BIOLOGY AS A SCIENCE.

INTRODUCTION TO CELL BIOLOGY

CHAPTER 1: Biology is a science of living matter. 1.1. Biology as science of life. Biology is a branch of the natural sciences which studies living organisms and how they interact with each other and their environment. It examines the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living things. Also, it classifies and describes organisms, their functions, and how species come into existence. The word "Biology" has been derived from two Greek words, bios- and logos. Bios means life and logos means thought, discourse or reasoning. The term Biology was coined by Lamarck and Treviranus in 1802. Biology literally means "the study of life". Biology is such a broad field, covering the minute workings of chemical machines inside our cells, to broad scale concepts of ecosystems and global climate change. Biologists study intimate details of the human brain, the composition of our genes, and even the functioning of our reproductive system. Biologists recently all but completed the deciphering of the human genome, the sequence of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) bases that may determine much of our innate capabilities and predispositions to certain forms of behavior and illnesses. DNA sequences have played major roles in criminal cases. We are bombarded with headlines about possible health risks from favorite foods (Chinese, Mexican, hamburgers, etc.) as well as the potential benefits of eating other foods such as cooked tomatoes. Infomercials tout the benefits of metabolismadjusting drugs for weight loss. Many Americans are turning to herbal remedies to ease arthritis pain, improve memory, as well as improve our moods. Four unifying principles form the foundation of modern biology: cell theory, evolution, gene theory and homeostasis. 1.2. The main disciplines of Biology. Biology is subdivided into many branches, depends on the subject-matter and object of study. Biology includes some disciplines: 1. Morphology, it deals with the form and structure of organisms. It comprises several branches: a) Anatomy, it deals with the structures visible to the naked eyes such as in the dissection of organisms. b) Histology, it is the study of finer details of structure of organs and tissues with the help of a microscope. c) Cytology, it is the detailed study of structures and functions of cells.

d) Embryology, it is study of formation, growth and development of a new individual generally from an egg. 2. Physiology, it is the study of working and functions of organs within an organism. 3. Ecology, it is the study of relations of living things and their environment. 4. Taxonomy, it is the study of laws and principles of a natural classification of organisms. 5. Evolution, it is the study of origin, differentiation, and interrelationships of organisms of the present day and past ages. 6. Genetics, it is the study which accounts for resemblances and differences in the offspring due to variations in germ cells, and the mechanism of passing of these characters from one generation to the next. 7. Molecular Biology, the study of living things in terms of Physics and Chemistry of the molecules making up the living matter is called the Molecular Biology. 8. Radiation Biology, since the first use of atomic bomb by USA on Japan in August 1945, investigations on the effects of invisible rays and radiations on the living organisms has become an important discipline of biology. Besides the use of radiations as a weapon in wars, many beneficial uses of radiations have been discovered, specially in plant breeding and creating new varieties of seeds. 9. Space Biology, the newest of biological sciences deals with the space travel and its problems affecting the main and other organism on planets other than the earth; chief of which are concerned with are concerned with respiration, food, environment and cosmic radiations. 10. Toxicology. In factories and mines around the world, hundreds of thousands of workers are daily exposed to a large variety of toxic or poisonous substances that lead to deadly diseases as pneumoconiosis, silicosis, fetal disorders, paralysis and skin allergies. In textile industry workers constantly inhale flour dust which is suspected to cause dermatitis and tuberculosis, asbestos dust in asbestos workshops causes lesions in the lungs, pesticides used un the storage of grains are known to cause serious diseases in the consumers; silica dust in the factories ma king bangles and other glass-wares causes allergies. Some of the important interdisciplinary biological sciences are Protozoology (of Protozoa), Limnology (of fresh water pond community), Helminthology (of flat and round worms), Entomology (of insects), Malacology or Conchology (of snails), Ichthyology (of fishes), Carcinology (of Crustacea), Herpetology (of Amphibia and Reptilia), Ornithology (of birds) and Parasitology (of parasites). 1.3. The main characteristics of living and non-living substances. Living organisms can usually be distinguished from the non-living though this is not easy with lower forms of life. All living beings display the following properties:

1). Form and size. Each living being usually has a definite form and characteristic size, it is an organized individual with a centralized control, and an interdependence of its parts. There is no limit to form or size of non-living substances and they have no centralized control. 2). Chemical composition. Living organisms are composed of chemical substances in definite proportions; these chemicals form complex organic molecules (lipids, sugar, proteins and nucleic acids) of great molecular weight which collectively form a living substance. Non-living substances may have the same elements as found in protoplasm but they lack life. 3). Nutrition and growth. Living beings require nutrition or food which is used for building the body and repairing worn-out parts and also for supplying energy for their vital activities. Constant nutrition forms new protoplasm which results in growth or an increase in size and weight. In growth, formation of new parts occurs within or between older ones, and the food taken in for growth is different from the living protoplasm it forms. In non-living matter there is no need for nutrition though a non-living body such as a motor car requires fuel for its energy. If growth occurs in a non-living object, such as a crystal, it is due to the addition of material on the outside, this material is chemically the same as the nonliving object. 4). Excretion. Certain compounds of nitrogen, water, and carbon dioxide are constantly formed in the living body, they are called excretory products; they are not needed and may even be harmful. Consequently they have to be got rid of the elimination of nitrogenous wastes is called excretion. But excretion does not include faeces because it was never a living part of the body. No excretion occurs in non-living substances. 5). Release of energy. All living organisms need energy for work. The energy comes from the breakdown of a chemical called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) into its diphosphate form (ADP). Energy is required to convert ADT into ATP. This energy comes from the oxidation of food, chiefly sugar. Oxygen is breathed in from air or water and utilized in the living body. The oxygen there forms waste CO2, which is eliminated from the body. Several complex chemical changes take place in the production of usable energy by oxidation of food. Steps from breathing in of oxygen to the release of energy and the restoration of ATP are put into one word, the respiration. There is no respiration in non-living objects. 6). Metabolism. Various vital chemical changes take place constantly in living organisms, these changes are collectively called metabolism. In metabolism organic substances are changed into new organic substances which replace old parts and build the body, but through all these ceaseless changes the animal remains more or less the same, though its protoplasm is being constantly broken down and then made anew. Organisms take in food and oxygen to form molecules of protoplasm, this constructive process is called anabolism in which chemical energy is stored as potential energy. Then the molecules of protoplasm are broken down to change potential energy into kinetic energy which is used for carrying on loco-

