; C/Wcement w ter r tio; K coefficient.

R = Rc (C / W 0 5 . ) , (4.8) If C/W2.5 R = R + 1 c (C / W ) 5 . 0 (4 ,

After tre tment of experiment l rese rches B.Skr mt ev formul s of concrete strength : If C/W2.5

nd Y.B genov offered the

.9)

79 R/Rc C/W

and cemen -wa er ra io (C/W) 80 4.3. Ad esion be ween aggrega es

Aggrega es, making e bulk of concre e and forming e concre e s ruc ure as co mposi e ma erial, ac ively affec concre e s reng foremos roug s reng of ad esion of cemen pas e (s one) wi eir surface.

81 R, MPa Vag Fig. 4.5. Rela ions ip be ween

volume of concre e (Vag) and

concre e: 1 comple e coupling of aggrega es and cemen pas e;

82 4.4. Influence of erms and dura ion of ardening concre e

Concre e s reng

in defini e age is de ermined in accordance wi

2 coupling is fully absen

compressive s reng

(R) of

volume of aggrega es in

Skram aev for

Gordon produced e es of differen of concre e arrived a 50%.

kinds of aggrega es. S reng

dis inc ions

and cemen

s one

Fig. 4.4. Typical rela ions ip be ween s reng en (Rc)

of concre e (R), s reng

w ere R-concre e s reng

; C/Wcemen -wa er ra io; A and A 1 coefficien s.

of cem

mula: lg n R R , (4. 10) n = 28 lg 28 w ere n dura ion R, MPa of concre e ardening, R

28

28 days. 28 days 1 year 2 4 6 11 years Age

83 Compressive s reng , % of 28-day mois (normal) - cured concre e Compressive s reng , % of 28 day concre e Tempera ure of curing, 0C

days a

empera ure ( ) from +20

o 100C

Fig. 4.7. Increasing of s reng

of fres concre e during 28 Age, days

Fig. 4.6. Increasing of s reng ns

concre e s reng

of concre e (R) in we

(1) and dry (2) condi io

1-mois (normal) curing; 2-curing in live s ream a a mosp eric pressure (800C m ax. s eam empera ure); 3-curing in ig -pressure-s eam au oclaves 84 4.5. Kinds of s reng . Tes s for concre e s reng T e main kind of s reng co ncre e is compressive s reng a correla es wi ensile s reng , s ear s re ng , flexural s reng and o er kinds of s reng .

Rfl, R n, MPa Rcmp, MPa Fig. 4.9. Typical rela ions ip be ween flexural s reng Rfl (curve 1), ensile s reng R n (curve 2) and compressive s reng (Rcmp) of concre e 86 CHAPTER 5 DEFORMATIONS OF CONCRETE L. Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin

Two kinds of deforma ions of concre e are: 1. Deforma ions due o applied ex ernal loads (power deforma ions); 2. Deforma i ons due o volume c anges under influencing of c anges in empera ure and mois u re con en (own deforma ions). 5.1. Concre e deforma ions a s or - erm load Con cre e Performance in cons ruc ions is de ermined by elas ic and plas ic deforma ions.

= + + (5.1) ,

Comple e deforma ion of concre e a y h qua ion:

a defini e age of ardening () is calcula d b

Deforma ions of concre e arise up a e.

ardening, exploi a ion and es of concre

Various nondes ruc ive es s (rebound, pene ra ion, pullou , me ods) are widely used in prac ice for de ermina ion of s concre e based on rela ions ip be ween s reng and indirec reng evalua ion of ardened concre e by nondes ruc ive me r s are used, w ic rela ed by measured indirec evalua ion reng of concre e. 85

vibra ion and o er reng of ardened evalua ions. For s ods calibra ion c a o e compressive s

T e values of concre e s reng are grea ly influenced by mac ines, condi ions of es , and form of specimens.

e fea ures of

Fig. 4.8. Typical rela ions ip be ween s reng ren condi ions:

and dura ion of curing for diffe

 

es er

pl - d forma ion of shrinkag . shr 88 On h id aliz d char of

ar as: a-b-abs nc of cracks in

-ddestruction of cement stone as a result of spontaneous formation of growing cracks. For description of cement stone and concrete deformation under loading a number of rheological models are offered. Fig. 5.1. The idealized chart of deformations in cement stone at the axial compression (at rapid loading)

89

ro ertie of co crete. Their

formula

de cribi g ela tic

There i

a large umber of

- d forma ion; -

tre

  

h s ruc ur

of c m n s on ; bc-app aranc of microscopic cracks;

  

 

is possibl

o s l c

 

compr ssion of c m n

s on i hr

basic

 

pl shr wh r - las ic d forma ion; - plas ic d forma ion; l

c.

or E

c.

character of locatio of f R

oge rea o .

R a

Ch 1.5 C/W 4.0

modulu of ela ticity Ec. , tre gth of

ratio (C/W) 90 Modulu of co crete ela ticity (E) de e d o co crete tre gth. For calculatio of the modulu of ela ticity at loadi g of co crete at age of harde i g () follo wing qua ions ar using: E R E m

ceme t to e Rc.

a d ceme t-water

Fig. 5.2. Ty ical relatio hi betwee

c.

aggregate

article

a d other

model of

Ec.

tre e

di tributi g,

ki d de e d o

the acce ted

= , (5.2) S + R

(E = 52000; S = 23). m

E = (R ) , (5.3) wh r C=1900; = 0.5. 91 In the case of hi h-quality a re ates (crushed ranite and quartz sand) usin , as it is shown y E.Sher akov the followin formula can e used: 4 R 3 . 5 10 = (5.4) ,

85 + R s





Following qua ion is r comm nd d by a Europ an concr

commi

wh r R - compr ssiv s r ng h (MPa) of concr sp cim ns - cub s af r d fini ag of hard ning (); E and S cons an valu s m

 

   

    

. c

accoun s r ss s and s rains in sp cim n a vibra ions. R la ionship b w n dyn amic modulus of las ici y (E ) and d

) is xpr ss d by following cmp formula: 4 103R

= (5.5) . d

92 d , E/E , d

E odul ticity

e mh MPa3 t

1 + 0.07Rcm

cm



compr ssiv s r ng h of concr

(R

wh r Pc.s - quan i y of c m n s on in h concr (by mass). Elas ic prop r i s of concr can b charac riz d by s a ic modulus of las ici y (E) and by dynamic modulus of las ici y (E ) which aking in o d

 



         

 

 

 

 

of el 10 ee

etw odulM Stre gth of co crete, MPa o b Rati Stre gth of co crete, MPa Fig. 5.3. Relatio hi betwee the dy amic modulu of ela ticity (E Fig. 5.4. Ratio betwee tatic modulu of d) a d com re ive tre gth ela ticity (E) a d dy amic modulu of ela ticity (Ed) for differe t tre gth of co crete 93

d R / (5.6) . r = t d At the time of laboratory te ti g the value of relative deformatio ( ) r

dynamic modulus of

las ici y (E ):

 

  

Relative deformatio

( ) is a ra io b w n

nsil s r ng h (R ) and r

can b calcula d if compr ssiv (R

cmp

ar known: R 1 ( + 0.07R )

cmp = (5 . .7) r 4103 Rcmp 94 5.2. Concr d forma ions a long- rm load. Cr p R la ionship b w n loading and d forma ions in concr chang s wi h im h concr is s r ss d. D form a ion of concr caus d by long im loading is call d cr p. Th r is a numb r of hypo h s s which consid ring h m chanism of cr p d forma ions und r ac io n of h x rnal loading. / 1 2 3 1>2>3

Fig. 5.5. Relatio hi betwee time-de e de t deformatio of cree of co crete () and s r ss s () 95

Cree

Ge eral deformatio

 

Age, day

     

         

   



 





    

 

) and

nsil (R ) s r ng h (MPa)

o atim foreD Shri kage Ela tic

Age of loadi g

96

of ormal-weight co crete (age of loadi g 28 day ) Formula Author

= , (5.8) m (28) R cmp Rcmp-compressive strength (MPa) of concrete specimens A.Velmi - cubes after 28 days of hardening, MPa; =25.10-5 W

= , (5.9) m (28 ) R cmp E.Sherbakov W-quantity of water, liters per cubic meter; = 16.10-6 Deforma ion of creep a de fini e age of loading (C ) can be calcula ed as

Some calculati g formula

for determi atio of cree (C (28)) m

Fig. 5.6. Ki d u loadi g

deformatio

of time-de e de t deformatio

of co crete at actio of co ti uo

m() a follows:

= C , (5. 10) m ( ) m (28 ) r where C deforma ion of creep a 28 days loading; m(28) r - coefficien s aking in o accoun influencing of size of uni , humidi y of envi ronmen and age of concre e in he momen of loading began. 97 Also, deforma ion of creep a defini e age of loading (C ) is ob ained by use m() of he following formula: C = C ( ), (5.11) m()

m(ma ) + where age of loading; - age of concre e hardening; C ma imally possible creep. m(ma )

98 ep cre ivela

Re days mon h MPa Rela ive humidi y

S reng h of he concre e loading is applied when loading is applied Fig.5.7. Effec of condi ions of loading on magni ude of creep for ypical norma l-weigh concre e 99 5.3. Own deforma ions. Concre e shrinkage Own deforma ions of concre e are caused by mois ure, empera ure and o her influ ences on a concre e wi hou applying of he e ernal loading. The change of conc re e humidi y can cause decrease or increase in volume and accordingly deforma i ons of shrinkage or e pansion. Deforma ions of e pansion in cemen s one and con cre e a hardening are resul s of forma ion of he crys alliza ion s one s ruc u re. The e panding (swelling) of concre e volume occurs during con inuous s orage of he specimens in he wa er.

