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Flow Measurement

Flow Measurement
Objective To determine chemical dosage, air supply into the aeration basins, sludge volume to return into the biological reactors, to provide daily flow records required by regulatory agencies, and to evaluate infiltration/inflow during wet weather Locations Within an interceptor or manhole At the head of the plant Downstream of bar screen, grit channel, or primary sedimentation In the force main of pumping station Before the outfall
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Flow Measurement - continued

Basic types of measurement Differential pressure producers Direct discharge measurement Positive volume displacement measurement Flow velocity-area measurement Flow meters Venturi type meter, orifice meter, propeller type meter, magnetic flow meter, ultrasonic flow meter, vortex meter, rotameter (variable-area meter), flumes, and weirs Liquid chemical flow Measured by positive displacement pumps (or rotameters)

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Flow Measurement - continued

Selection Criteria
Type of application: open channel/closed conduits Proper sizing: range of flow Fluid composition: compatibility, solids, passage Accuracy (%) and repeatability Headloss or hydraulic head available Installation requirements: straight length, accessibility, disconnection method Operating environment: explosion proof, resistance to moisture and corrosive gases, temp. range Ease of maintenance: provision for flushing/rodding Cost Type and accessibility of the conduit
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Flow Metering Devices in Wastewater Treatment Facilities

Metering device For open channels Head/area Flume Weir Other Magnetic (insert type) For closed conduits Head/pressure Flow tube Orifice Pitot tube Rotameter Venturi Moving fluid effects Magnetic (tube type)_ Ultrasonic (doppler) Ultrasonic (transmission) Vortex shedding Positive displacement Propeller Turbine Raw Primary Secondary Primary Return Thickened Mixed Process WW effluent effluent sludge sludge sludge liquor water x x x x x x x x xa xa x xa xa xa,b xx x x x x x x x x

xa x x

xa x x x

x x x x x

xa x x

xa x x

xa x xc

a Flushing or diaphragm sealed connections recommended b Use with in-line reciprocating pumps not recommended c Solids content < 4%

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Venturi Type Flow Meter

Measure differential pressure Consists of a converging section, a throat, and a diverging recovery section The difference in two heads is analyzed by electrical or electromechanical instruments Accuracy: 1%; range: 4:1 Take considerable space (L/D = 5~20) Cannot be altered for measuring pressure beyond a
maximum velocity

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Flow Nozzle Meter

Measure differential pressure A Venturi meter without the diverging recovery section Less expensive than Venturi meter but higher headloss Accuracy: < 1%; range: 4:1

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Orifice Meter
Measure differential pressure Easy to install and fabricate Advantages: least expensive of all differential pressure devices and good accuracy (1%) Disadvantages: least efficient, high headloss, easy
clogging, and narrow range of flows (4:1)

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Electromagnetic Meter
Faradays law: a voltage
produced by passing a conductor through a magnetic field is proportional to the velocity of the conductor (wastewater) Advantages: good accuracy (1~2%), capable of measuring large range of flows (10:1), no headloss, and unaffected by temperature, conductivity, viscosity, turbulance, and suspended solids Disadvantages: high initial cost and need for trained personnel to handle routine O&M
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Turbine Meter
Use a rotating element A wide range of fluid
(turbine) applications covering from water to oils, solvents to acids Limited to pipes running full, under pressure, and liquids low in suspended solids Excellent accuracy (0.25%) and a good range of flows (10:1)
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Acoustic Meter
Use sound waves to measure Sonic meter or ultrasonic
the flow rates meter depending on whether the sound waves are in or above audible frequency range Determine the liquid levels, area, and actual velocity Advantages: low headloss, excellent accuracy (2~3%), usable in any pipe size, no fouling with solids, and wide flow ranges (10:1) Disadvantages: High initial cost and need for trained personnel to handle routine O&M
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Parshall Flume
Consists of a converging
section, a throat, and a diverging section Self-cleaning and small headloss Converts depth readings to discharge using a calibration curve Less accurate (5~10%) Range: 10:1 ~ 75:1

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Parshall Flumes

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Old style mechanical float for measuring depth of wastewater in Parshall flume. Note that the flume was cast as part of the concrete wall.