motion and various vital activities of the organism, at the same time waste substances such as urea, salts, water, and CO2 are produced. This breaking down process is called katabolism (or catabolism) in which loss of weight, fatique, hunger, and thirst result. There is no metabolism in non-living substances; if they show locomotion, the energy comes from an external source. If an organism is to live, both anabolism and katabolism must go on. If anabolism exceeds katabolism, growth takes place in the young, but during adult life excess anabolism is used for producing sex cells; in old age katabolism overtakes anabolism which eventually results in death. 7). Irritability. Living organisms react to changes in their environment. The environment may be terrestrial, aquatic, aerial, or parasitic. Any change in the environment to which an organism responds is called a stimulus, and the capacity of an organism react to stimuli constitutes its irritability. The stimuli may be external (such as heat, light, chemical substances, pressure or gravity), or they may be internal (such as hunger, thirst, pain). Irritability is a fundamental property of protoplasm, it is not found in non-living substances. 8). Reproduction. Each living organism has the ability to duplicate it selves or produce new individuals resembling it in all essential features. Reproduction is the unique property possessed on the by the living, and they reproduce by using their own body material. The methods of reproduction are many and varied but all of them maintain a continuity of the race. Non-living substances cannot reproduce. 9). Adaptation to environment. Every living organism fits itself to its surrounding or it is adapted to the conditions of life called the environment. This perfect adaptation fits a living organism to procure food, protect itself, and rear its young ones. But the environment may not remain constant for long periods of time, hence the living organism in order to continue to live or survive, must readjust itself to the changed conditions of environment. the ability to adapt themselves to their environment is the characteristic property of living organism. Nonliving objects may or may not be adapted to their environment. A star may be adapted to its cosmic system but it cannot adjust itself to any changed conditions of the environment. 10). Aging and death. Every living system is subject to aging after certain length of time. As described earlier a time comes when katabolism takes over anabolism. In other words, there is more wear and tear than growth and repair body's resistance to stresses and stains weaken and there cracks develop in the body's defenses against diseases and foreign bodies. Overall effect of these weaknesses causes aging and eventual death. 11). Homeostasis. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant (yet also dynamic) internal environment in terms of temperature, pH, water concentrations, etc. Much of our own metabolic energy goes toward keeping within our own homeostatic limits. If you run a high fever for long enough, the increased temperature will damage certain organs and impair your proper functioning. Swallowing of common household chemicals, many of which are outside the pH (acid/base) levels

we can tolerate, will likewise negatively impact the human body's homeostatic regime. Muscular activity generates heat as a waste product. This heat is removed from our bodies by sweating. Some of this heat is used by warm-blooded animals, mammals and birds, to maintain their internal temperatures. 1.4. Levels of biological organization. The molecular-genetic level is the simplest level of biological organization. It includes the basic particles of all matter, atoms and combinations of atoms called molecules. This level is about chemical elements, inorganic and organic molecules and hereditary material (DNA and RNA). Subcellular (cell organelle) level. Many diverse molecules may associate and form highly specialized structures of a cell called organelles. The plasma membrane that surrounds the cell and the nucleus that contains the hereditary material are example of cell organelles. The organelles are suspended within (or surround) the jelly-like cell cytoplasm. At the cellular level we find a cell that is the basic structural unit of life, the simplest part of living matter that can carry on all of the activities necessary for life. In most multicellular organisms, cells associate to form tissues - group of cell, having the same origin, structure, and fulfilling the same functions (tissue level), such as muscle tissue in animals or epidermis in plants. Tissues arranged into functional structures called organs (organ level), such as the heart or stomach in animals or root and leaves in plants. Each major group of biological functions is performed by a coordinated group of tissues and organs, called an organ system. The circulatory and digestive systems are the examples of organ systems (system level). Functioning together with great precision, the organ systems make up the complex multicellular organism (organism level). Organism interacts to form still complex levels of biological organization. All members of one species that live in the same area, mate and give the progeny called a population (population level). Populations which are phenotypically similar and reproductively isolated from the other, but actually or potentially capable of interbreeding among themselves form the species (species level). The populations of organisms of different species that inhabit a particular area and interact with each other make a community or biocoenosis (biocoenosis level or ecosystem level). The community can be composed of hundreds of different types of life forms. A community together with its non-living environmental factors is referred to as an ecosystem (ecosystem level). All communities of living things on Earth are collectively referred to as the biosphere (biosphere level).

CHAPTER 2: Cellular organization of living matter. 2.1. Historical backround on the development of Cell Biology. The cell is a fundamental to biology as the atom is to chemistry. In the hierarchy of biological organization the cell is the simplest collection of matter that can live. Cell biology has achieved recognition as an independent discipline only during the past 50 years. Just as biochemistry involved at the beginning of this century from the fusion of physiology and organic chemistry, so cell biology developed by integrating knowledge gained in microscopic anatomy and biochemistry. Cytology began in the mid-17th century when the first microscopists in particular Malpaghi and Hook - began to describe the structural components of living matter. The history of the cell begins with the publication of the classical work Micrographia" in London by Robert Hook in 1665. He observed a honeycoumb-like pattern in a slice of cork under his primitive microscope. This honeycomb consisted of thick-walled, box-like compartment which he called cells for the first time. But he did not realize the real significance of these structures. In 1674 Antony Van Leeuwenhoek improved the lens system of this microscope and was the first to observe bacteria, various protozoans, sperms, erythrocytes ets. In 1759 K. F. Wolf started that cells are found in living substances. Cytology progressed slowly until the beginning of the 19th century, when Amigi designed lenses that corrected the problems of spherical and chromatic aberrations that had plagued microscopic investigations until then. This important development resulted in en explosion of knowledge, so that within a few years Robert Brown (1831) discovered the nucleus and showed that it is present in all cells. As a result of numerous studies from 1665 to the year 1839 German botanist Matthias Schleiden and German zoologist Theodor Schwann gave the famous Cell Theory according to which "The cells are organisms and animals as well plants are aggregates of these organisms, arranged in accordance with definite laws". This led to Virchow's proposal in 1858 that pathological changes were the result of cellular malfunction and to his theory of cell lineage. In 1840 J. E. Purkinje proposed the name protoplasm for living substance present in a cell. By the last quarter of the 19th century, the design of microscopes had been improved further; in addition, dyes developed by organic chemists were now being used in cytological investigations. These advances allowed cytologists to begin a serious exploration at the subcellular level and resulted in the description of mitosis by Strasburger in 1875 year. In 1875 year Van Beneden observed the centrioles, in 1879 W. Flemming reported the chromatin of the nucleus and used the term mitosis for cell division in 1882 year.

