NASA TM X-54,056

2 E

&-'
THE AERODYNAMIC HEATING OF ATMOSPHERE ENTRY VEHICLES

- A REVIEW

By H. Julian Allen NASA, Ames Research Center Moffett Field, California

Paper for Symposium on Fundamental Phenomena i n Hypersonic Flow, Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory, Buffalo, New York, June 25-26, 1964

The Aerodynamic Heating of Atmosphere Entry Vehicles A Review

By H. Julian Allen* National Aeronautics and Space Administration Ames Research Center Moffett Field, C a l i f . Introduction

It w a s only a l i t t l e more than a decade ago t h a t aeronautical

engineers were faced with the challenge of designing the f i r s t longrange b a l l i s t i c missiles. Since the chemical rocket requires t h a t

oxidizer a s well as f u e l be carried, the energy content per u n i t prop e l l a n t mass i s poor. I n addition, the mean propulsive efficiency i s

low s o t h a t the r a t i o of launch weight t o empty weight i s very l a r g e indeed. Hence every e f f o r t must be made t o keep the payload a s large Light construction i s The engine

a f r a c t i o n of the empty weight as possible.

therefore a prerequisite for the long-range rocket.

designers were faced with the problem of designing rocket motors t h a t would produce very high t h r u s t but with l i t t l e weight. The s t r u c t u r a l

engineers were required t o build the rocket s h e l l structure

mainly

tankage t o hold the large quantity of f u e l needed - the mass of which

w a s but a few percent of the t o t a l mass a t launch.

The guidance and

control experts were called uponto provide systems which would give a

miss distance of about one m i l e a t a t a r g e t f i v e thousand miles away.

The aerodynamicist was asked t o provide an e n t r y body f o r the warhead

t h a t could successfully withstand t h e intense convective heating experienced upon reentry into the Earth's atmosphere. Each of these

*Assistant

Director f o r Astronautics

challenging problems

one or two orders of magnitude more d i f f i c u l t than

those which had been d e a l t with previously

w a s successfully mastered.

It i s the purpose of t h i s paper t o review h i s t o r i c a l l y t h e aerodynamic

heating problems of the reentry vehicles s t a r t i n g with long-range b a l l i s t i c vehicles and finishing with what appear w i l l be the interplanetary space vehicles of the future. Aerodynamic Heating During Reentry o f B a l l i s t i c Missiles
A b a l l i s t i c vehicle required to a t t a i n a range of the order of one-

quarter the circumference o f t h e Earth must be accelerated during t h e boost phase i n t o space t o a speed of about

7 km/sec.

The vehicle then

has a k i n e t i c energy of aLout 25X106 m2/sec2 per u n i t mass which i s about eight times the amount of energy required t o convert a u n i t mass of i c e i n t o steam. Clearly, i f a large fraction of t h i s k i n e t i c energy

must be converted i n t o heat, only a very small fraction of it can be

allowed t o heat t h e vehicle if the vehicle i s not t o be destroyed before

reaching the t a r g e t . Therein l i e s the problem.

In order t o assess the fraction of the energy which e n t e r s the vehicle, consider the following simplified analysis.
If the entry speed

of t h e vehicle, VE, is high and the t r a j e c t o r y reasonably steep, as i s

t h e case f o r t h e b a l l i s t i c missile, then the negative acceleration due t o drag is l a r g e compared t o Earths gravity acceleration during the portion of t h e atmosphere e n t r y when t h e heating is important. simplify t h e equation of motion t o W may e

where

m
V

e n t r y body mass velocity

3
t
p

time a i r density reference area (usually base area) f o r d e f i n i t i o n of coefficients drag coefficient
Now, the heating r a t e f o r these vehicles i s very large compared t o

A
CD

t h e r a t e a t vhich heat can be reradiated f r o x %he s u f a c e , and the driving temperature p o t e n t i a l promoting the convective t r a n s f e r of heat
i s determined e s s e n t i a l l y by the a i r temperature ( i . e . , the wall tern-

perature can be ignored by comparison t o the a i r temperature). these circumstances one may show that the r a t e of input of heat expressed i n k i n e t i c energy units i s dq - I. C,~V~A

Under

at

where

CH

i s the dimensionless heat-transfer coefficient.

Then equations (1)and (2) yield the important result t h a t

dq =

- -( CH mdv27 )
CD

(3)

If we assume for the moment t h a t the mass, the heat-transfer coefficient,& the drag coefficient may be considered constant, then

the t o t a l heat input is

where

Vo i s the vehicle speed at sea l e v e l .