100

Deforma ion of con rac ion and drying shrinkage are developed due f concre e hardening.

o processes o

Age of

he concre e when

Amoun of creep depends on he condi ions of loading.

echnological reasons and reasons charac erizing

Af er rapid deforma ion a a a decreasing ra e.

he beginning of load, deforma ion of creep con inues

  

g n compounds wi h wa er, herefore absolu e volumes of hydra es less pandi Time han o al volumes of ini ial wa erless

compounds and wa er which necessary for hydra ion. Con rac ion shrinkage of concre e in

shrinkage. age

ink change of humidi y develops in wo Shr s ages: 1. when a fresh concre e mi ure has ini ial plas ic consis ency (plas ic shrinkage); Fig. 5.8. Swelling and drying shrinkage of cemen specimens which hardened and

hardening and drying of concre e. rela ive humidi y 101

s ored in wa er and in air wi h a differen

2. a

he ime of con inuing

Shrinkage of concre e a

5...10

imes less han drying

he

of hydra ion of chemical cemen

Con rac ion is

he resul of reac ions

In ernal ensions, s resses and cracks can occur due o he shrinkage deforma io ns. Shrinkage deforma ion has also a nega ive effec on fros resis ance and wa er igh ness of concre e. Amoun of shrinkage of cemen pas e and concre e depends on age of hardening, co mposi ion, specific surface and uan i y of cemen , uan i y of aggrega es, wa e r-cemen ra io and o her fac ors. Some calcula ing formulas for de ermina ion of concre e shrinkage ( ) shr Formula Au hor 106 0.125W W , (5 .12) shr = E.Sh rbakov

5W / C 106 = (667 C (5. ), 13) shr + 1+ m A.V lmi



W/C wa r c m n ra io; C quan i y of c m n , kg p r cubic m w n aggr ga s and c m n

 



W-quan i y of wa r, li rs p r cubic m

r; m-mass ra io b

 

Drying shrinkage has cons ruc ions.

he mos influence on uali y and e ploi a ion of concre e

    

 

102

g o n p

n shrinka o which pr s n s in

io ba s, %

R and s by h incr as of g n ral

aggr ga s on ra io b w n

 

Th rmal shrinkag is caus d by h d cr as of h mp ra ur of concr . Th high chang s of mp ra ur in summ r and in a win r can b a r ason of concr



  

  

 

  

 

  

of c m n pas



shrinkag of concr

 



shrinkag of concr

and shrinkag

Fig. 5.9. Eff c of volum

 

Volum quan i y of aggr ga

quan i y of

 

c m n and ha

is accompani d

 

 

 

 



rinkag

h produc s of hydra ion of

 

an air. Carbon dioxid

 

carbon dioxid

r ac s wi h

carbona ion shrinkag du

 

f c m



concr

is xpos d o


ncr f co s a Along wi h drying shrinkag ,

  

chang s of uni l ng h o 0.5 mm p r m. 103

CHAPTER 6 CONCRETE RESISTANCE TO TEMPERATURE-HUMIDITY INFLUENCE. CORROSION RESISTANCE L. Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin

A pr s n , h r is no g n ral h ory xplaining h r ason of fros d s ruc io n of concr hough i is obvious ha finally, s r ng h d cr as of damp concr a cyclic fr zing and hawing is caus d basically by forma ion of ic in co ncr por s. As h volum of ic is abou 9 % mor han volum of wa r, h r is significan pr ssur ha can rup ur concr and gradually loos n i s s ru c ur .

According o a T.Pow rs hypo h sis of hydraulic pr ssur h main r ason of conc r d s ruc ion a cyclic fr zing and hawing is h hydraulic pr ssur cr a d in por s and capillari s of concr und r influ nc of fr zing wa r. A no ugh volum of n rain d air voids xc ss wa r g s in air voids and pr v n s co ncr damag . 105

with an ice. Diffusion of water to area of freezing creates additional pressure. Factors affecting frost resistance of concrete. Influence of cyclic temperature change additionally increases due to action of salts solutions. For example, di fferent deicing chemicals (NaCl, CaCl ) used for ice removal 2 from road surfaces. At presence of salts the osmotic phenomena in frozen concrete increases and visc osity of a liquid phase raises. As a result hydraulic pressure increases and des truction of concrete is accelerated. Frost resistance of concrete is caused basically by its porous structure. The te mperature of freezing of water in concrete depends on the sizes of capillaries. For example, in capillaries 1,57 mm in diameter water freezes at -6,40C; 0,15 mm at -14,60C; 0,06 mm at -180C. In capillaries less than 0,001 mm in diameter water almost does not freeze. 106 The air voids received by adding in concrete mix an air-entraining admixture, es

  

         

According o mod rn r pr s n a ions hydraulic of fros d s ruc ion. D s ruc ion is also d v nom na. Th y r sul incr as in conc n ra ion alkalies, etc.) in a liquid phase of concrete

pr ssur is no h uniqu r ason lop d by h ac ion of osmo ic ph of h dissolv d subs anc s ( (OH) , on border 2

R asons of fros d s ruc ion of concr . Fros r sis anc of concr is abili y o k p s r ng h and working abili y a ac ion of cyclic fr zing and hawing in h wa r sa ura ing condi ions.

    

        

 

Concr durabili y is provid d a accordanc i s composi ion and s ruc ur ondi ions of cons ruc ions p rformanc . 6.1. Fros r sis anc of concr



   





 

   

 



 



  

 

         

 

 

   

     

           

      



o c

sentially change structure of a cement stone. The number of air voids per 1 cm3 of cement stone can reach one million and a surface of these voids may be within the range of 200 to 250 cm2. Protective action has only small enough in size ai r voids less than 0,5 or 0,3 mm in diameter. It is possible to divide all techno logical ing factors governing frost resistance of haw e, concrete on two groups: d t 1. Factors defined by conditions of stanc an si ng construction exposures; e zie 2. Factors considering features of ost r initial materials, structure, composition Fr s of fre of concrete and its hardening le conditions. cyc Capillary porosity of concrete, % Fig.6.1. Effect of capillary porosity on frost resistance of concrete (from Gorchakov)

107 Very important factors defining frost resistance are also the degree of watersat uration and temperature of freezing of concrete. Strength decrease of concrete a fter freezing and thawing is possible only at its water-saturation above the cer tain value. Comparative determination of frost resistance of concrete by freezing at -17 and -50C has shown that destruction of concrete in the second case is accelerated si gnificantly (6 to 10 times). Design of frost-resistant concrete. The volume of the open capillary voids influ encing quantity of frozen water, depends on the water-cement ratio (W/C) and deg ree of cement hydration. With increase W/C increases both total volume of open capillary voids and their average diameter, that also worsens frost resistance. The second characteristic defining capillary porosity of concrete is degree of cement hydration which depe nds on cement strength, rate of hardening, time and conditions of concrete harde ning. 108 Cycles of freezing and thawing Mineral admixtures in frost-resistant concrete especially with the large water requirements are undesirable. At the same time, it is experimentally shown that concrete with non -large maintenance of ground granulated slag or fly ash may be satisfactory frost-resistant, especially at adding in concrete an entrained air. Increase of specific surface of cement over 400 m2/kg reduces frost resistance of concrete. Such W/C super-fine cements are characterized by large shrinkage. Fig.6.2. Relationship between frost resistance and water-cement ratio (W/C) of c oncrete: 1 Air-entrained concrete; 2 - Non-air-entrained concrete 109 Air-entraining admixtures are produced in the form of the concentrated solutions

, pastes or in the form of dry and easily soluble powder. Measurement of frost r esistance. The standardized method of an estimation of frost resistance of concr ete is characterized by number of cycles of freezing and thawing of specimens un der standard conditions of test without essential strength decrease. The system of normalization of frost resistance offered by us according to which number of cycles of freezing and thawing (F) of laboratory specimens is not giv en; a class of frost resistance of concrete is more rational. For example: 1 class non-large frost resistance (F=50 to 150), 2 class - large frost resistan ce (F =150 to 300), 3 class - high frost resistance (F=300 to 500), 4 class - especially high frost resistance (F> 500). All methods of definition o f concrete frost resistance can be divided in experimentally-calculated and calc ulated methods. Experimentally-calculated methods define corresponding experimental parameters ( strength, modulus of elasticity, water absorption, etc.) and then approximate nu mber of cycles of freezing and thawing of concrete. 110 Calculated methods allow to define approximately frost resistance of concrete "a priori" that is without preliminary trial mixes. Such methods represent speci al interest at designing (proportioning) of frost-resistant concrete mixtures. A t the same time, calculated concrete mixtures necessary to check experimentally. As a result of statistical processing experimental data we offered the followin g formula for determination of frost resistance of concrete (F): F = (10 kF ) 1 , (6 .1)

V + V F air con r = (6.2) ,

F - modified compensa ory fac or can be de ermined by

e formula: k

where - fac or depending on en K=170);

e kind of cemen (for ordinary normal Por land cem

Vw where V volume of entrained air voids, %; V volume of concrete air contr voids occurring as the result of cement contraction, %; V - volume of w water freezing at -200C in the concrete. 111 The equation of the compensatory factor can be modified as follows: V 10 + , 0 06C F ir

= , (6 .3) k W 5 . 0 C + 1 ( 1000 f . c )

and mixing wa er, kg/m3;

degree of cement hydr tion. For c lcul tion of

w ere

compac ing fac or of concre e; C, W-quan i ies of cemen c.f degr

ee of cement hydr tion () its rel tionship with compressive strength of the cemen t stone c n be used. For ex mple, T.P wers presented this dependence in the form of the formul : R = 2383, (6.4) c.s where R compressive strength of the cement stone (MP ).

c.s 112 Comp rison of c lcul ted v lues of frost resist nce under the formul (6.1) nd experiment l v lues of Portl nd

Cement Associ tion re shown in nd th wing

ng Fig.6.3. zie s of fre The Americ n d t differ higher e, cycle v lues of frost resist nce t V 2%, ir

th t it is possible to expl in higher norm lized decre se of strength of ost resist nc

Fr 5 %. Air content, %

concrete specimens

25 % inste d of

Fig.6.3. Effect of entr ined ir on frost resist nce of concrete: 1 from l bor tory tests (PCA d t ); 2 from formul (6.1) ( = 0,7, = 170, C = 400 kg/m3, W = 200 kg/m3) 113 6.2. Concre e resis ance o empera ure influences Tempera ure rise a ardening of concre e accelera es c emical reac ions of ydra ion and posi ively influenc es on grow of concre e s reng . Essen ial accelera ion of ardening processes begins a empera ures from 70 o 95C and especially a 170 o 200C. However a n o enoug quan i y of mixing wa er in concre e mix ure influence of e raised empera ures slows down process of ydra ion and reduces s reng of concre e. Fo r produc ion of durable concre e i is impor an o reduce o minimum i s deform a ion a empera ure influence.

114 Forma ion of cracks in massive concre e

resis ance: J k

s . m = , (6. 5)

Cri erion

c arac erizes

ermal cracks

s ruc ures usually as

ermal c arac er.

Occurrence of ermal s rains in concre e probably no only a i s ex ernal ea ing, bu also as a resul of a self- ea ing due o exo ermic reac ion of ydra ion.