The term cell biology first appeared in 1876 with the establishment of the Laboratory of Cell Biology at the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium. While these advances in the understanding of the cell were occurring, the science of biochemistry was also evolving from organic chemistry. In 1828, Wohler synthesized urea from inorganic compounds, and the concept of "vital force" in organic chemistry was abandoned. In 1869, in one of the first experiments Miescher isolated cell nuclei and showed that they contained a complex of protein and a nucleic acid. During the last part of the century there was a systematic application of the techniques of organic chemistry to the investigation of biological macromolecules, especially by Fisher. This eventually led to the understanding of the structure of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. In 1878 Kuhne introduced the name enzyme but the actual chemical nature of enzymes was not established until more than a century after their discovery. The techniques that led to our current understanding of the structure and function of cell organelles were not developed until the 1940th in Claude's laboratory at the Rockfeller institute. Claude assembled a group of individuals who carried out the first systematic studies in which biochemical analyses of cell fractions were related to morphology. Ultracentrifugal cell fractionation and electron microscopy, together with procedures for cell culture, provided the basis for the development of cell biology as we know it today. Within 20 years of the isolation of microsomes (by Claude in 1938) most cell organelles had been identified and characterized in the electron microscope. What is now the Journal of Cell Biology was founded in 1955 as the Journal of Biochemical and Biophysical Cytology, and the American Society for Cell Biology held its first meeting in 1961. During this time our perception of the cell has changed considerably, and further evolution of our basic concepts can be expected. Cell biology is not static, and it is important to remember that the research of the next decade can be expected to change some of our views and to expose as many new problems as it solves. 2.2. Historically important events in Cell Biology. 1590 - Jansen invented the compound microscope which combines two lenses for greater magnification. 1665 - Robert Hooke, using an improved compound microscope, examined cork and used the term "cell" to describe its basic units. He thought the cells were empty and the walls were the living material. 1650 - 1700 - Antony van Leeuwenhoek, using a good quality simple lens (mag. 200) observed nuclei and unicellular organisms including bacteria. 1831 - Robert Brown described the nucleus as a characteristic spherical body in plant cells. 1838 - Schleiden (a botanist) and Schwann (a zoologist) produced the "cell theory". 1840 - Purkinje discovered the protoplasm as contents of cells.

1858 - Virchow showed that all cells arise from the pre-existing by cell division. Now this idea is the third part of the cell theory. 1866 - 1888 - cell division was studied in detail and chromosomes were described. 1880 - Plastids were discovered. 1890 - Mitochondria were discovered. 1898 - Golgy apparatus was discovered. 1930 - Electron microscope was developed. 1946 to present - electron microscope became widely used in biology revealing march more detailed structure in cells. This "fine" structure is called ultrastructure. 2.3. Cell theory The unifying concept that cells are the fundamental units of all living things is a part of the cell theory. Two German scientists, botanist Matthias Schleiden in 1838 and zoologist Theodor Schwann in 1839, were the first to point out that plants and animals are composed of group cells and that the cell is the basic unit of living organisms. The cell theory was extended in 1858 by Rudolph Virchow, who started that new cells are formed only by the division of previously existing cells. In other words, cells do not arise by spontaneous generation from non-living matter (an idea that was rooted in the writings of Aristotle and had persisted over many centuries). About 1880, another famous biologist, August Weismann, pointed out an important corollary to Virchows statement, that all the cells living today can trace their ancestry back to ancient times. Evidence that all cells living have a common origin is provided by the basic similarities of their structures and the molecules of which they are made. Certain changes have been made in the original cell theory on the basis of the knowledge gained in the 20-th century. 2.4. The classical states of cell theory. 1. The basic unit of structure and function of living organisms is cell. 2. All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolic activities. 3. All cells arise from the pre-existing by cell division. 2.5. Modern Cell Theory 1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things. 2. All cells are basically alike in chemical composition and metabolic activities. 3. All cells come from pre-existing cells by division. 4. Multicellular organisms compose of many cells which are connect together and form unique system.

2.6. The types of cells. There is a great variation in the form, size and number of cells present in the body of living beings. But all the cells found in nature are divided into two independent and radically different groups which are as follows: 1. Prokaryotic (pronuclear) type. These include very minute cells such as bacteria and blue-green algae. These cells are characterized by the absence of nucleus and most of cytoplasmic organelles. Prokaryotes appeared about 3500 million years ago Eukaryotes appeared first in the late Pre-Cambrian period, about 2000 million years ago, and probably evolved from prokaryotes. The genetic material (DNA) in prokaryotes is not enclosed by nuclear membranes, and lies free in the cyFig. 1-a. Bacterial cell. toplasm (fig. 1-a). Eukaryotic type. These cells are found in all animals and higher plants, fungi and most of the algae. They have a distinct nucleus inclosed in nuclear membrane and other characteristics. The cells of eukaryotes (en, true) are much more complex and are characterized by a true nucleus that is genetic material enclosed by membranes (the nuclear envelope) to form a definite, easily recognizable structure (fig. 1-b).
2.

Fig. 1-b. Eukaryotic cell.

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2.7. Comparisons of cell organization in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Feature Living organisms Cell size Form Genetic material Nuclear envelope Chromosomes Nucleolus DNA Organelles: Cell wall Prokaryotes Bacteria and blue-green algae Avarage diameter 0.5 5 nm Unicellular or filamentous Genetic material spread out in the cytoplasm. Nucleus is absent. Absent Single Absent Circular without proteins Eukaryotes All other plants and animals, including human being. Upto 40 nm diameter common, commonly 1000-10000 times volume of prokaryotic cells. Unicellular or filamentous or truly multicellular. Genetic material concentrated within the nucleus. Present Multiple One or more nucleoli present in nucleus. Linear, associated with proteins and RNA to form chromosomes within a nucleus. Cell wall of green plants and fungi rigid and contains polysaccharides. Cellulose is main strengthening compound of plant walls, chitin of fungal walls. 80S (larger), ribosomes may be attached to endoplasmic reticulum. Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body present. Present Present in plant cell. In mitochondria and plastids.