Downstream of Parshall flume showing entrance to horizontal flow grit chamber on right.

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A modern Parshall flume with prefabricated (white) insert to assure correct dimensional relationships for accurate flow measurement.

Ultrasonic source and transducer to capture reflected signal.

Close up view of Parshall flume insert. Elevation of wastewater in flume is measured ultrasonically.

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Critical flow downstream of ultrasonic level measurement.

Backup manual wastewater depth scale which is also used to calibrate the ultrasonic measurement.

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Stilling wells

Although this Parshall flume is not being used for wastewater flow measurement, it was selected to illustrate three features: (1) upstream stilling well and (2) downstream stilling well for depth measurement and (3) the need to maintain a clear flow path through the flume for accurate measurements.

Palmer-Bowlus Flume
Creates a change in the flow pattern by decreasing the
width of the channel without changing its slope. Installed in a sewer at a manhole which causes the back-up of the water in the channel. By measuring the upstream depth, the discharge is read from a calibration curve. Lower headloss than the Parshall flume Less accurate (5~10%)

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Weirs (Rectangular, Cipolletti, Triangular, or V-Notch)

The head over the weir is measured by a float, hook gauge, Measure the flow in open channels
Accuracy: 5%; Range: 500:1 Advantages: relatively accurate, simple to install, and inexpensive Disadvantages: large amounts of headloss and settling of solids upstream of the weir and more maintenance or level sensor

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Ultrasonic Meter
Measured based on the time
required for an ultrasonic pulse to diagonally traverse a pipe or channel against the liquid flow. Clamp-on types measure flow through the pipe without any wetted parts, ensuring that corrosion and other effects from the fluid will not deteriorate the sensors. Accuracy: 1% for a flow velocity ranging from 1 to http://www.sensorsmag.com/ articles/1097/flow1097/main. 106 ft/sec. Should be free of shtml particles and air bubbles. 146

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Vortex Meter
The frequency at which
the vortices are generated is proportional to the velocity of the liquid flow. Accuracy: 1% for a flow range of 12 to 1. Headloss: two times the velocity head

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Rotameters
Consist of glass tube
containing a freely moving float. May be used for both gas and liquid flow measurement Read or measured visually May be applied for very low flow rates, 0.1~140 gph for water and 1~520 scfm for air.

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Selection Guide (1)

Flow Meter Recommended Service Clean, viscous Turbine liquids Positive Clean, viscous Displacement liquids Clean, dirty, Electromagnetic viscous, conductive (Mag-Meter) liquids and slurries Variable Area Clean, dirty, viscous (VA, Rota-meter) liquids Thermal Mass Clean dirty viscous liquids some Flow (TMF) slurries Coriolis Mass Clean, dirty. viscous liquids, some Meter slurries Clean, dirty, liquids Orifice Plate some slurries FS=full scale Effects Typical Required from Turndown Pressure Typical upstream Accuracy pipe, changing Loss viscosity? +/- 0.25% 20 to 1 High 5 to 10 High of rate 10 to 1 High +/- 0.5% of None High rate 40 to 1 None +/- 0.5% of rate +/- 1 to 10% FS +/- 1% FS +/- 0.5% of rate 5 None None None None Medium None None High 149

10 to 1 Medium 10 to 1 10 to 1 4 to 1 Low Low Some

+/- 2 to 4% 10 to 20 FS

http://www.buygpi.com/selectionguide.aspx

Selection Guide (2)

Flow Meter Pitot tube Ultrasonic (Doppler) Recommended Service Clean liquids Typical Turndown Pressure Loss 3 to 1 Effects Required Typical from Upstream Accuracy changing pipe, viscosity? +/- 3 to 5% Very low 20 to 30 Low FS None None +/- 5% FS +/- 1 to 3% FS +/- 1% FS +/- 1% of rate 5 to 30 10 None None