Q tion,

hydr where - maximal d forma ion of a m.s

s r ching;

concrete kJ/kgK ; conc ete density, H kg/m3; Q heat of hyd ation (heat evolution), kJ/m3; f ctor of line r temper ture exp nsion. Age, d ys Fig.6.4. He t evolution t hydr tion of compounds of cement clinker 115 The norm lized he t evolution (kJ/m3) for m ssive concrete structures c n be det ermined from condition of limit tion of concrete temper ture to the cert in g e of h rdening by the following: C Q = (t t ), (6.6) K c o where

specific heat capacity of concrete kJ/kgK; t maximal cr fac or depending on condi

(critical) temperature (Celsius) of hardened concrete;

a of

specific heat capacity of

(Celsius) of the fresh concrete after its finishing; conc ete density, kg/m3. 116 St ength, % Intensive dest uctive p ocesses begin at heating conc ete to tempe atu e mo e than 200C.

finely divided mine al admixtu es can be added into cement o conc ete mixes, that chemically eact with calcium oxide, esist to heats and educe sh inkage of cement

Tempe atu e of heating, 0C stone at heating. Fig.6.5. Effect of tempe atu e on st ength of conc ete: 1 Po tland cement 70% + T epel 30%; 2 Po tland cement 70% + Pumice 30%; 3 Po tland cement 117 6.3. Pe meability Pe meability of conc ete cha acte izes its ability to conduct gases and liquids at a ce tain p essu e diffe ence. Pe meability of conc ete is defined by a facto of pe meability - the quantity of a liquid getting th ough unit of the a ea of the specimen in unit of time at a g adient of a p essu e equal 1. In conc ete t he e a e capilla ies of the va ious size, the efo e va ious mechanisms of moving of gas and liquids can simultaneously ope ate. Wate tightness Two no mative cha acte istics of wate tightness a e possible to use: 1. Maximal p essu e of wate (W, MPa) which standa d specimens with height and diamete 150 mm can sustain without wate infilt ation. 2. Coefficient of wate filt ation t h ough a conc ete defines the quantity of wate getting th ough unit of the a ea fo a time unit, at a g adient of wate p essu e equal 1. The coefficient of wate filt ation th ough conc ete can be used fo dete minati on of pe meability fo othe liquids:

Fo

heat esistance inc ease,

ions of concre e cooling (K1);

empera ure

( / ) = (/ ), (6.7) f w

w 118 /sec /sec , cm1 , cm -1 -12 10 10 K f K f on on l ra i fi fil ra i of ofenci

oefficienC oeffiC Capillary porosi y, % Wa er-cemen ra io Fig.6.6. Rela ions ip be ween Fig.6.7. Rela ions ip be ween permeabili y and capillary porosi y of permeabili y and wa er-cemen ra io of

w ere a er;

and - coefficien of permeabili y and viscosi y of liquid differen and - coefficien of fil ra ion and wa er viscosi y. f

from w

e cemen s one e cemen s one

119

) is defined as: f cmp

R m , (6.8) f = w cmp Kf, cm/sec

w are de ermined by fea ures of concre e mix ures, condi ions and dura ion of ardening, e c.

Effec ive way of decreasing of concre e permeabili y is adding organic or inorganic admix ures in o concre e mix. R As organic ma erials apply surfacecmp, MPa ac ive and polymeric admix ures . Fig. 6.8. Rela ions ip be ween coefficien Inorganic ma erials for decrease of of fil ra ion of concre e (Kf) and

w ere

and m - fac ors w ic values

As i is experimen ally s own, rela ions ip be ween coefficien ra ion (K ) and i s compressive s reng (R

of concre e fil

permeabili y are presen ed by various

"+" From Elbakidze, sal s, clays and ac ive mineral ""Our experimental data admixtures (p zz lans). ) 120 After pr ducing c ncrete's c nstructi ns, decrease in its permeability can be re ached by pr cessing f c ncrete surface by waterpr f substances and the substan ces chemically reacting with minerals f cement st ne with f rmati n f ins lubl e c mp unds r c vering surface by pr tective materials. 6.4. C rr si n resistan ce Degree f aggressive effect f an envir nment is defined by its chemical c mp si ti n and a c mplex f the fact rs describing c nditi ns f c ntact f envir nmen t and c ncrete. Cement st ne c nsists f alkaline chemical c mp unds, theref re the m st intensi ve c rr si n f c ncrete ccurs at influence f the envir nment c ntaining water s luti ns f acids n it. Salts, in rganic and rganic substances can be als a ggressive t c ncrete. The degree f aggressive influence f liquids depends n c ncentrati n f hydr g en i ns (pH), am unt f carb nic acid (CO ), salts, caustic alkalis, 2 sulfates. Oils and s lvents als are aggressive liquids. 121 Rcmp, % A Rcmp, % B QCaO, % QCaO, % . 6.10. Effect of dissolution of calcium hydroxide on compressive strength of cemen t stone (A) and concrete (B): QCaO - Amount of dissolved calcium hydroxide, %; Rcmp Compressive strength of cement stone and concrete, % From Moskvin classification, dissolution processes of lime and its washing away from concrete concern to corrosion of first type. 122 Corrosion of the second type is caused by chemical reactions between the product s of hydration of cement and acids or salts which affect concrete. Calcium salts of usually well water-soluble appear as a result of action of acids. Corrosion of the second type is also caused by magnesium salts, often presents in large am

  

    

 

 

compressive s reng

(Rcmp):

 

          

 

ount in underground and sea water (15.5...18% from total salts content). At magn esia corrosion appears amorphous mass of Mg(OH)2 decreasing strength of concrete along with soluble salts. Corrosion of the third type develops in concrete from internal stress due to accumulation of insoluble salts in the capillaries of co ncrete. The most widespread corrosion of this type is sulfate corrosion which ta kes place in cement stone under action of ions. 2 SO 4 123 Ettringite appears in the cement st ne under the acti n f sulfate water: 3 Al O 6 2 3 2 + ( 3 SO 2H O 4 2 ) + 19H 2 = 3 Al O 3 SO H 31 O 2 3 4 2 Volume expansion and concrete destruction are often caused by ettringite formati on.

 

Active mineral admixtures (pozzolans) essentially increase sulfate resistance du e to chemical reaction with calcium hydroxide. 2 Water c ntaining m re than 1000 mg/Litre i ns SO4 cause mainly gypsum c rr si n due t accumulati n f gypsum in capillaries f th e cement st ne.

124 Durability f c ncrete in the terms f influence f aggressive envir nment is pr vided by applicati n f c ncrete with a high density, by use initial c mp nents with the pr per chemical c mp siti n and applicati n at a necessity the special measures f c ncrete's defense (applicati n f is lating materials, admixtures etc.).

125 CHAPTER 7 DESIGN OF NORMALCONCRETE MIXTURE L. Dv rkin and O.Dv rkin 7.1. General and tasks Design f c ncrete mixtures the main techn l gical pr blem, which decisi n def ines a level f perati nal reliability f c nstructi ns and degree f rati nal use f the res urces spent f r their manufacturing and installati n. The f under f practical meth d l gy f design f c ncrete mixtures is D.Abrams. He summari zed results f extensive experimental researches in Chicag Lab rat ry f P rtla nd cement Ass ciati n and f rmulated the primary tasks f design f c ncrete mix tures and meth ds f their decisi n. In m dern techn l gy designing f c ncrete mixture means a substantiati n and ch ice f a kind f initial materials and the ir rati s pr viding at set criteri n f an ptimality given requirements t a c ncrete mix and c ncrete. 127

increase in "predicting ability" f calculated meth d l gy that is an pp rtun ity f full c msiderati n f techn l gical fact rs and given requirements t c n crete; increase in efficiency f alg rithms f c ncrete mixtures design, their accura cy and speed.

In techn l gical practice meth d f designing c ncrete mixtures d c mpressive strength is the m st c mm n. Many pr perties f c y linked with c mpressive strength such as flexural and tensile ance t abrasi n, etc. H wever, dependence between strength and

with the require ncrete are simpl strength, resist fr stresistance

   

  

  

  

  

 

Actual directi ns

f devel pment f meth d l gy f c ncrete mixtures design are:

  

  

  

 

 

  

 

  

 

  

  

Special kind tructures f i n. Ability ed radiating

f the aggressive envir nment f r c ncrete is i nizing radiati n. S nuclear react rs are exp sed t the greatest degree i nizing radiat f c ncrete t keep their pr perties after radiati n acti n is call resistance.

 

Destructi ns f c ncrete under influence f vegetative and animal called bi l gical damages.

rganisms are

 

  

 

 

  

  

 

  

  

 

  

r strength and creep, etc. is n t always straight pr p rti nal. Their calculate d determinati n must be based n the c mplex f the special quantitative depende nces. M st devel ped and realized in practice there are 2 fact r tasks, it means that the given pr perties f c ncrete are c mpressive strength (R ) and cmp c nsistency f the mix (Slump r Vebe).

128 If there is a necessity in n rmalizati n f s me ther technical pr perties f c ncrete, except f r c mpressive strength, the pr blem f c ncrete mixtures desig n bec mes essentially c mplicated. At designing mixtures f vari us and in particular special kinds f c ncrete (hy dr technical, r ad, etc.) there are multi fact rs tasks. They can be divided int three subgr ups:

1With the n rmalized parameters unequiv cally c nnected with c mpressive strengt h f c ncrete; 2 With the n rmalized parameters uncertainly c nnected with c mpressive strength f c ncrete; 3 With the n rmalized parameters which have been n t c nnected with c mpressiv e strength.