Rigid and contains polysaccharides with proteins, fat. Murein is main strengthening compound. 70S (smaller) Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi body are absent. Absent (respiratory enzymes on the surface of plasma membrane) Absent Have circular genetic units (DNA) in the cytoplasm, known as plasmids. Plasmids serve as autonomous carries of genetic material from one bacterial cell to the other and often combine with the chromosome of the recipient bacterial cell. Absent Amitosis Single fibril, flagellum Some have the ability

Ribosomes Endomembranes Mitochondria Chloroplast Extra-nuclear genetic material

Exocytosis and endocytosis Division Locomotion Nitrogen fixation

Present Mitosis and meiosis Cilia and flagella None have the ability.

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CHAPTER 3: General plan structure of eukaryotic cell. 3.1. Origin of eukaryotic cell. The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a symbiotic community of prokaryotic cells. It is almost certain that DNA-bearing organelles like the mitochondria and the chloroplasts are what remains of ancient symbiotic oxygenbreathing proteobacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively, where the rest of the cell seems to be derived from an ancestral archaean prokaryote cell a theory termed the endosymbiotic theory. There is still considerable debate about whether organelles like the hydrogenosome predated the origin of mitochondria, or vice versa: see the hydrogen hypothesis for the origin of eukaryotic cells. Sex, as the stereotyped choreography of meiosis and syngamy that persists in nearly all extant eukaryotes, may have played a role in the transition from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. An 'origin of sex as vaccination' theory suggests that the eukaryote genome accreted from prokaryan parasite genomes in numerous rounds of lateral gene transfer. Sex-as-syngamy (fusion sex) arose when infected hosts began swapping nuclearized genomes containing coevolved, vertically transmitted symbionts that conveyed protection against horizontal infection by more virulent symbionts. 3.2. Subcellular components. When comparing the organization of E. coli with that of a plant cell or an animal cell, one is struck by the relative complexity of the eukaryotes. In a non-dividing eukaryotic cell the nucleus exists as a separate compartment surrounded and limited by the nuclear envelope. Another and generally larger compartment is represented by the cytoplasm, and finally there is the cell membrane with its multiple enfolding and differentiations. Each of these three main components or compartments of the cell (nucleus, plasma membrane and cytoplasm) contain several subcomponents or subcompartments. PLASMA MEMBRANE. Structure. The structure that separates the cell contents from the external environment is the plasma membrane. This is two-layered film (6 to 10 nm thick) made of molecules of fats pressed between two sets of protein molecules, and is perforated by small holes. Most cell membranes also contain variable amounts of glycoproteins and glycolipids. The plasma membrane can be revolved only with the electron microscopy, which reveals numerous enfolding and differentiations as well as the different types of junctions that establish connections with neighboring cells. This is three-dimension view of the membrane at the molecular level, in which the fluid mosaic model is reproduced by Singer and Nicolson in 1972.

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They observe, that all plasma membranes are composed chiefly of proteins and lipids, not so much carbocchadrates (in human red cell 52% of proteins, 40% lipids, 8% - carbocchadrates). Lipids are cholesterol, but most of lipids are phosphoglycerides. The head of such molecules become ionized under pH conditions commonly found in cell, but tails end usually remain uncharged. The polar and non-polar regions of these molecules react quit differently where placed in water. The polar head tend to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Consequently, the charged regions of phosphoglycerides are said to be hydrophilic (waterloving), the uncharged tails are said to be hydrophobic (waterhating). The polar heads are in the contact with intra- and extracellular aqueous fluids, and the non-polar tails are directed toward the center of the bilayer, isolated from water molecules. There are Fig. 2. Structure of plasma membrane. proteins peripheral and integral, depending on how deeply they penetrate into the lipid bilayers. Hence, the membrane is highly asymmetrical. The molecular asymmetry of plasma membrane is further emphasized be the oligosaccharide chain of glycoproteins and glycolipids that protrude only at the surface of the membrane (fig. 2). Properties and functions of plasma membrane. 1. Plasma membrane is selectively permeable. Some substances pass across plasma membranes readily, others move across slowly only under certain conditions; and still others normally cannot enter cells at all. 2. Absorption of materials (endocytosis). Endocytosis and exocytosis are active processes involving the bulk transport of materials through membranes, either into cells (endocytosis) or out of cells (exocytosis). Endocytosis occurs by an extension of the cell surface membrane to form a vesicle vacuole. It is two types: a) Phagocytosis (cell eating) material taken up is in solid form. Cells specializing in the process are called phagocytes and are said to be phagocytic; for example, some blood cells. The sac formed during uptake is called a phagocytic vacuole. b) Pinocytosis (cell drinking) material taken up is in the liquid form (a solution, colloid or fine suspension). Vesicles formed are often extremely small, in which case the process is known as micropinocytosis and the vesicles as mi-

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cropinocytotic. Pinocytosis is particularly associated with amoeboid protozoans and many other, often amoeboid cells, such as leucocytes, embryo cells, liver cells and certain kidney cells involved in fluid exchange. It can also occur in plant cells. 3. Excretion of materials (exocytosis) Exocytosis is the reverse process of endocytosis by which materials are removed from cells, such as solid, undigested remains from food vacuoles or reverse pinocytosis in secretion. 4 .Transport of materials (diffusion, active transport, facilitated transport) 5. Locomotory function. Many cell types are capable of locomotion, forming the locomotion structureflagella (protozoa) and cilia (protozoa). 6. Cell form. NUCLEUS. Structure. The nucleus is the most important component ("little organ") of an eukaryotic cell. It contains four main structural elements: double-membranous nuclear envelope, nucleolus, nucleoplasm (karyoplasms) and chromatin (fig. 3).
Chromatin

Nucleoplasm Nucleolus

Nuclear envelope

Fig. 3. Structure of nucleus.

The nucleus is bounded by the "double membrane" the so called "nuclear envelope". These two tightly attached membranes are of the same basic structure as the familiar lipid-protein bilayer. Scattered throughout the double membrane nuclear envelop are "Nuclear Pores", these are holes or passages through which large molecules can pass. There are two major types of material within the nucleus. 1) The "nucleoplasm": the jelly-like matrix within which all other materials within the nucleus "float". 2) 'Chromatin": this material is easily stained (Hence the name.) It is composed of DNA and its associated protein histone which form the long strands called "chromosomes".