Dirty, viscous, liquids 10 to 1 and slurries Clean, viscous, liquids Ultrasonic some dirty liquids 40 to 1 (Transit Time) (depending on brand) Some slurries but Venturi clean, dirty liquids 4 to 1 with high viscosity Vortex Clean, dirty liquids 10 to 1

A little Medium

5 to 18 10 to 20

High Medium

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Flow Sensors
Sensor Orifice Venturi Flow nozzle Elbow meter Annubar (Pitot tube) Turbine Range 3.5:1 3.5:1 3.5:1 3:1 3:1 20:1 Advantages Low cost 2-4% of full span Extensive industrial practice Lower pressure loss than 1% of full span orifice Slurries do not plug Good for slurry service 2% full span Intermediate pressure loss 5-10% of full Low pressure loss span 0.5-1.5% of full Low pressure loss span Large pipe diameters 0.25% of measurement 1% of measurement 0.5% of measurement Wide rangeability Good accuracy Wide rangeability Insensitive to variations in density, temperature, pressure, and viscosity High reangeability Good accuracy Accuracy Disadvantages High pressure loss Plugging with slurries High cost Line under 15 cm Higher cost than orifice plate Limited pipe sizes Very poor accuracy Poor performance with dirty or sticky fluids High cost Strainer needed, especially for slurries Expensive High pressure drop Damaged by flow surge or solids

Vortex shedding Positive displacement

10:1

10:1 or greater

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Checklist for Design of Flow-Measuring Device

Characteristics of the liquid (SS, density, temp., pressure, etc.) Expected flow range (max. and min.) Accuracy desired Any constraints imposed by regulatory agencies Location of flow measurement device and piping system Atmosphere of installation (indoors, outdoors, corrosive, hot,
(force main, sewer, manhole, channel, or treatment unit) cold, wet, dry, etc.) Headloss constraints Type of secondary elements (level sensors, pressure sensors, transmitters, and recorders) Space limitations and size of device Compatibility with other flow measurement devices if already in operation at the existing portion of the treatment facility Equipment manufacturers and equipment selection guide
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Design Example
Conditions 92-cm (36-inch) force main Max. flow: 1.321; min. flow: 0.152 m3/sec Measurement error: < 0.75% at all flows Headloss: < 15% of the meter readings at all flows Capable of measuring flows of solids bearing liquid Reasonable cost Select a Venturi meter Design equation Use Bernoulli energy equation for two sections of pipe with the assumption that the headloss is negligible and the elevations of the pipe centerline are the same.
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Governing Equations
Bernoullis equation
0 0

[Pressure head]+[Elevation head]+[Velocity head] where P = pressure, m; = density, kg/m3; z = elevation, m; v = velocity (m/sec), and g = 9.8 m/sec2. Continuity equation Q = v1 A1 = v2 A2 where A = Cross-sectional area.
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Design Example - continued

where Q = pipe flow, m3/sec; C1 = velocity, friction, or discharge coefficient

h = piezometric head difference, m; A1 = force main cross-sectional area, m2; A2 = throat cross-sectional area, m2; and D1 and D2 = diameter of the pipe and the throat, m. Standard Venturi meter Tube beta ratio (throat /force main ): 1/3~1/2 K = 1.0062 (1/3 beta ratio), 1.0328 (1/2 beta ratio) C1 = 0.97~0.99; normally provided by the manufacturer
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Design Example - continued

Develop calibration equation: Assume C1 = 0.985 = 0.7489 h m3/sec h = (Q/0.7489)2 At Qmax, h = 3.111 m; at Qmin, h = 0.041 m Headloss calculations
K = 0.14 for angles of divergence of 5

hL/h = 0.147 < 0.15; thus acceptable

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Level Measurement

Level Measurement
Essential item in plant operations Levels of all chemical storage tanks and silos, and
the pressure of water or compressed air lines - that is, the water level in the distribution mains and the utility lines. Liquid levels: a float, pressure elements, bubbler systems, or ultrasonic systems Dry, powdery materials: ultrasonic systems, photocell systems, rotary paddle switches, diaphragm units, wire strain gauge systems, and load cells (measure the total weight).
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Miscellaneous Flow Measurement Devices