129 Rspl, Rfl, Rcmp, MPa MPa MPa F r example, fr m Fig. 7.1 f ll ws, that if are n rmalized: c mpressive strength R 20 MPa, cmp

F r example, tasks with vari us given parameters f strength f t the first subgr up. At calculati n f c mp siti ns f such c he defining parameter fr m given pr perties f the c ncrete and g c mpressive strength are determined and established minimally water rati (C/W) which pr viding all set f pr perties.

c ncrete bel ng ncrete mixture t its c rresp ndin p ssible cement

   

  

  

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

  

flexural strength R 8,3 fl MPa and splitting tensile strength R 7,9 , spl that, obviously, the defining parameter is Rspl and necessary cementwater ratio providing all C/W three parameters of Fig. 7.1. Effect of cement-water ratio (C/W) on the properties, is equal 2.1. compressive strength (Rcmp), flexural strength (Rfl) and splitting tensile stren gth (Rspl) 130 Normalized parameters in tasks of the second subgroup of designing concrete mixtures alongside with 6 compressive strength can be 10 m creep, frost resistance, heat generation, etc. ys, Ca d8 at 2 Fig. 7.2 shows the example of ep relationship between creep and of cre quantity of the cement stone in ue

concrete at constant Val compressive strength. At constant water-cement ratio and therefore concrete strength, Quantity of cement stone in concrete, kg/m3 concrete creep can essentially Fig. 7.2. Effect of quantity of the cement stone in concrete differ depending on quantity of on the value of creep: 1 Compressive strength of concrete = 20 MPa; the cement stone in concrete. 2 Compressive strength of concrete = 30 MPa 131 For the tasks of concrete mixtures design of the third subgroup (for example, li ght concrete) water-cement ratio is not a determinative factor, providing the co mplex of the normalized properties. For such tasks is necessary to find other, s ubstantial for all normalized properties factor. Determination of necessary valu e of this factor becomes the main task of concrete mixtures design. 7.2. Selection of raw materials and admixtures Task of a choice of initial mater ials is the technical and economic problem defining efficiency of designed concr ete mixtures and an opportunity of achievement of demanded properties of concret e. The basic technical parameters at a choice of a kind of cement are: chemical com position, strength, rate of hardening, normal consistency and fineness. For an estimation of efficiency of use of cement the relative parameters describ ing the quantity of cement or its cost on unit of strength and also ratio betwee n strength of concrete and the quantity of cement are offered. 132 Active mineral admixtures (pozzolans) are added directly in concrete mixes and w idely applied to economy of cement and their most power-intensive component - ce ment clinker. "Cementing efficiency" or amount of cement saved at adding active mineral admixt ures depends on many factors characterizing their composition, structure, finene ss, terms of hardening, age of concrete, etc. The characteristic feature of a mo dern concrete technology is wide application of chemical admixtures for achievem ent of necessary concrete properties, declines of expense of financial and power resources at making concrete and at its application for constructions. Expenses for the admixture (E ) at production of concrete can be xa calculated as follows:

Ex = C A + Ex adt , (7 .1) a a a Where C - cost of the admixture per 1 m3 of concrete including necessary a transport costs; A - the specific amount of the admixture; adt Ex - the specific costs connected with additional processing of the a admixture, its storage, batching, change of the composition of concrete mixture, etc. 133 For manufacturers of concrete (concrete mix, products and structures) is importa nt to distinguish the economic effect provided by the admixture due to economy o f other resources during manufacture and effect reached at concrete application. Expenses on admixture (E ) at the production of concrete mix are justified, if x a the following condition is executed: Ex < Ex + Ex Ex ' Ex ' (7.2) , a i pr i pr

pr n c ncrete mix with ut admixture and with admixture. 134 f basic parameters

7.3. Calculati ns

admixture and with admixture; Ex and Ex '

ther pr ducti n expenses pr

Where Ex and Ex '

expenses n initial materials f c ncrete mix with ut i

f c ncrete mixture c mp siti n

Calculati n f cement water rati . M st widely used f rmula f r determinati n f cement water rati (C/W) is f ll w ing: R = R cmp c (C / W 5 . 0 ) (7 , .3) Where A c efficient, specified in Table 7.1 depending n the different fact rs; R strength f cement at 28 days, MPa; R c mpressive c cmp strength f c ncrete at 28 days, MPa.

Equati n f multiplicative c efficient pA can be presented as f ll ws: = 1in, (7.4)

Table 7.1 Recommended values of coefficien A (from V.Sizov) Con en s of armful

Kind of

subs ances (clay, sil , sof

Value of coefficien

A for concre e made

Ordinary ec nological informa ion allows o ake in o accoun in ive coefficien pA o 2 or 3 addi ional coefficien s .i 135

value of s reng

of i-fac or (i=1n). e mul iplica

W ere is a coefficien , aking in o accoun

addi ional influence on

 

Additi nal p ssibilities are pened at the use in the f rmula ce f rdinary multiplicative c efficient pA.

f strength in pla

e i

 

 

 

 

   

 

  

aggrega es par icles) in crus ed s one (gravel) and sand, % Crus ed Gravel Gravel river s one moun ain and marine Crus ed s one 0 (gravel) 0.64 0.6 0.57 Sand 0 Crus ed s one 0 (gravel) 0.61 0.56 0.53 Sand 3 Crus ed s one 1 (gravel) 0.58 0.53

wi

e use of

0.5 Sand 3 Crus ed s one 2 (gravel) 0.55 0.5 0.47 Sand 3 Crus ed s one 2 (gravel) 0.52 0.47 0.44 Sand 5 136 Addi ional possibili ies for expansion of range of e decided asks of designin g concre e mix ures are possible a e use of e modified cemen wa er ra io (C/ W) : mod C + D (C / W ) c.e = , (7.5) mod W + Vair

W ere

is con en of cemen in kg, commu able by 1 kg of mineral admix ure: D con en o f mineral admix ure, kg/m3; C and W accordingly con en s of cemen and wa er, kg /m3; V - volume of e en rained air, li ers per m3. air

C +

R = pAR c.e 0.5 . (7.6) cmp c W + V

air

c mpressive c cmp strength f c ncrete at 28 days, MPa. 137 The c efficient f cementing efficiency can be easily defined fr m experimental da ta f r the c ncretes with identical strength by the f ll wing: C C K 1 2 = , (7.7)

 

Where R strength

f cement at 28 days, MPa; R

 

In

is case, formula (7.3) can be presen ed as follows:

- coefficien of "cemen ing efficiency" of mineral admix ures,

a c.e

c.e D

Applicati n f the m dified cement water rati is rati nal and useful in particula r f r the c ncrete mixtures design with the limited r small am unt f cement at adding f mineral admixtures. Calculati n f water c ntent. In practice f designing c ncrete mixtures the water c ntent f c ncrete mixture s is determined usually fr m empiric data by the graphs (Fig.7.3) r tables whic h ffer s me base values f water c ntent (kg/m3) depending n the indexes f c nsistency f c ncrete mix and specified depending n the features f initial mat erials. The rule f c nstancy f water c ntent, in acc rdance with which the wat er c ntent f r achievement necessary c nsistency f c ncrete mix remains practic ally permanent in the certain range f cement c ntent r cement water rati , is widely used thus. 138 3 /mg, k tera f w unt

Am Slump, cm Fig. 7.3. Relati nship between am unt f water per cubic meter and slump f c nc rete mix: 1 Sand (Fineness m dulus is equal 3); 2 9 Granite crushed st ne (Particle sizes are 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80 150 mm) 139 Calculation of aggregates content. One of basic tasks of optimization of concrete mixtures is determination of aggr egates ratio, which provides the minimum amount of cement. Widely applied in Rus sia and Ukraine the calculation-experimental methods of designing concrete mixtu res, use the coefficient () which ch r cterizes filling of voids between crushed stone (gr vel) p rticles with cement s nd p stes (mort r) (t king into ccount s ome stock of the p ste for chievement dem nded consistency of the concrete mix) for determin tion of qu ntities of s nd nd crushed stone (gr vel).

c ntent f cement in the c ncrete with mineral admixture; D l admixture.

  

 

   

 

   

Where C

c ntent f cement in the c ncrete with ut mineral admixture; C 1

am unt f minera

    

Qu ntities of co rse nd fine ggreg tes c n be e sily defined by decision of sy stem of two equ tions of m teri l b l nce. The first equ tion expresses equ lity of volume of the concrete mix to the sum of bsolute volumes of the initi l com ponents of concrete, the second conformity of volume of the cement s ndy p s te (mort r) to volume of voids in the co rse ggreg tes (t king into ccount som e stock of the p ste for chievement dem nded consistency of the concrete mix): 140 C W F C g g

+ + + =1000 c w f ag . ag . c C W F C ag + + = ag (7.

, 8) g

. c c w f ag . ag . c . b Whe e C, W, F , C acco dingly quantities of cement, wate , fine and ag ag coa se agg egates, kg/m3; , , acco dingly specific g avity c w f.ag c.ag (weight pe unit absolute volume of ing edients of conc ete) of cement, wate , f ine and coa se agg egates, kg pe lite ; volume of voids in c.ag coarse aggregates, including space between particles; bulk density b.c.ag

of coa se agg egates, kg pe

lite .

The efo e: 1000 C = , (7.9) ag 1 ag . c + ag . c ag . c . b Fag = (1000 C / W / C / c w ag ag . c ) (7 . .10) f ag

. 141 F om Table 7.2 the coefficient c n be found. T ble 7.2

Cement content, kg/m3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 250 1.26 1.32 1.38 300 1.3 1.36 1.42 350 1.32

Coefficient (pl stic consistency of concrete mixes) V lue of io

t w ter cement r t

1.38 1.44 400 1.31 1.4 1.45 500 1.44 1.52 600 1.52 1.56 Notes: 1. W ter dem nd of fine ggreg tes is equ l 7%. 2. For stiff concrete mix es (C < 400 kg/m3) = 1.05...1.15. 142 7.4. Correction of design concrete compositions Inevit ble devi tions of ctu l indexes of properties of concrete mixes nd concretes from c lcul ted stipul t e cert in pproxim tions of c lcul ted compositions of concrete. Adjustment of c lcul ted compositions is m de experiment lly in l bor tory. Depending on poss ibilities of testing l bor tory nd terms of construction works, n mount of l bor tory works t experiment l correction of composition of concrete c n be diff

It is necess ry to t ke into ccount th t t production conditions, s nd nd cru shed stone (gr vel) h ve some humidity unlike l bor tory (nomin l) compositions of concrete, which define for dry initi l m teri ls. 143 At m nuf cture of concrete, the qu ntities of fine (F

p. g (C , kg/m3) ggreg tes incre se on m ss of w ter which is: p. g F = F 1 ( + H ), (7.11) p g . g

f g . C = C 1 ( + H ), (7. 12) p g . g g

, kg/m3)

nd co rse

erent. Complete djustment c n be t experiment l correction of ll p r meters o f concrete mixture: w ter content, w ter cement r tio, r tio between different ggreg tes, volume of the entr ined ir. Sometimes, incomplete l bor tory djustm ent is possible (for ex mple, only correction of w ter content, providing given consistency with subsequent correction of other p r meters of mixture fter prod uction of concrete).

. c where F , C

l bor tory (nomin l) concrete mixture, kg/m3; H , H humidity of s nd f. g c. g nd crushed stone (gr vel), p rts of unit.