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Also found within the nucleus are dark staining parts called "nuceoli" (little nucleus) which are rich in the other type of nucleic acid RNA (Ribonuelic acid). The nucteoli have the task of assembling (synthesizing) a special type of RNZ used to create the ribosomes rRNA (Ribosomal RNA). Functions: 1. To keep the hereditary material and regulates the transmission of it in generations. 2. To regulate the all metabolic processes in the cell. 3. To synthesize the ribosomes. CYTOPLASM. Structure. The protoplasm of a cell laying the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus is known as cytoplasm. The cytoplasm appears as a structureless fluid mass. It includes the cell organelles, cytosol and cell inclusions. Functions. It takes in raw materials and energy through its membranes which serve as conducting channels, and manufactures proteins and enzymes of various kinds. It is concerned with taking in food and changing it into living parts of a cell. It forms substances needed by the cell or for export outside the cell into other cells. The cytoplasm also extracts chemical energy from sugar and fats and transfers it to the special energy-rich molecules (ATP) which circulate in the cell. 3.3. Eukaryotic organelles. There are two groups of eukaryotic organelles, such as membranous and nonmembranous. Membranous: 1. Single membranous organelle: - endoplasmic reticulum; - Golgy body; - lysosomes; - microbodies (peroxisomes); - vacuoles (in plant cells). 2. Double membranous organelles: - mitochondria; - plastids. Non-membranous organelles: - ribosomes; - centrosome; - microtubules; - microfilaments.

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Membranous eukaryotic organelles. Single membranous organelles: Endoplasmic reticulum. Structure. The complex of membranes which can form a significant part of the total volume of the cytoplasm in certain types of cells is called endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER is a single-membrane organelle, visible only in the electron microscopy. The electron micrograph, it is a maze of parallel internal membranes that encircle the nucleus and extend into many regions of the cytoplasm of cell. The membranes of the ER form the framework or the cytoskeleton of the cytoplasm. These membranes usually consist of a series of tightly packed and flattened sack-like structures, that form interconnected compartments within the cytoplasm. The internal space formed by the membrane sheets is called the ER lumen. In most cells the ER lumen forms a single internal compartment. Evidence also suggested that the ER membrane is continuous with the outer membrane of the cell nucleus, so that the compartment formed between the two nuclear membranes is connected to the ER lumen. The membranes of other organelles are not directly connected to the ER and appear to form distinct and separate compartments within the cytoplasm. Between the spaces of the membranes, the cytoplasm has a cytoplasmic matrix or ground substance, containing complex enzymes, synthetic products and storage materials. Enzymes catalyze many different types of chemical reactions. In some cases, the membranes serve a framework for systems of enzymes that carry out sequential biochemical reactions. Other ER enzymes are located within the ER (fig. 4).

Rough ER

Smoth ER

Fig. 4. Rough and smoth ER.

The two surfaces of the membrane contain different sets of enzymes and represent of the cell with different synthetic capabilities. The two distinct regions of the ER can be seen in electron micrographs. Although these regions have different

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functions, their membranes are connected and their internal spaces are continuous. Rough ER has ribosomes attached to it and consequently appears rough in electron micrographs. One membrane face (the cytosolic side) is studied with dark particles, the ribosomes, whereas the other membrane face (the lumen side) appears to be bare. Smooth ER is more tubular in nature and does not have ribosomes bound to it, so its outer membrane surfaces have a smooth appearance. Functions of the Smooth ER 1. Synthesis and transport of lipids, carbocchadrates and steroids; 2. Smooth ER serves important function by localizing of detoxifying enzymes that breakdown chemicals such as carcinogens (cancer causing molecules) and convert them to water-soluble products that can be excreted from the body. Functions of the Rough ER. 1. Synthesis and transport of proteins. Golgi body The Golgi body is a single membranous organelle, is a differentiated portion of the endomembrane system of cytoplasm. Firstly, it was described by an Italian scientist Camillo Golgi in 1898 as reticular structure in the cytoplasm of nerve cells. This membranous component is spatially and temporally related to the endoplasmic reticulum on one side and, by way Fig. 5. Golgi body structure. of secretory vesicles, may fuse with specific portions of the plasma membrane. Usually, The Golgi body is placed near the nucleus. It is found in both animal and plant cells. The Golgi complex in the living cell was difficult to observe with the light microscope, and this led to many controversies regarding its true nature. The use of electron microscopy provided a distinct image of this organelle, and its structure could be studied in detail. Structure. The Golgi complex is morphologically very similar in both plant and animal cells. It consists of dictyosome units formed by stacks of 1) flattened disk-shaped single membrane-bound sacs called cisternae or saccules ; 2) clusters of tubules and vesicles and 3) lager vacuoles filled with an amorphous or granular content. The Golgi cisternae are arranged in parallel and are separated by a space 20 to 30 nm, which may contain rod-like elements or fibers. Each dictyosome is a polarized structure having a proximal or forming face, generally convex and closer to the nucleus or the ER and distal or maturing face of concave shape that encloses