When t h e t o t & heat input is l e a s t it can be shown t h a t the f i n a l

speed, Vo,

is small compared t o the e n t r y speed so t h a t approximately

The f a c t o r

CH q=CD

4
i s the portion of the t o t a l kinetic energy which must appear a s heat t o

the vehicle and w desire e possible.

1 - 7 t h e portion which i s given t o the a i r .

Clearly,

7 hereinafter called the energy f r a c t i o n , t o be as small as ,

A t b a l l i s t i c missile speeds the heating process i s e s s e n t i a l l y

e n t i r e l y a convective one.

Reynolds analogy ( r e f . 1) t e l l s us t h a t the

convective heat-transfer coefficient i s d i r e c t l y expressible as

CH
where

1 = 2 CF

(7)

CF

i s the f r i c t i o n coefficient.

I n order t o keep the heat shield mass, which i s proportional t o the t o t a l heat input, as small as possible, then, t h e extraneous mass (see eq.

( 5 ) ) should be kept as small as possible, s o

is no l a r g e r than necessary.

t h a t the vehicle mass

In addition, equations ( 3 ) and (7)

indicate the optimum w i l l be attained when the r a t i o of f r i c t i o n a l force t o t o t a l drag force is as small as possible (ref. 2 ) .
a

A blunt body b e s t

satisfies t h i s l a t t e r requirement.

The energy f r a c t i o n , 7, can be made

p a r t i c u l a r l y low i f laminar flow can be maintained a t the usual Reynolds numbers of i n t e r e s t f o r then the f r i c t i o n coefficient i s much l e s s than

it would be f o r turbulent flow.

Values of the energy f r a c t i o n of l e s s

than one-half of 1 percent were obtainable so t h a t even using a s o l i d heat sinlc as a shield

- a poor

coolant a t b e s t

a satisfactory entry

vehicle could be designed.

The next important step was to incorporate ablative heat shields

i n t h e des-6

that is, shields which would vaporize during the

heating so that advantage could be taken of t h e l a t e n t heat of vaporization t o g r e a t l y increase the heat removed per u n i t of heat shield mass.
The ablative shields have a second recognized advantage of great impor-

tance (see refs. 3 t o 6 ) which i s that the issuing vapor from the s h i e l d s fends off the air so as t o reduce the shear a t the vehicle

5
surface and hence reduce the heat-transfer coefficient i t s e l f . reduction is approximately i n the r a t i o
This

wherein
fv
k

the energy required t o vaporize a unit mass of the shield

a constant depending upon t h e molecular weight of the ablated vapor

and upon whether the boundary-layer flow i s laminar or turbulent Values of t h i s constant ( r e f . 6 ) a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y about 0.3

f o r laminar flow and about 0.1 for turbulent flow.

The important feature

t o note i s t h a t the reduction of heat-transfer coefficient with ablation increases with increasing speed. There i s a t h i r d advantage of the ablative shield which i s not generally appreciated that w i l l become important a t higher e n t r y speeds.

It is t h a t as ablation occurs, the coolant,after accepting all t h e heat

of which it i s capable, i s automatically jettisoned. The ensuing heat

l o a d is therefore lessened by the continuous reduction of unnecessary

mass.

For the ablative heat shield the mass t r a n s f e r equation is

With equation (1)then

so that for constant heat-transfer coefficient and drag coefficient, the

f i n a l mass i s , f o r a l o w speed a t impact,
I -

6
since t h e f i n a l mass is, o f course, the payload i n an optimum design,
F r the heat sink shield, on the other hand, even supposing the coolant o

i s as e f f i c i e n t as the ablator and t h a t no allowance i s made f o r the

favorable e f f e c t of ablation on the heat-transfer coefficient, the optimum r a t i o of payload t o t o t a l mass of payload plus coolant i s

Figure 1 shows the optimum r a t i o of payload t o e n t r y mass as a function of the energy parameter CHVE2/2C~(v. For the nonablative

s h i e l d the payload vanishes when t h e energy parameter reaches 1. For the ablative shield some payload i s available f o r i n d e f i n i t e l y large values of t h e energy parameter although it may be uneconomically small. Reentry Heating f o r Space Vehicles The negative accelerations of b a l l i s t i c vehicles entering the
,

atmsphere on steep t r a j e c t o r i e s are large compared t o t h e acceleration of gravity, as noted e a r l i e r , s o t h a t the equation of motion can be approximated by equation (1)and the t r a j e c t o r y i s e s s e n t i a l l y a straight line.