Accordingly for m nuf cture of concrete, qu ntity of w ter (W ) is diminished p

C H , (7. 13) p g

f g . g

c g . where W qu ntity of w ter in l bor tory (nomin l) concrete mixture, kg/m3. 144 CHAPTER 8 TYPES OF CONCRETE L. Dvorkin nd O.Dvorkin Along with ordin ry co rse ggreg te concrete, in construction re lso used typ es of concrete which differ from their structur l peculi rities, composition nd properties. There re considered fine gr ined concrete, high strength concrete, concrete, mo

s comp red to l bor tory mixture on m ss of w ter in

ggreg tes: W = W F H

qu ntities of dry s nd

nd crushed stone (gr vel) in g

dified by polymer dmixtures nd fiber reinforced concrete, concrete for speci l purposes hydrotechnic l, high strength, he t resist nt, f cing nd concrete for nucle r r di tion protection in the given ch pter. 8.1 Fine gr ined concrete M ximum co rseness of the ggreg te in fine gr ined concrete is 10 mm. S nd conc rete th t does not cont in co rse ggreg te is prev lent type of the concrete. Y. B genov suggested dependence of s nd concrete strength s empiric l formul :

R = AR 0 8 . (8 , .1) W + V

Where A is a coefficient: for high quality materials A=0.8, medium quality 0.75 and low quality 0.65; V is volume of entrained air; C, W a contents of cement and water, kg/m3; R strength of cement, MPa. c 146 Numerous experimental data shows, that there are a lot of factors besides cement -water ratio (C/W), cement strength and aggregate quality such as placeability o f fresh concrete, hardening conditions, presence and quantity of admixtures etc. which make influence on fine grained concrete strength. Quality of the aggregat e for fine grained concrete make much more influence on its basic properties tha n those for conventional heavy concrete. According to Y.Bagenov data replacement coarse sand for fine sand in concrete can reduce strength for 25...30%, and som etimes in 2...3 times. Concrete placeability parameter defines sand - cement rat io at given watercement ratio (Fig. 8.1). 147 FD, mm P, se

W/C W/C Fig. 8.1 Curves for selection of cement and medium coarseness sand ratio, that p rovides given value of flow diameter (FD) and placeability (P) of cement-sand mi xtures (according to Y.M.Bagenov) 148 Raised tensile (flexural) strength and compressive strength ratio is distinctive feature for fine grained concrete (Fig. 8.2). Rt, Rf, 10 9 Structure peculiarities make 8 influence on deformation properties of fine grained concrete. 7 They have modulus of elasticity at 6 20...30% lower and higher 5 shrinkage and creep than ordinary 4 concrete. Deformability and creep 3 can be reduced considerably due 2 to the harshness of concrete mix, application of force compacting 1 method. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Rcmp,

Fig.8.2. Dependence of concrete flexural strength (Rf) and tensile strength (Rt) on compressive strength (Rcmp): 1 - Rf of sand concrete, 2 - Rf of ordinary concrete, 3 Rt of sand concrete 149 8.2. High-strength concrete Until present there is no direct definition for the types of concrete, which can be considered as high-strength ones. Conditional border between conventional an d high-strength concrete varies as concrete technology develops. In the fifties of last century concrete grades 25-40 MPa considered to be high-strength, in the sixties 50-60 MPa. Now normally high-strength concrete is ranged as concrete wi th compressive strength at the age of 28 days 70-150 MPa. European standard EN20 6 envisage possibility of concrete production and application including 115MPa c oncrete grade. Mostly due to effective modifiers (superplasticizers and silica f ume) industrial technology of concrete production at given strength range have b een developed and appropriate standards were worked out. Such concrete is used w idely for load-carrying structures, monolithic framework of high-rise constructi ons (Table 8.1), bridges, platforms, vibrohydropressed tubes. There has been obt ained concrete with compressive strength up to 200 MPa. 150 Table 8.1 Examples of high-strength concrete application at the high-rise buildings construction Year Number of Concrete strength, City of construction floors MPa Montreal 1984 26 119.6 Toronto 1986 68 93.6 New York

1987 72 57 Toronto 1987 69 70 Paris 1988 36 70 Chicago 1989 82 78 Guangow, China 1989 63 70 Chicago 1990 65 84 Frankfurt 1990 58 45 Seattle 1990 58 133 Frankfurt 1991 51 112 151 High-performance concrete is a type of high-strength concrete which has compress ive strength at the age of 2 days 30-50 MPa, at the age of 28 days 60-150 MPa, frost resistance more than 600 cycles of freezing and thawing, water absorption less than 1-2%, abrasiveness no more than 0.3-0.4 g/cm2, adjustable deformability parameters. Obtaining high strength of heavy concrete at high-strength aggregates is possibl e due to increasing in concrete density and strength of cement stone (cohesive f actor) and contact zone (adhesive factor). The main direction of high-strength c oncrete obtaining is providing extremely low water-cement ratio (W/C) at compara tively high hydration degree of cement and necessary compacting of concrete mix. At low W/C ratio obtaining of optimal ratio between crushed stone and mortar co ntent makes positive influence on concrete strength. Cardinal way of W/C ratio reduction without significant workability degradation of concrete mix are superplasticizers (SP) adding. Unlike ordinary plasticizers reducing water consumption up to 10-5%, superplasticizers permit to reduce water consumption at 20-30% and more and to increase concrete strength. Concrete with high early age strength can be obtained by regulation of SP

and W/C ratio. It can be increased in 2-3 times at adequately high dosage of the admixture. 152 Concrete strength changes almost linearly with cement strength increasing. Binde rs of low water requirement (BLWR) obtained by fine milling of portland cement c linker and mineral admixture with adding powdered superplasticizer belongs to th e effective binders for high-strength concrete. BLWR have high specific surface (4000-5000 cm2/g), low water requirement (16-20%) and strength up to 100 MPa. Wa ter amount of concrete mixes on the basis of binders of low water requirement (B LWR) is lower at 35-50% than at the ordinary Portland cement (Fig.8.3). A B W, l/m3 W, l/m3 BLWR, W/C kg/m3 Fig.8.3 Relationship between water amount of concrete mixes (slump 1-4 cm) and B LWR content (A), water-cement ratio W/C (B) 153 In the fifties of the last century in Norway it has been suggested to improve co ncrete properties by adding ultra fine byproducts of metallurgy industry silica fume (SF) and it have been started wide production of concrete with SF si nce the middle seventies. It was found out that the most effective microsilica a dmixtures are byproducts of crystalline silica and ferrosilicium. They basically consist of amorphous silica (85-95% SiO ) in the form of 2 particles with diameter 0.1 mkm and have specific surface 1500-2000 m2/kg. Silic a fume adding to the concrete is effective in complex with superplasticizer admi xture taking into consideration increasing in mix water requirement. Also other ultra fine silica and aluminosilica materials can be effective in the composition with superplasticizer. 154 8.3. Polymer-impregnated and polymer-cement concrete Polymer-impregnated concrete. Polymer-impregnated concrete is concrete impregnat ed by polymer compositions or monomers with subsequent polymerization. Polymer-i mpregnated concrete is included into P-concrete group collecting different types of concrete where polymers are used bo th as admixtures and basic components. Polymer-impregnated concrete divides depe nding on impregnating material type: monomers (styrene, methylmetacrylate etc.), viscous organic binders (bitumen, paraffin etc.). At concrete impregnation its structure changes, at first open capillary porosity

decreases drastically, cement stone and aggregate contact zone is condensed. As a result water absorption reduces and compressive strength and other mechanical properties increase significantly. 155 There are shown comparison of the properties of ordinary initial concrete and im pregnated concrete at polymerization by metylmetacrylate (according to Y.Bagenov data) in Table 8.2. Table 8.2 Properties of ordinary initial concrete and polymer-impregnated concrete Paramet er Initial concrete Polymer-impregnated concrete Strength, MPa: compressive 30...50 100...200 tensile 2...3 6...19 flexural 5...6 14...28 Modulus of elasticity at compression, MPa 2.5.104...3.5.104 3.5.104...5.104 Limit deformation at compression 0.001 0.002 Bond strength with reinforcement, MPa 1...2 10...18 Shrinkage

50.105 0...5.105 Creep (40...60).105 (6...8).105 Electrical resistance, Om 105 1014 Water absorption, % 3...5 1 Frost resistance, cycles of freezing and 200 5000 thawing Corrosive resistance to sulfates and acids Insufficient High 156 Polymer-cement concrete. Polymer-cement concrete is concrete modified with polym er admixtures. Cresson had received first patent on application of polymer cemen t with latex admixture in 1923. Modified cement mixes differ from ordinary mixes due to their ability to water k eeping that increases when polymer-cement ratio increases. That permits to impro ve placeability, prevent drying and reach good adhesion with porous base. One of the main results of polymer admixtures adding is tensile strength increas ing of cement concrete and their deformability. At adding of polyvinylacetate (P VA) and latexes admixtures flexural strength increasing in 2-3 times. There is a lso observed increasing in limit extensibility and adhesion to old concrete and reinforcement. PVA adding as an admixture to mortars increases extensibility up to 2 times. At selection of the application area of polymer-cement mortars and concrete ther e are taken into consideration their specific properties and advantages (Tab.8.3 ). 157

Table 8.3 Technical application areas of mortars and concrete modified by latex (according to I. Okama) Materials group Materials assignment Floors for public buildings, storages, administration buildings, Floor coverings shops, toilets Road and abrasion Crosswalks, stairs, railway platforms, road coverings resistance coverings Concrete flat roofs, masonry blocks, water cisterns, swimming Watertight structu res pools, dikes for silage Mortars for adhesion of finishing, heat-insulating and other Binding composition s materials; Bonding new concrete to old one and new mortar to old one Drainpipes, floors of chemical plants, mortars for acid resistant Anticorrosive tiles, basements for machinery, floors for chemical laboratories, compositions drug-store storages Ship decks, bridges coverings, trains floors, coverings for Toppings pedestrian overpasses 158 8.4. Fiber reinforced concrete Fibrous or fiber reinforced concrete is a group of composite materials including short chopped fibers in cement matrix. There are different types of fiber made of steel, glass, synthetic materials, asbestos, carbon etc. For composite materi als with discrete fibers modulus of elasticity (E) and flexural strength (R ) ca n be approximately calculated from following: fl E=KrEfVf+EmVm, (8.2) Rfl= KrRfVf+RmVm , (8.3) Where K reinforcement coefficient of concrete, E and E modulus of r f m elasticity of fiber and matrix, R and R flexural strength of fibers and f