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a region containing large secretory vesicles. At the forming face are vesicles and tubules that converge, forming a fenestrated plate. The cisternae lack ribosomes and are surrounded by a zone in which organelles are excluded. However, some free ribosomes may be at the periphery of the Golgi body (fig. 5). Functions. 1) The glycosidation of lipids and proteins to produce glycolipids and glycoproteins. The secretory pathway: ER Golgi complex secretory granule. 2) The cell secretion of enzymes which help in transferring metabolic and synthetic products; 3) The formation of primary lysosomes. Lysosomes. Lysosomes are single membrane cytoplasmic organelles, that contain numerous (about 50) hydrolytic enzymes and in which the main functions are intracellular and extracellular digestion. They were first discovered by a Belgian Biochemist Christian De Duve in 1949 and named in 1955. Lysosomes have been found both in animal and plant cells and in Protozoan. In bacteria there are no lysosomes, but the so-called periplasmatic space, found between the plasma membrane and the cell wall, may play role similar to that of the lysosomes. Structure. Lysosomes are separated as a fraction that is intermediate between mitochondria and microsomes. The lysosomes are stable in the living cell. The lysosomal enzymes are enclosed within a membrane (accounting for their latency) and generally act at acid pH. Lysosomes show considerable polymorphism. The primary lysosomes (storage granules) are dense particles of about 0,4 nm surrounded by a single membrane. The enzymatic content is synthesized by the ribosomes and accumulated in the ER. From there the enzymes penetrate into the Golgi region and surrounded by a single membrane, lysosomes are formed. The secondary lysosomes (digestive vacuoles) result from the association of primary lysosomes with vacuoles containing phagocytized or pinocytized material. These called heterophagosomes. Residual bodies are formed if the digestion is incomplete. They contain undigested material. These structures may be eliminated, but in most cases they remain in the cell as pigment inclusions and may be related to the aging process. The autophagic vacuole or cytolysosome is a special case in which parts of the cell are digested. This normal process is stimulated during starvation and by the pancreatic hormone glucagons. Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized in the ER and then packaged at the gerl region of the Golgi complex to form the primary lysosomes. The mechanism of lysosome formation is yet unknown. Functions. 1) Digestion of food or various materials taken by phagocytosis or pinocytosis;

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2) 3) 4)

Digestion of parts of the cell and foreign particles by a process called autophagy. Breakdown of extracellular material by the release of enzymes into the surrounding medium; Autolysis of cell.

Microbodies. Peroxisomes are the organelles rich in peroxidase, catalase, D-amino-acid oxidase, and urate oxidase. They are abundant in the liver, kidney and in many cell types of animals and plants. They have 0,6- 0,7 nm granules with a single membrane and a dense matrix. The peroxisome is related to the production and decomposition of H2O2 and to the -oxidation of fatty acids and play a role in thermogenesis. In plants, peroxisomes carry out the process of photorespiration, which involves the cooperation of chloroplasts and peroxisomes. Glyoxysomes are special plant organelles involved in the metabolism of stored lipids (fat metabolism). Double membranous organelles. Energy transformation in cells takes place with the intervention of two main transducing systems (systems that produce energy transformations) represented by mitochondria and chloroplasts. Mitochondria. Mitochondria (GR., mito-, thread+chondrion, granule), are granular or filamentous organelles present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells (protozoa, animal and plant cells). They provide an energy-transducing system by which the chemical energy contained in foods tuffs is converted by oxidative phosphorylation into high-energy phosphate bonds (ATP). First observed at the end of the 19th century and described as bioblasts by Altman (1886), these structures were called mitochondria by Benda (1897). Altman predicted the relationship between mitochondria and cellular oxidation, and Warburg (1913) observed that respiratory enzymes were associated with cytoplasmic particles. In general, they are rod-shaped, with diameter of about 0,5 nm and variable length that may range up to 7 nm. Mitochondria are, in general, uniformly distributed throughout the cytoplasm, but there are many exceptions to this rule. In some cases, they accumulate preferentially around the nucleus or in the peripheral cytoplasm, during mitosis; mitochondria are concentrated near the spindle. The distribution of mitochondria within the cytoplasm should be considered in relation to their function as energy suppliers. Their orientation in the cell may be influenced by the organization of the cytoplasmic matrix and vacuolar system. The number of mitochondria is also various in different cells (there are 1000 to 1600 mitochondria in a liver cell; 300000 in some oocytes). Green plants contain fewer mitochondria than animal cells.

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Structure. A mitochondrion consists of two membranes and two compartments. An outer limiting membrane surrounds the mitochondrion. Within this membrane, and separated from in by a space of about 6 to 8 nm, is an inner membrane that projects into the mitochondrial cavity complex enfolding called mitochondrial cristae or crests. This is generally homogeneous, but it may contain a filamentous material or small highly dense granules. The mitochondrial crests are incomplete septa or ridges that do not interrupt the continuity of the inner chamber. The shape and disposition of these crests vary in different cells and their number is related to the oxidative activity of the mitochondrion. The outer membrane is smooth and the inner membrane shows, on its inner surface, particles linked to the membrane, which contain a special ATP-ase. Within the mitochondrial matrix are small ribosomes and a circular DNA, different types of RNAs. The matrix is gel-like and contains a high concentration of soluble proteins and smaller molecules. Thus, mitochondria may synthesize the proteins, lipids. Fig. 6. Mitochondria structure. They are semiautonomous organelles (fig. 6). Functions. Mitochondria are the power house of a cell, they bring about the chemical reactions which take place in tissue respiration and they also break down fats, proteins and carbocchadrates into smaller particles and transfer their chemical energy into complex energy-rich molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plastids. Eukaryotic plant cells have specialized organelles the plastids which are double-membranous and contain pigments and may synthesis and accumulate various substances. In 1883 Schimper first used the term plastid for special cytoplasmic organelles present in eukaryotic plant cells. There are three types of plastids: chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts. Leucoplasts are colorless plastids are found in embryonic and germ cells, also found in meristemic cells and in those regions of the plant not receiving light. True leucoplasts are found in fully differentiated cells and never become green. The leucoplasts have also been characterized by the absence of thylakoids and ribosomes. They are three types: amyloplats produce starch, proteinoplasts accumulate protein, elaioplasts produce fats and essential oils. Chromoplasts are colored plastids that contain less chlorophyll than the chloroplasts, but more carotenoid pigments, such as lycopene. Some plastids may store starch and protein at the same time. Yellow or orange chromoplasts occur in

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petals, fruits and roots of certain higher plants. The most important and most common plastids are the chloroplasts. They are characterized by the presence of pigments such as chlorophyll and carotenoids and by their fundamental role in photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are localized mainly in the cells of the leaves of higher plants and in algae. Their shape, size, number and distribution vary in different cells but are fairly constant for a given tissue. In higher plants they are discoid. The size and number are genetically controlled. Chloroplasts multiply by division, they are semiautonomous organelles. Leukoplasts and chromoplasts have the similar structure as chloroplasts. Structure. Under light microscope, many chloroplasts show small granules, called grana. There are three main components: the envelope, stroma and thylakoids. The envelope is made of a double limiting membrane (outer and inner). The inner membrane of mature chloroplast is not in continuity with the thylakoids. The stroma is a gel-fluid phase that contains 50% of the chloroplast proteins. It has ribosomes and DNA. The thylakoids consist of flattened vesicles arranged as a membranous network. The outer surface of the thylakoid is in contact with the stroma, and its inner surface encloses an intra thylakoid space. Thylakoids may be stacked like a pile of coins, forming the grana or they may be unstacked (stroma thylakoids), forming a system of anastomosing tubules that are joined to the grana thylakoids. In thylakoids, chlorophyll, carotenoid molecules and a reaction center are assembled forming two photosystems, which are important for photosynthesis.
Fig. 7. Chloroplast structure.