Depth Measurement Need to measure the flow depth and sewer slope and use Manning equation for flow estimation. Frequently used for interceptor flow estimation Open Flow Nozzle Crude devices used to measure flow at the end of freely discharging pipes. Must have a section of pipe that has a length of at least six times the diameter with a flat slope preceding the discharge. Examples: Kennison nozzle and the California pipe
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Level Measurement Devices

Magnetostrictive Magnetic Level Gauge RF Transmitter Radar Ultrasonic Magnetic Switch

Float Switch RF Switch Vibrating Fork Thermal Dispersion

Seal Pot http://www.sensorsmag.com/sensors/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=360729

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Float System
The float-operated transmitter
- simple and reasonably accurate system The installation is very time consuming and expensive due to the need for a stilling well and a collection of wires, wheels, and tackles. Requires a periodic maintenance to assure friction-free motion of the float and cable assembly.

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Pressure Elements
Very commonly used in water
treatment plants A pressure transducer connected to the pressure elements measures the water pressure at the base of the tank and directly reads the liquid level. Pressure element type level measurers: the bourdon tube (has helical and spiral units; suited for high pressure measurement), bellow element (for intermediate pressures), diaphragm element (for small range in the low-pressure zone), and manometer (limited to pilot studies or temporary use).

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Bubble Tube System

Has a tube placed inside a tank
which runs from the top and opens 3 in. from the bottom. During the operation, compressed air is supplied to the tube via a regulator or a purge rotameter. Measure the back pressure of the hydrostatic head. Widely used for open tanks Advantages: simple design, easy accessibility and little concern over the corrosion of the pressure sensing device, and the ability to be installed at the bottom of the tank
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Ultrasonic Level Detector

Used to monitor either the water
level in a tank or dry material stored in a storage bin open to the atmosphere. Measured by means of an acoustic pulse; the ultrasonic transmitter and receiver units are located above the maximum level of the object. The time elapsed between pulse generation and the detection of the reflected pulse energy is a function of the speed of sound in air. Needs a temperature correction factor.
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Valves

Valve Selection
Purpose: Regulate the flow of water from
reservoirs, tanks, or channels. Primary functions: shut-off, throttle, prevention of backflow, or a combination of these functions Considerations: type of fluid or gas to be regulated, temperature, flow range, pressure of the system, valve function, valve location, type of valve operator, and reliability and cost of the
valve.
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Type of Fluid or Gas

Type 18-8 stainless steel: for corrosive liquid or
gas

Type 316 stainless steel and Teflon seats: for ozone

gas lines

No internal recess in the valve: for a chemical slurry If abrasive matter is present in the liquid, the fluid
passage must be composed of materials that are resistant to this type of erosion.

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Temperature
Important when valves are used in conjunction with
auxiliary equipment such as heating boilers and certain types of chemical feed system - that handle exothermic chemicals such as caustic soda and sulfuric acid.

Ordinary valves used in the water treatment process

should not be used at operating temperatures above 150F due to thermal distortion, unless special metal parts are specified.

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Flow Range

Important when selecting throttling valves. Most throttling valves have a limited range. Not important for simple shut-off. If the water velocity exceeds 35 ft/sec based on the valve port area, most valves are unsuitable for such service and the engineer must therefore specify special instructions for valve construction.

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Pressure Should know the max. differential pressure across the valve, and normal and extreme line pressure.

Valve Function Isolation of a line, drainage or a tank, prevention of backflow, reduction in pressure, or flow modulation. Valve Location In a valve vault, a pipe gallery, in the wall at the entrance of a tank, at the exit of a pipeline, buried in the ground, or submerged in the water.
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Valve Operator Manual or power For manual valve, the type of operator (i.e., a wheel or a square nut with key) and the orientation of both the operator and system support must be specified. Power operators are energized by means of electricity, compressed air, water or oil.