m matrix, V and V volume content of fibers and matrix. f m 159 Typical stress strain diagram of fibrous concrete consists of 3 zones (Fig.8.4, 8.5). 3 zone 2 zone a Stress tress, MP 1 zone S Strain Fig. 8.4. Typical curve of stress strain dependence for cement Strain, % compositions reinforced by fiber Fig. 8.5. Curves of stress strain dependences for several fiber reinforced cemen t composites: 1 Portland cement steel wire, 1.5% by volume; 2 The same, 1% by volume, 3 High-alumina cement fiberglass, 0.067% by volume; 4 Portland cement zirconium fiberglass, 5% by volume; 5 Portland cement polyamide fiber, 1.93% by volume; 6 gypsum fiberglass, 1% by volume 160 At fibrous concrete destruction maximum work done at burst (W ) is expressed b by formula: Wb=VfRflcr/12, (8.4) Where R flexural strength of fibers, V volume content of fibers; l is f f

cr critical length of fiber. Steel fibrous concrete. Steel fibrous concrete is the most common fibrous concre te on the basis Portland cement reinforced by steel fiber. Steel fiber is presen ted usually by cuts of wire. Fibers can have different cross-area round, oval etc. with dimensions from 0.2 to 1.6 mm and length from 10 to 160 mm . Fibers surface can be sectional and smooth. Amount of added fibers mostly vari es from 0.5 to 2 % by volume. Adding into concrete steel fibers in the amount of 1-1.5% by volume increases its tensile strength up to 100%, flexural strength u p to 150-200%, compressive strength increases at 1025%. 161 Glass-fiber reinforced concrete. Along with steel fibrous concrete there is posi tive experience of application of glass-fiber reinforced concrete (glass-fiber r einforced cement) that allows reducing additionally weight of constructions. The ir production is based on adding into cement paste or cement mortar alkaline-res istant fiber in the amount of 5% by mass. Tensile strength and flexural strength of glass-reinforced mortar increases the strength of nonreinforced mortar in 23 times even after 10 years of air-dry hardening. Maximum deformation caused by limit tensile stress in glass-reinforced mortar is in 10 times more than in nonreinforced mortar. There are combined successfully properties of initial materia ls and high strength and durability is reached in the composites on the basis of mineral binders reinforced by glass fiber. Fiber made of non-alkaline aluminoborosilicate glass has the largest strength. A lkaline oxides reduce strength of a fiber. 162 Tensile strength of glassreinforced cement increases linearly when glass fiber content increases (Fig. 8.6). MPa ss,reSt Fig.8.6. Variation of tensile strength characteristics (endlong) of glass-reinforced cement depending on glass fiber content: 1 limit strength, 2 stress that causes cracks formation in cement stone, 3 conventional proportional limit Fiber content, % 163 Fiber-reinforced concrete with polypropylene fibers. Polypropylene fibers are wi

despread for concrete reinforcement. Their distinctive features are good compati bility with Portland cement and high resistance to hardening binders. Adding to concrete mix 0.1 1% (by volume) propylene fibers allows to reduce segr egation of the mix and improve it pumpability, to increase significantly deforma bility and crack resistance. 8.5 Special concrete Hydrotechnical concrete. Hydrotechnical concrete is used for constructions manufacturing and installation structures that periodically or con stantly are in the water. This type of concrete use widely at installation hydro power, irrigation, transport structures, structures of industrial hydraulic engi neering, water supply, sewerage etc. 164 Requirements to hydrotechnical concrete are differential taking into considerati on zonal distribution of concrete into structures (Tab. 8.4). Table 8.4 Requirements to hydrotechnical concrete by zones Non-massive Massive structures structures External zone Internal zone Zones concerning water level Requirements to concrete l l l e e e water lev lev lev

le water water le water water le water er er er und over over over variab und variab und variab Water resistance + + + + + + + + Watertightness + + + + + + + + Frost resistance + + + + Low +

+ + + + + heat generation Notice. Sign "+" means that the requirement demands. 165 Complex of specified requirements to hydrotechnical concrete has been provided b y choice of initial materials and admixtures and design of concrete mixtures acc ording to service conditions taking into consideration recommended restrictions (Table 8.5). Table 8.5 Recommended limit values of water-cement ratio for hydrotechnical concrete Non-m assive reinforced External zone of structures Zone and performance concrete structures in the of massive constructions in conditions water the water sea fresh sea fresh Zone of variable level at climate conditions: very severe 0.42 0.47 0.45 0.48 severe 0.45 0.50 0.47 0.52 moderate 0.50 0.55 0.55 0.58 Underwater zone: pressure 0.55 0.58 0.56 0.58 nonpressure 0.60

0.62 0.62 0.62 Overwater zone, washed 0.55 0.60 0.65 0.65 episodical y 166 Heat resistant concrete. Heat resistant concrete is used for facing the fireboxe s, in the construction of flues, chimneys, at thermal stations construction, in the elements of protective walls and floors of nuclear power plants. Conventiona l heavy cement concrete is applicable for production of concrete structures expo sed to long lasting influence of temperatures up to 200 . Depending on limit allow able temperature of application heat resistant concrete are divided into classes from 3 to 16 (limit temperature of application is correspondingly from 300 to 1 600 C). It is also classified: - by fireproofness heat proof with fireproofness up to 1580 , fire proof from 1580 to 1770 and high fire proof more 1770 ; - by density in dry state heavyweight (density>1500 kg/m3) and lightweight (dens ity 1500 kg/m3); - by type of applied binder portland cement, slag portland cement, aluminous cem ent, magnesia cement, aluminophosphate binding agent etc. 167 Architectural concrete. Polymer concrete and mortars have improved finishing pro perties and raised adhesion to different bases. They are used for flooring in th e premises with intensive movement and high requirements to purity. Polymer ceme nt mortars are used also for adhesion of different facing materials, plasters an d facade decorations. Architectural expression of concrete can be achieved by special treatment to rea ch necessary texture. Radiation shielding concrete. - radiation and neutrons have the hi hest penetra ility amon all the radiation. A ility of material to a sor - radiation is in p roportion to its density. For decreasin neutrons flow in a material there must e elements with low atomic wei ht, as hydro en for example. Concrete is effecti ve material for iolo ical protection of reactor as if it com ines successfully at comparatively low cost hi h density and specified hydro en content in chemica lly ound water. To reduce thickness of shrouds of atomic power stations and fac tories that produce isotopes alon with normal wei ht concrete extra heavy concr ete with specific ravity from 2500 to 7000 k /m3 and hydrated concrete with hi h content of chemically ound water are used. For this purpose there are used he avy a re ates: ma netite, hematite or limonite iron ores, arite, waste metal, lead shot, etc. 168 As a result of ionized radiation qualitative chan es in concrete structure come a out, character and depth of which depend on concrete properties, type of initi al materials and exposure dose. Concrete expose causes density decreasin and enlar in linear dimensions of a re ate rains. There is also possi le transformation of minerals from crystallin

e to amorphous state that is accompanied y deformations of expansion. When expo sure occurs different defects of crystalline structure of a re ates are formed and accumulated. When amorphous fazes content increases in the structure of rock s and crystal dimensions reduce radiation resistance of the rocks increases.

169 CHAPTER 9 LIGHT-WEIGHT CONCRETE L. Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin Li htwei ht concrete is concrete with density up to 2000 k /m3. Li htwei ht conc rete is divided y structure on dense, aerated, no-fine concrete and cellular co ncrete. 9.1. Concrete on non-or anic porous a re ates Li htwei ht concrete y purpose i s divided on heat insulatin , structural-heat insulatin and structural (Ta .9.1 ). There are also special types of li htwei ht concrete accordin to conditions of their performance heat resistant, decorative, corrosively resistant, etc. Ta le 9.1 Technical characteristic of li htwei ht concrete Density, Compressive Heat conductivity, Concrete Purpose k /m3 stren th, MPa W/m0C

300-500 1.5-2.5 0.12-0.24 For heat insulation Structural-heat 500-1400 3.5-10 0.17-0.40 For enclosin structures

For load-carryin

insulatin

Heat insulatin

Modulus of elasticity of concrete reduces with exposure dose increases f accumulation of structural defects in a re ates and cement stone.

ecause o

Structural 1400-1800 15-50 0.58-0.4 structures 171 Density of li htwei ht concrete can e expressed y the formula:

V = v + 1

, (9 .1) c a

100 m

whe e and density of po ous agg egate g ains and cement-sand a m

porous aggrega e. S reng of lig weig concre e is correla ed wi eir densi y (Fig. 9.1). Gr ea influence makes volume of voids be ween aggrega e grains no filled wi cem en pas e. Mos of e formulas for lig weig concre e s reng are based on e ypo es is of s resses dis ribu ion be ween componen s of lig weig concre e under e ir des ruc ion. 172 T eir applica ion for concre e design is 3

mo ta , V volume of voids between g ains,

- volume concen ra ion of v

g/m

e, k

cre mix parame er. con lay

d cend

wa er ra io (Z): f dry exo V si y Z

= , (9. 2) Den W + P V + V a a air Where V , W, V , V are c a air

lig weig

concre e is modified cemen pa

Mix parame er single-valued wi

s reng

for

connec ed single-valued wi

cer ain defini e

impossible or difficul as if

ey are no

Com pressive strength of expanded clay concrete, M Pa correspondingly absolute volumes of Fig. 9.1 Effect of bulk density of aggregate cement, water, porous aggregate and air on density and strength of expanded-clay per 1 m3 of concrete mix, P is aggregate concrete on porous and quartz sand. a O n expanded clay sand at bulk density of porosity. expanded clay gravel, kg/m 3: 1 300; 2 400; 3 500; 4 600; 5 700; 6 800; O n quartz sand at bulk density of expanded clay gravel, kg/m 3: 7 300; 8 400; 9 5--; 10 600; 11 700; 12 - 800 173 Z Reference books and 0.5 experimental data processing (Fig. 9.2) 0.4 has shown that 0.3 strength of lightweight concrete on porous 0.2

aggregates is 0.1 connected with Z R parameter by linear C/W c, MPa dependence. 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 Fig.9.2. Strength (Rc) dependences of structural expanded clay concrete on cemen t-water ratio (C/W) and modified cement-water ratio (Z): 1 porosity of expanded clay = 0.4; 2 0.55; 3 0.7 174 9.2. Design of lightweight concrete with porous aggregates Design of lightweight concrete is oriented on preliminary determination of components content that pr ovides obtaining specified parameters at given conditions. In all cases design o f lightweight concrete with compressive strength must provide specified density. Design of lightweight concrete can be done: - at specified types of coarse and fine aggregates with given values of their de nsity; - at specified type and density of coarse porous aggregate with possible selecti on of sand type; - at selection both coarse and fine aggregates. Selection of coarse porous aggregate is conducted on the basis of empirical data that link their bulk density with density ( ) and st ength of conc ete c (R ). c 175

Statistical t eatment of known expe imental data shows the possibility of connec tion equation application: R = 0.008 b 1 , 88 . (9.3) a .

a .