Function of chloroplasts: Photosynthesis. Non - membranous eukaryotic organelles. Ribosomes. The ribosome is a non-membranous organelle, spherical particle and is composed of a large and a small subunit. Ribosomes were first observed by Palade in the electron microscope as dense particles or granules. Ribosomes are found in all cells and provide a scaffold for the ordered interaction of all molecules involved in protein synthesis. Structure. Eukaryotic ribosomes sediment in sucrose gradients with a sedimentation coefficient of 80S (values of the sedimentation coefficients are not additive because they depend on factors such as the shape of the particles), prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller and sediment at 70S. Ribosomes are also found in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells. During protein synthesis several ri-

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bosomes become attached to one m-RNA molecule, forming a polyribosome or polysome. The major constituents of ribosomes are r-RNA and proteins present in approximately equal amounts. R-RNA may provide some of the catalytic activities required for protein synthesis. Function. Protein synthesis. Microtubules. Structure. Microtubules are found in all eukaryotic cells either free in the cytoplasm or forming part of centrioles, cilia and flagella. They are tubules 25 nm in diameter, several micrometers long, and with a wall 6 nm thick with 13 subunits. the stability of different microtubules varies. Cytoplasmic and spindle microtubules are rather labile, whereas those of cilia and flagella are more resistant to various treatments. The main component is a protein called tubulin. The assembly of tubulin in the formation of microtubules is a specifically oriented and programmed process. Centrioles, basal bodies, and centromeres are sites of orientation for this assembly (fig. 8). Functions. 1. They are related to the primitive forms of cell mobility. 2. They play a mechanical function and the shape of the cell and cell processes is dependent on microtubules (cell differentiation). 3. The polarity and directional gliding of cultured cells depend on microtubules. 4. Associated with transport of molecules, granules and vesicles within the cell. 5. They play a role in the contraction of the spindle and movement of chromosomes and centrioles. 6. They form the cilia and flagella. 7. They play a role in sensory transduction.

Microfilaments. Structure. The microfilaments ranging between 5 and 7 nm in width represent the active or motile part of the cytoskeleton. The contractile protein actin and myosin, well as tropomyosin and other proteins found in muscle, are present in microfilaments (fig. 8). Function: They play the major role in cyclosis and amoeboid motion.
Fig. 8. Cytoskeleton.

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Centrosome (cell center, centrosphere). Lying near the nucleus is a small clear area of cytoplasm free from granules, it is known as centrosomes. The centrosome is extanuclear and firmly attached to the nuclear envelope. The centrosomes position often determines the polarity of the cell, with the cell axis passing through it and the nucleus. The centrosome contains a minute dot-like centriole, at the end of interphase, two pairs of centrioles exist. The centriole as microtubular organelle has a triplet organization (nine triplets of microtubules). The centrosome is typically only for animal cell, in plant cells are absent (fig. 9). Functions: 1. They play a role in forming the spindle during nuclear division. 2. They play a role in intracellular transport. 3. They play a role in cytoskeleton formation.
Fig. 9. Centrosome structure.

CHAPTER 4: CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CELL. Living things get their energy from the sun directly or indirectly but they get their living matter from the earth. Organisms are maid from the same materials that make up the rest of the world. The living matter (substance), first studied and named "sarcode" by Dujardin in 1841, is called protoplasm. This is the physical and biological basis of life and carries on the characteristic life activities of an organism. The sarcode was renamed protoplasm by a Czech Physiologist Purkinje in 1842. Although protoplasm is made up of several elements, yet it is not a compound but a mixture of a number of chemical compounds. Its exact chemical analysis has not been made. 4.1. Chemical elements. Protoplasm contains more than 80 elements from 106 of periodical system of D. I. Mendeleyev which are found when the protoplasm of a variety of living things is analyzed. Among these only 12 elements are universally present of which carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N) are the most important. Calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), sulphur (S), phosphorus (P), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg) and chlorine (Cl) are less common. Earl Freidan in 1972 found four more elements present in the living matter. These are fluorine (F), silicon (Si), tin (Sn) and vanadium (Va). Carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N) make up about 95% of protoplasm in which there is about 62% oxygen, 20% carbon, 10% hydrogen and 3% nitrogen.

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The other elements are about 5%, they occur in fractions of less than 1%, but the small quantity of an element may be vital: iron in red blood corpuscles, phosphorus in nerve and reproductive cells. 4.2. Chemical compounds. Elements do not exist as such but are combined to form organic and inorganic compounds and water. Protoplasm contains hundreds of different kinds of organic constituents in the form of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids. Organic compounds form the organic basis of living matter, they constitute about 30-40% of protoplasm. The inorganic compounds are water, gases and inorganic salts which comprise about 60-70% of protoplasm. 4.3. Characteristics of main structural components of protoplasm. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS a) Proteins. They are quite abundant and constitute the framework of protoplasm, they are found only in protoplasm and nowhere else in nature. Proteins form about 16% of protoplasm. Proteins are made up of 20 known amino acids which contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and traces of sulphur (S), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe). Protein molecules are very large containing thousands of atoms, they coagulate on heating. Proteins are broken down into amino acids which serve as bricks for building up protoplasm. The cells constantly make new proteins from amino acids. Common proteins are white of an egg (albumen), myosin of meat, and hemoglobin of food. b) Carbohydrates. They constitute about 13% of protoplasm. They are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), in which hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are in the same proportion as in a molecule of water (H2O). Common carbohydrates are starch and sugar. When carbohydrates are broken down, they form glucose which is a source of energy. In animals glucose is reserved for supplying energy when needed. Plants can form several carbohydrates from CO2 and H2O in the presence of sunlight (carbon assimilation). c) Lipids or Fats. Fats and fat-like substances are called lipids. They are found in small quantities, except in special cells where fats are abundant. They are formed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), but the amount of oxygen is small, they are often associated with phosphates and sulphates. Lipids are insoluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents like benzene and petrol. Lipids are broken down into fatty acids and glycerols, and they also supply some energy. They exist as stored food material as lard and oil, they also form wax, pigment, bite acids and sex hormones. Fats form the framework of bounding membranes of cells. Thus they control the movements of substances in or out of protoplasm. Fats and carbohy-