Reliability and Cost Compare the relative costs of the various sizes and types of valve for each application. List valve cost, projected maintenance costs and the cost of replacing equipment when necessary.
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Types of Valve (1)

Slide valve: a sliding disk
travelling perpendicular to the flow direction - e.g., gate valve

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Gate Valve
Best Suited Control: Quick Opening Recommended Uses: 1. Fully open/closed, non-throttling 2. Infrequent operation 3. Minimal fluid trapping in line Applications: Oil, gas, air, slurries, heavy liquids, steam, noncondensing gases, and corrosive liquids Advantages: 1. High capacity 2. Tight shutoff 3. Low cost 4. Little resistance to flow Disadvantages: 1. Poor control 2. Cavitate at low pressure drops 3. Cannot be used for throttling
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Types of Valve (2)

Rotary valve: a plug or disk moving in a rotary
fashion - e.g., butterfly, ball, plug, and cone valves

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Butterfly Valve
Best Suited Control: Linear, Equal percentage Recommended Uses: 1. Fully open/closed or throttling services 2. Frequent operation 3. Minimal fluid trapping in line Applications: Liquids, gases, slurries, liquids with suspended solids Advantages: Disadvantages: 1. Low cost and maint. 1. High torque required for 2. High capacity control 3. Good flow control 2. Prone to cavitation at lower 4. Low pressure drop flows
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Ball Valve
Best Suited Control: Quick opening, linear Recommended Uses: 1. Fully open/closed, limited-throttling 2. Higher temperature fluids Applications: Most liquids, high temperatures, slurries Advantages: Disadvantages: 1. Low cost 1. Poor throttling characteristics 2. High capacity 2. Prone to cavitation 3. Low leakage and maintenance 4. Tight sealing with low torque
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Types of Valve (3)

Globe valve: a plug or disk
moving parallel to the flow direction - e.g., home plumbing fixtures. Swing valve: a swing check valve preventing reverse flow - a combination of rotary and glove valves

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Glove Valve
Best Suited Control: Linear and equal percentage Recommended Uses: 1. Throttling service/flow regulation 2. Frequent operation Applications: Liquids, vapors, gases, corrosive substances, slurries Advantages: 1. Efficient throttling 2. Accurate flow control 3. Available in multiple ports Disadvantages: 1. High pressure drop 2. More expensive than other valves
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Types of Valve (4)

Multijet (sleeve) valve:
inner and outer pipes covered with a multitude of small orifices - used exclusively to reduce high pressure and to control flow rate without causing cavitation.

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Valve Selection
Select the proper type of valve, followed by sizing Evaluate the pressure drop characteristics and the working range of the valves Selection Criteria Rangeability: the ratio between the max. and min. controllable flow rates. Turn-down: a ratio of the normal max. flow rate vs. the min. controllable flow rate. For water pressure control, the ball and butterfly valves should be selected for ordinary cases where there is a normal pressure drop of at least 15% but less than 30%.
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Valve Selection - continued

If a higher pressure drop such as 50% is
expected, a valve with linear characteristics (plug or multijet valve) should be specified.

For the control of liquid level, a valve with linear

characteristics such as a plug valve, is most appropriate.

Equal percentage valves are most appropriate for

a fast acting process, in situations requiring high rangeability, if the dynamics of the system are not well known, and in the case of heat exchangers.

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Valve Sizing (1)

STEP #1: Define the system The system is pumping water from one tank to another through a piping system with a total pressure drop of 150 psi. The fluid is water at 70F. Design (maximum) flowrate of 150 gpm, operating flowrate of 110 gpm, and a minimum flowrate of 25 gpm. The pipe diameter is 3 inches. At 70F, water has a specific gravity of 1.0. Key Variables: Total pressure drop, design flow, operating flow, minimum flow, pipe diameter, and specific gravity
http://www.cheresources.com/valvezz.shtml
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Valve Sizing (2)

STEP #2: Define a maximum allowable pressure drop for the valve Note the trade off: larger pressure drops increase the pumping cost (operating) and smaller pressure drops increase the valve cost because a larger valve is required (capital cost). The usual rule of thumb is that a valve should be designed to use 10~15% of the total pressure drop or 10 psi, whichever is greater. For the system, 10% of the total pressure drop is 15 psi which is used as our allowable pressure drop when the valve is wide open.
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Valve Sizing (3)