Where R is strength of expanded clay gravel; b is bulk density of c.a c.a expanded clay g avel. Maximal possible density of coa se po ous agg egate at volume concent ation of p o ous agg egate =cons is limi ed by concre e densi y ( ) and density of c thei mo ta component. It can be found f om the equation: = a.

+ m(1 ) W (9.4 , ) evp Where

and a e co espondingly density of coa se agg egate g ains c.a m in cement paste and mo ta density; W

evp that fo ms additional po es volume. 176 W

its pa t, chemically bound with cement: W W , C 15 . 0 (9.5) evp Where C is quantity f cement. Density f m rtar part f lightweight c ncrete can be reduced by its p risati n due t adding f air entraining admixture. Required air c ntent (V ) in % t tra nsf rmati n f m rtar with density to ' can be found

m m f om condition: 100 V

ai

value can be found by gene al wate

is weight of evapo ated wate

content (W) of conc ete mix and evp

 

= 100 m (9 . .6) air m T aditional methods of lightweight conc ete design a e based on p elimina y assi gnment of cement consumption and volume concent ation of po ous agg egate on the basis of empi ical data, which take into conside ation st ength and density of conc ete, f esh conc ete wo kability, density and st ength of agg egate. Fo thi s pu pose both tabulated efe ence data and co esponding eg ession equations c an be used. 177 Volume concent ation of coa se po ous agg egate in lightweight conc ete ( ) can be found by formula (9.7) aking in o considera ion necessary s ock of cemen -sand mor ar be ween coarse aggrega e grains (K ): m = , (9 .7) Vg b m a . c m + a . c Whe e is density of conc ete, kg/m3; Vg is volume of voids between g ains c c.a of coa se agg egate; b

c.a m density, kg/m3. Fo conc ete with dense sand, its consumption can be found f om condition of abs olute volumes: Fa=c-1.15C-Cp.a, (9.8) Whe e F , C, C a e co espondingly quantities of dense sand, cement a p.a and coa se po ous agg egates, kg/m3; is density of conc ete, kg/m3. c 178 9.3. Conc ete on the basis of o ganic (wood) agg egates Wood wastes without p elimina y t eatment (sawdust, chips) o afte g inding (sl ips, hogged chips, wood wool) can be used as agg egates in building mate ials on the basis of mine al binde s. These mate ials can be subsumed to lightweight co nc ete a e cha acte ized by low density (300-800 kg/m3) and heat conductivity (0 .093-0.23 W/(m )), and also sufficient workability. Biological resistance and hard combustibility of the materials on their basis of mineral binders is provided by impregnation wood aggregates by mineralizers and their subsequent mixing with m ineral binders. Concrete with wood aggregates blemishes are high water absorptio n and comparatively low water resistance. Concrete on the basis of organic aggre gates as other types of concrete divides by application on heat insulating, stru ctural-heat insulating and structural. 179 All types of mineral binders from which Portland cement is the basic one can be used in the composition with wood aggregates. For reduction of harmful extractive materials quantity, initial product for wood aggregates production are seasoned in the storages for a certain time (soft woo d not less than 2 months, hard wood 6 months). At positive temperature seasoning reduces to 1 months at conditions of subsequen t grinding of wood into chips. Hogged chips of soft and especially hard wood are necessary steeped in the water or solutions of mineral. The last ones neutraliz ing action of harmful substances in the wood and fasten cement hardening in the same time. 9.4. No-fines and aerated concrete Both lightweight porous and ordinary heavy gravel and crushed stone aggregates a re used for obtaining no-fines concrete. Along with other types of lightweight c oncrete no-fines concrete can be used as material for monolithic and precast wal l structures and also for drainage systems and filters. 180

is bulk density of coa se agg egate; is mo ta

Strength of no-fines concrete depends both on quantity and strength of their cem ent content. Last one is defined basically by cement strength and watercement ra tio. Optimal content of cement paste (V ) in no-fines concrete can be found from c.p the condition: V = (9 , S .9) p . c

is total surface of aggregates grains.

Unlike no-fines concrete, aerate lightweight concrete has porous structure form e by component forming pores. By properties this type of lightweight concrete t akes interme iate place between concrete of ense structure an cellular concret e. Forming pores of lightweight concrete mix permits to use heavier porous aggre gate without ensity increasing, to re uce quantity or to refuse to use porous s an , to apply aggregate with gap gra ing. Raise viscosity an workability are c haracteristic for aerate concrete mixes. 181 R28, MPa

foam, gas or air-entraining a mixture. Foam makes pores usually in noaggregates concrete, air-entraining a mixtures mak e pores in mixtures with san , gas both mixtures with an without san . 0.35 0.4 0.45 W/CFig. 9.3. Relationship between no-fines concrete strength at 28

Forming pores for concrete can be

one by

Fineness an gra ation of the aggregate make influence on formation of structure an properties of no-fines concrete. Volume of voi s between grains also epen s on cement content.

Where is thickness of cement paste that film an

glue aggregates grains; S

  

ay (R28) an water-cement

ratio (W /C): 1concrete composition (cement: gravel by volume) 1:6; 2i em 1:7; 3i em 1:8; 4i em 1:10 182 9.5. Cellular concrete Cellular concrete (gas concrete) has been suggeste at first in 1889 by Czech re searcher Hoffman which use for mortars effervescence carbon ioxi e. In 1914 Ow lswort an Dyer (USA) were issue the patent on application of aluminum an zinc pow ers to form hy rogen bubbles in cement stone, making principles of mo ern g as concrete technology. Cellular concrete is manufacture from bin er, silica component, gas formers or foaming agents an water. Both clinker an non-clinker (slag-alkaline an others ) cements, lime, gypsum are bin ers for cellular concrete pro uction. Cellular c oncrete is referre to mostly effective materials for enclosing structures. At ensity 500-700 kg/m3 they permit to reach strength 3-5 P at optimal structure. Bas ic factors of cellular concrete strength increasing at keeping their density are more high fineness of components grinding and their grading, thorough mixing, s election of optimal mixes compositions and curing regime. 183 Aluminum powder is most common gas former. Powder adding provides start of gas e mission in alkaline environment after 1...2 min. Aluminum paste is used along wi th powder. Gas forming reaction proceeds in following way: 3 () + 2Al+ 6H O CaO 3 Al O 6 + 3 2 2 2 3 2

 

2 As the result of chemical reaction from 1 g of aluminum at normal conditions 1.2 54 litres of hydrogen is formed, at 50 hydrogen volume is 1.48 litres. As foaming agents there are used different surface-active agents (sulphite yeast, soap agen t, etc.) and other substances, which at intensive mixing with water make stable foams. Cellular concrete strength (R ) correlates closely with its density ( ). P actice c c fo st ength p ediction of these mate ials the e a e used diffe ent empi ical eq uations, fo example: R = 2 (9.10) ,

Where is s reng -densi y ra io, a can vary wi in wide limi s. For au oclave d cellular concre e 10, for non-au oclaved cellular concre e 7,5...8,5. 184 0 S rinking deforma ions of 0.5 au oclaved cellular concre e made

/m 1 reac 0.5-0.7 mm/m and more, and 1.5 for non-cemen and non-au oclaved concre e 2 mm/m and more 2 inkage, mm (Fig.9.4); swelling deforma ions S r

on

e basis of cemen and sand

2.5 depend on s orage condi ions and are 0.4-1.6 mm/m. Age, days Fig. 9.4. Rela ions ip be ween s rinking deforma ions of cellular concre e and age of ardening:

1 au oclaved concre e; 2 non-au oclaved concre e 185 CHAPTER 10 CONCRETE ON THE BASIS OF NON-CLINKER BINDERS. MORTARS AND DRY PACK MIXES L. Dvorkin and O.Dvorkin Along wi concre e on e basis of Por land cemen and ig -alumina cemen er e are used differen concre e on e basis of o er non-organic and organic bind ers in cons ruc ion indus ry. Mor ars are composi e e erogeneous ma erials w ic differ from concre e only by absence of coarse aggrega e and poured as a rule on e basis wi in layer. 10.1. Silica e concre e Unlike ordinary concre e, silica e concre e is produced on e basis of limesand binders of au oclave curing. T e same classifica ion by s ruc ural fea ures and purposes as for ordinary concre e is appropria e for silica e concre e. Ex ension of silica e ma erials s ar ed from 1880 w en V.Mic aelis as sugges ed silica e brick. Founda ional idea of silica e ma erials ob aining is lime-sand composi es ardening as a resul of ydrosilica e syn esis a raised empera ur e and pressure of vapour. 187 Fine powder lime-sand binder a as as a rule ig ac ivi y (25-35% of ac ive +Mg O) can be substituted by lime-slag or fly ash binder with lower activity by cont ent of active calcium and magnesium oxides (10-15%). At that lime content reduce s in the mix approximately in 2-3 times. Silicate concrete strength varies within wide range: from 5-10 MPa for lightweig ht concrete to 80-100 MPa for high-strength heavyweight concrete. Dense silicate concrete strength at anhydrous lime application can be determined approximately by formula:

S s. g 6 , 1

R = 05 . 4 + , 18 (10 .1)

+ 100 C/ W 1

Where S is specific surface f sand, m2/kg; C/W is cement water rati . g.s. When hydrated lime is used:

R = 16 l

14

(10.2) ,

+ W

Where C is lime-sand binder content, kg/m3; W quantity of l water, kg/m3. 188 Content of active calcium oxide in silicate concrete mixture varies depending on required concrete strength taking into consideration fineness modulus of sand ( Tab.10.1, Fig.10.1, 10.2). Table 10.1 Content of active , % by mass of compacted silicate concrete mix Strength of Sand concrete, ultra fine fine medium coarse MPa 15 6.5 6.2 6 5.8 25 7.5 7.2 7 6.5 30 9 8.5 8 7.5 40 10.5 9.5 8.5 8 189

h, MPa h, MPa trengt trengt ssive s ssive s Compre Compre 7.5 15.0 22.5 27.5 Content of sand, % Content of active in mass, % Fig. 10.2. Relationship between silicate Fig. 10.1. Effect of active in the concrete strength and sand content with mixture on compressive strength of specific surface: lime-sand specimens: 1 - 4500 cm2/g; 2 - 2500 cm2/g; 1 on the basis of quartz sand; 3 - 1500 cm2/g. 2 on the basis of feldspar sand. Content of active in the mixture is 12.5% 190 10.2. Slag and fly-ash concrete Concrete on the basis of lime-slag and lime-ash binders, gypsum-slag, sulfate sl ag and slag non-clinker cements can be classified as such concrete. Slag-alkalin e concrete can be referred to a separate group. Chemical activity of slag is def ined by quality coefficient , calcula ed according o following formulas: - a magnesium oxide (MgO) con en up o 10% CaO + Al O + MgO

2 3 = (10.3) , SiO + TiO 2 2 - a magnesium oxide (MgO) con en more 10% CaO + Al O + 10

2 3 = SiO + TiO 2 2 + (MgO 10) (10. . 4) 191 Ash is divided n high calcium ( >20%) and low-calcium ( <20%). Crystalline phases are p revalent for the first one, and glass and amorphous-like clay material is domina nt for the second one. High-calcium ash can be divided on low-sulfate (S <5%), ob tained by coal and peat burning and sulfate 3 (S >5%) obtained by shale's burning. 3 Slags and ash acquire ability to harden at alkaline, line, sulfate and combined types of activation. Slag and fly ash materials with different intensity harden in normal conditions and at steam curing depending on their mineralogical compos ition, chemical composition and active phases content, fineness, type and concen tration of activator. As activators of slag and fly-ash binders are used anhydrous lime, calcium sulph ate hydrate or hemihydrate are used. Application of hydrated lime gives worse re sults than lump quicklime.