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drates can change into each other. Carbohydrates and fats do not coagulate on heating. d) Enzymes. Enzymes are complex proteins, they are organic catalysts which bring about chemical reactions with great rapidly, but they themselves remain unchanged. Enzymes are destroyed on heating. The exact chemical nature of many enzymes is not known, but they are like complex proteins. They are found only in the living protoplasm and are present in very large numbers. A single cell may have over a thousand different kinds of enzymes, some of which are secreted into the digestive tract and in the blood stream. Enzymes used in the digestion of food are called hydrolytic enzymes. A number of enzymes bring about the release of chemical energy from the food; these are collectively known as respiratory enzymes. Every single reaction in the protoplasm is not without the activity of some enzyme. Some well-known enzymes are pepsin, lipase, amylase, trypsin, carbonic anhydrose, dehydrogenases and ribonuclease. e) Nucleic acids. They are the fundamental substances of protoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus and chromosomes. Nucleic acids are the most complex and the largest known organic molecules. A nucleic acid is composed of smaller units called nucleotides. A nucleotide itself is composed of sugar, phosphoric acid and some nitrogenous basis. Two of the nucleic acids are very important : a) deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA in short is a part of the nuclear material, and b) ribonucleic acid (RNA) is found in the cytoplasm as well where it takes an active part in the synthesis of proteins. f) Regulatory substances. There are additional substances which direct the activities of cells or control the functions of the animal. These regulatory substances are hormones, vitamins and respiratory pigments. Hormones are secretions of ductless glands, they regulate metabolism and control growth. Vitamins are complex organic parts of food, they are essential for normal growth, maintenance of health, and a full utilization of food, their absence causes some disease. Respiratory pigments such as hemoglobin, take up oxygen (O2) and remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from protoplasm during respiration, some others oxidize glucose to produce energy. INORGANIC COMPOUNDS a) Water. Protoplasm contains varying quantities of water in different parts; there is about 60-90% of water in the protoplasm of different animals. Specialized tissues in a particular animal vary widely in water content. In man, for example, gray matter of brain contains about 84%, liver and muscle-tissue - 73-76%, adipose tissue - 10-30% and dentine of teeth - 10%. In a given animal species, the water content is the highest in its embryo and decreases with age. An adult man needs about 3 liters and a cow about 100 liters per day. Water is a natural solvent and it dissolves more substances than any other liquid, thus en-

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abling chemical reactions to take place speedily. Water has a high surface tension which gives the protoplasm a consistency. As free water, it acts as a medium of dispersion of substances in the protoplasm. However, a large part of water is bound to colloidal particles in the protoplasm, and this bound condition shows entirely different properties from the free water. Bound water does not freeze into ice. It is a dispensable in metabolism because enzymes act exclusively in the presence of water. It has a high specific heat; consequently it affords protection against sudden temperature changes in living organisms. b) Inorganic salts. Inorganic salts are chlorides, phosphates, carbonates, bicarbonates and sulphates of sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe). They constitute 1-4% of protoplasm. They regulate metabolism and maintain proteins in solution. Calcium and phosphorus are necessary for the skeleton; sulphur is found in protein compounds; sodium and potassium are abundant in blood; magnesium is needed for bone formation; iron is a necessary part of blood, and chlorine is abundant in blood and tissue fluids. Most of the inorganic salts are in solution, either free or combined with organic compounds. c) Gases. These are carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), the latter is used by protoplasm during respiration and the resultant carbooxygen (CO2) is formed as a waste product. Content of chemicals in living and non-living substances.
Elements O C H N P K Na S Ca Mg Cl Fe Zn Cu I F Organization of human being, % 62.0 21.0 10.0 1.5-3.0 1.0 0.23 0.08 0.16 2.0 0.03 0.1 0.01 0.0003 0.0002 0.0001 0.0001 Non-living things, % 49.0 0.35 1.0 0.004 0.12 2.3 2.4 0.1 3.2 2.3 0.2 3.8 0.005 0.002 0.0005 0.02

According to the dependence of percentage in living cells elements are divided into macro-, micro- and ultramicroelements.

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Macroelements are contained in quantities, exceeding 0,1% (O, C, N, H, P, S, Ca, Na, K, Cl). Microelements are contained in organism in the concentration of 0,0010, 00001% (Cu, I, F, Br). Ultramicroelements are contained in quantities less than 0,00001% (Au, Hg and others). 4.4. Functions of compounds in living organisms. WATER. Biological role of water is determined by polarity of its molecules. 1. Water is solvent and medium for chemical reactions. 2. Water takes place in reactions of intracellular metabolism. 3. Owing to the large thermal capacity it is good thermoregulator. 4. Interacting with protein molecules it determines their chemical structure, colloidal condition of cytoplasm. INORGANIC SALTS. 1 1. They take part in bimolecular, determining their activity. 2. They support acid-alkaline balance. 3. They play building role. PROTEINS. 1. Building function. 2. Enzymatic function (proteins-enzymes). 3. Transport function (hemoglobin, ATP-ase and so on). 4. Receptor function (rhodopsin). 5. Protective function (antibodies, interferons). 6. Hormone function (insulin, somatotropin, thyrotropic hormone polypeptide; vasopressin - 9 amino acids, oxytocin - 9 amino acids; adrenocorticotrop(h)in - 39 amino acids. 7. Motive function (myosin, tubulin and so on). 8. Storing function (egg albumen). 9. Toxins (snake poison - 60-74 amino acids). 10. Antibiotics (cyclosporine, actinimycin). 11. Energy function. CARBOHYDRATES. 1. Structural function (keratin, ossein, cellulose of cell wall and so on). 2. Storing function (glycogen, starch). 3. Energy function. LIPIDS. 1. Structural function (cell membranes and organelle membranes). 2. Hormone function (steroids). 3. Storing function (hypodermic fat tissue). 4. Energy function. 5. Vitamins (vit. D; carotenoids).