STEP #3: Calculate the valve characteristic For the system,

where Q = design flowrate (gpm); G = specific gravity; and P = allowable pressure drop across wide open valve. Dont go to the valve charts or characteristic curves and select a valve yet. Proceed to Step #4!
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Valve Sizing (4)

STEP #4: Preliminary valve selection Don't make the mistake of trying to match a valve with your calculated Cv value. The Cv value should be used as a guide in the valve selection, not a hard and fast rule. Some other considerations are:
Never use a valve that is less than half the pipe size Avoid using the lower 10% and upper 20% of the valve stroke. The valve is much easier to control in the 1080% stroke range.

Before a valve can be selected, decide what type of valve will be used. For the case, an equal percentage, globe valve will be used.
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Valve Sizing (5)

STEP #4: Preliminary valve selection - continued The valve chart supplied by the manufacturer.

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Valve Sizing (6)

STEP #4: Preliminary valve selection continued The 2 inch valve appears to work well for the Cv value at about 80~85% of the stroke range. If 1 inch valve is used, two consequences would be experienced: the pressure drop would be a little higher than 15 psi at the design (max) flow and the valve would be difficult to control at maximum flow. Also, there would be no room for error with this valve, but the valve chosen will allow for flow surges beyond the 150 gpm range with severe headaches!
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Valve Sizing (7)

STEP #5: Check the Cv and stroke percentage at the minimum flow Judgments plays role in many cases. Select the valve for the range that the valve is operated most often. A Cv of 6.5 that corresponds to a stroke percentage of around 35-40% is certainly acceptable. Although the pressure drop across the valve will be lower at smaller flowrates, using the maximum value gives us a "worst case" scenario. If the Cv at the minimum flow would have been around 1.5, there would not really be a problem because the valve has a Cv of 1.66 at 10% stroke and since the maximum pressure drop is used, the estimate is conservative. Essentially, at lower pressure drops, Cv would only increase which in this case would be advantageous.

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Valve Sizing (8)

STEP #6: Check the gain across applicable flowrates Gain is defined as: flow Gain = stroke or travel
Flow (gpm) 25 110 150 Cv 6.5 28 39 Stroke (%) 35 73 85 flow (gpm) 110-25 = 85 150-110 = 40 Stroke (%) 73-35 = 38 85-73 = 12 Gain 2.2 3.3

The difference between these values should be less than 50% of the higher value. 0.5 (3.3) = 1.65 > 3.3-2.2 = 1.1 No problem in controlling the valve. The gain should never be less than 0.50.
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Valve Control
Equal Percentage Equal increments of valve travel produce an equal percentage in flow change Linear Valve travel is directly proportional to the valve stoke Quick Opening Large increase in flow with a small change in valve stroke
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Equal Percentage a. Used in processes where large changes in pressure drop are expected b. Used in processes where a small percentage of the total pressure drop is permitted by the valve c. Used in temperature and pressure control loops Linear a. Used in liquid level or flow loops b. Used in systems where the pressure drop across the valve is expected to remain fairly constant (i.e., steady state systems) Quick Opening a. Used for frequent on-off service b. Used for processes where "instantly" large flow is needed (i.e., safety systems or cooling water systems)
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Control Valve Flow Characteristics

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Control Valve Flow Characteristics

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Inherent Flow Characteristics

Linear - flow capacity increases linearly with valve travel. Equal percentage - flow capacity increases exponentially with valve trim travel. Equal increments of valve travel produce equal percentage changes in the existing Cv. A modified parabolic characteristic is approximately midway between linear and equalpercentage characteristics. It provides fine throttling at low flow capacity and approximately linear characteristics at higher flow capacity. Quick opening provides large changes in flow for very small changes in lift. It usually has too high a valve gain for use in modulating control. So it is limited to on-off service, such as sequential operation in either batch or semi-continuous processes.

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Other Valves
Check Valves Restrict the flow to one direction. Relief Valves Regulate the operating pressure of incompressible flow Safety Valves Release excess pressure in gases or compressible fluids
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