Cellular, fine-grained, light-weight and heavy-weight concrete are manufactured on the basis of slag and fly ash binders. Comparatively high quality of these ma terials is obtained at steam curing. 192 10.3. Slag-alkaline concrete Concretes for which common feature is slag-alkaline binders application are incl uded into group of slag-alkaline concrete. Fundamentals of theory and technology of National University of Construction and Architecture (Kiev, Ukraine) have be en worked out by V. Glukhovsky. Approximate composition of heavy-weight concrete, %: ground granulated slag 15.. .30; alkaline component 0.5...1.5; aggregates - 70...85. Physical and mechanical properties of slag-alkaline concrete can vary with wide range by selecting raw materials, varying concrete mix composition and applying different technological processes. Parameters of the most of these type concrete properties are close t o parameters of cement concrete and in some instances they can be appreciably hi gher. Until present almost forty years experience is gathered in application of slagal kaline concrete in construction industry. There is shown effectiveness of produc tion of wide range constructions, assigned for service in different including ha rd conditions. 193 1 day 1.0 R e c, MPa 0.8 ressiv 0.6 gth 0.4 comp stren 0.2 0.0 Relative Activator dosage, % 28 days e 1.0 Humidity of concrete mixture, %

0.8 Fig. 10.3. Relationship between slag alkaline ressiv 0.6 concrete compressive strength (R gth c), humidity of mixture and weight part of clayey particles in the comp 0.4 aggregate: stren 0.2 1 weight part of clayey particles in the aggregate 1.2 %; 0.0 2 idem 5.2 %; 3 idem 6.4 %; 4 idem 8.8 % Relative (according to G.Skurchinskaya data) Activator dosage, % Fig.10.4. Relative strength of alkaline slag binder depending on type and content of activator (from I.Blackmeyer data) 194 10.4. Gypsum concrete Gypsum concrete is concrete produced on the basis of gypsum binders. Building bl ocks, masonry blocks, panels, assigned particularly for internal walls and cross walls are produced from gypsum concrete. Application area of such concrete is li mited mostly because of their insufficient water resistance. According to data o btained by

effec of wa er-gypsum ra io (W/G) on , MPa

ng

effec of wa er-cemen ra io on cemen

gypsum concre e s reng

is similar

A.Volgensky and .Ferronskaya,

s re

ssivere mp Co 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 W/G Fig.10.5. Influence of wa er-gypsum ra io (W/G) on gypsum s reng : 2- hemihydr te gypsum;

195 Water- ypsum ratio depends on ypsum inder type, temperature of mixin water an d method of formin of elements. There are o tained concrete with stren th 5-10 MPa on the asis of ypsum inder . Application of hi h-stren th ypsum, anhydrous ypsum and estrich ypsum permi ts to increase stren th up to 20 MP. Concrete strength at application of composit e gypsum-cement-pozzolanic and gypsum-slag-cementpozzolanic binders on the basis of alabaster is 7.5-20 MPa, on the basis of alpha gypsum is 15-40 MPa. Quality and nature of aggregates make significant influence on strength of gypsu m concrete. 10.5 Mortars Lime, gypsum, cement and composite (cement-lime, cement-clay) mortars are the mo st common in construction. Basic properties of mortars are workability and water-retaining capacity. Provid ing of required workability of mortar mixtures without segregation can be reache d by adding of plastizing admixtures and fillers. 196 Water-retaining capacity prevents segregation of mortar mixture. In view there, are reduced water-binder ratio (due to right proportion), ultra-fine mineral fil lers, plastizing and special water-retaining admixtures. For strength forecastin g of cement-lime mortars are widely used N.Popov formula. At pouring on dense ba sement, mortars strength (R ) is calculated by m formula: Rm=0.25Rcem(C/W-0.4), (10.5) Where R strength of cement, MPa; C/W cement-water ratio. cem At water drawoff by porous base in the mortars with different C/W, strength of m ortars (R ) can be calculated as follows: m

1, 3

-hemihydrate ypsum.

concre e s reng

(Fig.10.5).

Rm=KRcem(C-0.05)+4, (10.6) where - coefficien of sand quali y: for coarse sand =2.2; medium sand =1.8; fine sand =1.4; C - cemen con en . 197 Composi es of mor ars are selec ed by ables or calcula ion and specified by exp erimen al way in e con ex of specific ma erials. S reng increase of masonry mor ars a cold-wea er cons ruc ion can be provided by adding of a series of c emical admix ure. 10.6 Dry pack mixes

- main purpose ( ype of work);

- condi ions of applica ion. 198 T ere are iden ified differen mixes by purpose: masonry, facing, join ing, s op ping, plas ering, gluing, sealing mixes e c.; by ype of basic binder

and and mac ine coa ing, for porous ma erials e c. T e same mix can be of en us ed a differen cons ruc ion. Adjus men of ec nological and performance proper ies of dry pack mixes is reac ed by adding differen c emical admix ures T ickening, dispersing, foaming, defoaming, wa er-repelling, conserva ive agen s e c. are included in o e complex of special c emical admix ures. 199 Documen Ou line

BASICS OF CONCRETE SCIENCE CONTENTS FOREWORD INTRODUCTION. SHORT HISTORICAL ESSAY 1. An ique concre e

2. Pioneer researc of cemen

concre e

gypsum, an ydra e, ca ion level cos n ardened s a e of, ig -s reng ,

lime, magnesium, cemen , cemen -lime, polymer e c.; by modifi -effec ive, s andard, ig -quali y; by c arac eris ic fea ure i ad esive, wea er-proof, fas - ardening, wa erproof, fros pro self-leveling, elas ic e c.; by applica ion condi ions

e mos significan fea ure in ardened s a e;

- modifica ion level of

e mix ure by admix ures;

ype of binder in

e mix ure;

Modern cons ruc ion indus ry is c arac erized by more wide ck mixes, accura ely ba c ed and mixed in plan condi ions mixes, wi adding wa er a building si e. A cons ruc ion dry pack mixes is demons ra ed in ig level of mec aniza c ion of cons ruc ion erms, decreasing labour con en and ing ig quali y. Dry pack mixes are classified by:

applica ion of dry pa mor ars and concre e work effec iveness of ion, significan redu working cos s, provid

CHAPTER 1. CONCRETE. RAW MATERIALS 1.1. Concre e. General 1.2. Binders. Classifica ion. Na ure of binding proper ies 1.3.Por land cemen and i s ypes 1.4. Hydraulic non por land cemen binders 1.5. Concre e aggrega es 1.6. Admix ures 1.7. Mixing wa er CHAPTER 2. CONCRETE MIXTURES 2.1. S ruc ure and r eological proper ies 2.2. Tec nological proper ies of concre e mix ures 2.3. Consolida ion (compac ion) concre e CHAPTER 3. CONCRETE HARDENING AND STRUCTURE-FORMING 3.1. Hardening and s ruc ure of cemen s one 3.2. Influence of aggrega es on forming of concre e s ruc ure 3.3. Influence of admix ures on concre e s ruc ure forming 3.4. Op imiza ion of concre e s ruc ure CHAPTER 4. CONCRETE STRENGTH

4.2. Law ( rule) of wa er-cemen ra io 4.3. Ad esion be ween aggrega es and cemen s one 4.4. Influence of erms and dura ion of ardening concre e

CHAPTER 5. DEFORMATIONS OF CONCRETE 5.1. Concre e deforma ions a s or - erm load 5.2. Concre e deforma ions a long- erm load. Creep 5.3. Own deforma ions. Concre e s rinkage CHAPTER 6. CONCRETE RESISTANCE TO TEMPERATURE-HUMIDITY INFLUENCE. CORROSION RESI

4.5. Kinds of s reng . Tes s for concre e s reng

4.1. T eories of s reng

and mec anism of des ruc ion

3.

Golden age of concre e

STANCE

6.3. Permeabili y 6.4. Corrosion resis ance CHAPTER 7. DESIGN OF NORMAL CONCRETE MIXTURE

7.2. Selec ion of raw ma erials and admix ures 7.3. Calcula ions of basic parame ers of concre e mix ure composi ion 7.4. Correc ion of design concre e composi ions CHAPTER 8. TYPES OF CONCRETE 8.1 Fine-grained concre e

8.3. Polymer-impregna ed and polymer-cemen concre e 8.4. Fiber reinforced concre e 8.5 Special concre e CHAPTER 9. LIGHT-WEIGHT CONCRETE 9.1. Concre e on non-organic porous aggrega es

9.4. No-fines and aera ed concre e 9.5. Cellular concre e CHAPTER 10. CONCRETE ON THE BASIS OF NON-CLINKER BINDERS. MORTARS AND DRY PACK M IXES 10.1. Silica e concre e

10.3. Slag-alkaline concre e 10.4. Gypsum concre e 10.5. Mor ars 10.6. Dry pack mixes

10.2. Slag and fly-as

concre e

9.3. Concre e on

e basis of organic ( wood) aggrega es

9.2. Design of lig weig

concre e wi

porous aggrega es

8.2. Hig -s reng

concre e

7.1. General and

asks

6.2. Concre e resis ance

o empera ure influences

6.1. Fros

resis ance of concre e