IB Chemistry Student Guide for Internal Assessment Contents Introduction Background Ideas 1. Understanding chemistry experiments 2.

Understanding the Scientific Method 3. Understanding variables and graphs 4. Understanding random and systemic errors 5. Understanding measurement uncertainties 6. Understanding percentage error Essential Data Processing Skills 1. Rounding numbers in calculations 2. Plotting an x-y graph 3. Propagating measurement uncertainties through calculations Design Data Collection and Processing Conclusion and Evaluation Manipulative Skills Personal Skills How Your Final IA Mark is Calculated ICT in Chemistry 1. Logging data automatically 2. Using a spreadsheet to help with repetitive calculations 3. Using a computer to plot graphs 4. Simulations 5. Extracting information from an electronic database Glossary of Key Terms Answers to Practice Questions Page 2 2 2 3 4 6 6 7 9 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 20 21 22 22 24 26 27 28 30 32

4 Understanding random and systematic errors

Practical Tip Accuracy is also sometimes confused with precision. The next section about measurement uncertainty explains what makes results imprecise. An error is anything that makes your final result inaccurate. This means that it is higher or lower than the true value. If some part of the procedure or apparatus is always leading to the result being too high, or always too low, then it is a systematic error and your result will always be inaccurate. However if the error sometimes gives the results too high and other times too low, then it is a random error. Random errors lead to the results being unreliable. This means that if you do the experiment again, then you will be unlikely to get the same result twice. Random errors can be reduced if you repeat the experiment several times and take the mean (or average). This should cause them to cancel out and give you a more accurate result. However if there is a systematic error, then the final result will always be inaccurate, however many times it is repeated. A helpful analogy is to imagine an archery competition.

Reliable and accurate ... every arrow is on target.

Reliable, but inaccurate ... probably due to a systematic error.

Not reliable... probably due a random error ... but taking the mean of a large number of shots will improve overall accuracy.

Random errors can be introduced by careless use of apparatus or failing to control a variable, such as the size of the solid pieces in a kinetics experiment. Systematic errors can be caused by calibration errors, faulty apparatus or perhaps incorrect use of a piece of apparatus. For example an uncalibrated pH meter which always reads too high, or not allowing for the parallax error when reading the initial value on a burette. On other occasions, the design of the procedure can lead to a systematic error. An example of this would be not heating for long enough to remove all the water in an experiment to compare the mass of hydrated and anhydrous salts.

5 Understanding measurement uncertainties

Another cause of unreliability is the measurement uncertainty associated with each piece of apparatus that is used in the experiment. This is largely determined by the precision of the apparatus. This is determined by the smallest difference in quantity that can be detected with any certainty by the measuring apparatus. The absolute measurement uncertainty for a particular piece of apparatus should be supplied by the manufacturer, although a greater uncertainty should be quoted if other factors make a precise reading more difficult. For example, a two-decimal place weighing balance might have an absolute measurement uncertainty of 0.01 g. A piece of apparatus with a low measurement uncertainly is said to be precise. The table on the next page gives some typical absolute measurement uncertainties of common laboratory apparatus.

IB Chemistry

DCP
This is the complete requirement to get the maximum 2 marks for each aspect Your final mark for Data Collection and Processing will be the sum of the best two marks out of 6 that you achieve during the course.

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Data Collection and Processing

Aspect 1 Recording raw data Records appropriate quantitative and associated qualitative raw data, including units and uncertainties where relevant. Aspect 2 Processing raw data Processes the quantitative raw data correctly. Aspect 3 Presenting processed data Presents processed data appropriately and, where relevant, includes errors and uncertainties.

1 Recording raw data

You must decide on a suitable format to record your results. A table is not essential but your results must be clear and well-organised. Dont forget to: record the actual measurements you have made, not a value you have calculated from them e.g. record the initial and final burette readings in a titration, not just the volume delivered, record every measurement to the correct number of decimal places according 3 to the precision of the apparatus you are using e.g. a value of exactly 12cm 3 measured with a burette that can measure to 0.1cm must be recorded as 3 12.0cm . include the units for all numerical data ideally in the headings of any tables, but if only a few measurements are taken, then after each result, include the measurement uncertainty alongside the units to show the precision of every piece of equipment you have used (you can assume any measured values given to you by your teacher have no uncertainty), include other qualitative observations that will enhance your ability to interpret the results e.g. something that might indicate a systematic error that you can discuss in your evaluation, like soot appearing on a calorimeter or reagents left in the bottom of beaker. Make sure that your results are not the same as others in your class. You will only get credit for results that are clearly your own work. Data may be recorded by hand, by word-processor or by a data-logger. Recopying hand-recorded data on to a word-processor is time-consuming and can lead to copying errors. It is only useful if you are using the computer to further process the numbers or a more formal presentation of the results is required (such as for an extended essay).

Practical Tip Students often miss out on complete marks for recording by not noting the relevant qualitative observations in addition to their numerical data.

Data Logging

Data recorded automatically can only be used for assessment if you are responsible for the majority of the software settings e.g. number of data points, time interval, total time, scale of the axes of the graph generated. You must also add headings, units and measurement uncertainties to any tables of data generated. You should also make sure that the data has the correct number of decimal places. Any other non-numerical observations would need to be added manually. All this most easily done by exporting the raw data to a spreadsheet and generating any tables and graphs yourself. If you have used a spreadsheet, write out a sample calculation fully for just one data point to show how you have processed the data. See the ICT in Chemistry section later in this guide for more information. IB Chemistry 16

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3 Using the computer to plot graphs

Spreadsheet programs such as Microsoft Excel are also capable of producing a wide range of graphs (see pages 4 and 5 for some common examples). Most commonly you will have to plot a continuous dependent variable against a continuous independent variable. The steps below show how a suitable x-y graph can be produced using Microsoft Excel . In the example shown, a student has done an experiment to determine how the rate of reaction is affected by temperature. The time was recorded for a cross under a flask to be completely obscured by a cloudy product of the reaction. The experiment was repeated three times and the average calculated by a formula in the spreadsheet as shown. The relative rate of reaction was calculated for each time by calculating the inverse of the time taken.

To plot all the raw data as well as the averages, select the temperature column and also the four other columns containing the calculated rates. To select more than one separated column, hold down the CTRL key while dragging the mouse down each extra column. Next select Insert Chart and make sure that an x-y scatter graph is selected (NOT a line graph). The default graph that the spreadsheet produces looks typically like the one below. With a few changes to the formatting, the look can be made more suitable for an experimental graph.

Screenshots used with permission from Microsoft.

1. Remove the legend 2. Show major and minor gridlines 2. Add axis labels 3. Format all raw data points as X 4. Format averages to show them clearly. Finally, if there is an obvious relationship between the two variables, a line of best fit should be added (see page 11). Draw this by hand, or use the Insert Drawing function to manually draw a suitable line. The Insert Trendline function may produce something suitable, but often does not give the right shape or take account of anomalous results. 26

IB Chemistry