I n planetary atmospheres the density variation with

altitude i s e s s e n t i a l l y exponential i n form

P =
where

-Ph

Po
h

sea-level density
altitude
inverse of t h e scale height Under these circumstances it may r e a d i l y be shown ( r e f . 2) t h a t t h e

maximum acceleration, if it i s reached before impact, i s

7
where
y

angle between the t r a j e c t o r y and the l o c a l horizontal Naperian base

This i s a r a t h e r curious result since it indicates t h i s accelera-

t i o n t o be independent of the vehicle shape or mass and only dependent on e n t r y speed, t r a j e c t o r y angle, and the scale height of the atmosphere. For the t y p i c a l b a l l i s t i c missile the maximum accelerations can reach about -60 g but t h i s i s of small significance since such vehicles can be r a t h e r e a s i l y made s u f f i c i e n t l y robust t o r e s i s t such loads. For manned space vehicles, of course, maximum accelerations must be limited t o values of the order o f 10 g during entry. Equation (14)

gives the clue t h a t t h i s can be accomplished with a shallow t r a j e c t o r y .

This equation, however, cannot be used t o find the permissible t r a j e c t o r y

angles because g r a v i t y e f f e c t s were ignored i n i t s formulation. (refs.

Chapman

7 and 8) has considered t h i s problem

with gravity effects included

as well as t h e e f f e c t s of the use o f aerodynamic l i f t .

For near-Earth

manned s a t e l l i t i e s , such as f o r Project Mercury, a s a t i s f a c t o r y reentry may be made without t h e use of aerodynamic l i f t i f the entry t r a j e c t o r y

is n e i t h e r so s h a l l o w

88

t o overly extend the t r a j e c t o r y due t o i n s u f f i In fact,

c i e n t drag nor so steep as t o promte excessive accelerations.

by the use of a modest retrorocketwith properly directed t h r u s t a

landing at a preselected spot can easily be effected without t h e use of aerodynamic lif't,

as has been demonstrated with the Mercury spacecraft.

When t h e e n t r y speed is increased t o values corresponding t o Earth parabolic speed o r greater, the attainment of a permissible approach t r a j e c t o r y becomes more d i f f i c u l t .
A t Earth hyperbolic speeds, i n f a c t ,

i f the approach i s too shallow the drag may not be s u f f i c i e n t t o assure

t h a t the vehicle will be "captured" by the atmosphere.

Generally, the

8
si.tuation w i l l be more r e s t r i c t e d than has been indicated, f o r i f t h e vehicle on t h e shallow t r a j e c t o r y l e a v e s t h e atmosphere, it may t r a v e r s e
the

Van Allen belts before i t s next approach t o E a r t h and s o subject

Accordingly, it usually i s

t h e occupants t o a l e t h a l radiation hazard.

assumed t h a t a manned vehicle must be captured and kept i n t h e atmosphere during the " f i r s t pass." '
A concept convenient t o discussion of t h e

manned e n t r y vehicle problem is the so-called e n t r y corridor defined herein as t h e range of a l t i t u d e s required as aiming points f o r t h e approach t o assure t h a t t h e vehicle n e i t h e r experiences excessive accelerations nor f a i l s t o be captured i n a s i n g l e pass. Figure 2 shows

t h e 10 g corridor as a function of l i f t - d r a g r a t i o for e n t r y a t Earth parabolic speed.

The advantage of using aerodynamic l i f t i s apparent

and t h e subject has been t r e a t e d extensively i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e (e.g., r e f s . 7 t o U)

.
For small rugged e n t r y vehicles of

This digression i n t o t h e discussion of t r a j e c t o r y requirements i s p e r t i n e n t t o the heating problem.

rather low mass, steep t r a j e c t o r i e s are generally preferable f o r minimizing a b l a t i v e heat-shield weight, i f aerodynamic loading i s not a factor, since t h e heat pulse though intense i s but of very s h o r t duration so t h a t l i t t l e heat is conducted i n t o t h e substructure. In

addition, a b l a t i v e s h i e l d s which melt before being vaporized have a t h i n melt so that the flow of t h e melt layer c r e a t e s l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y . In contrast, f o r manned vehicles which must employ shallow-angled t r a j e c t o r i e s t o avoid excessive accelerations, t h e heating rate i s more

modest but lasts f o r a considerable period.

The conductivity problem

i s so severe t h a t insulation is required t o prevent overheating of the

substructure.
The choice of ablative materials i s r e s t r i c t e d since many

9
w i l l flow unduly because the liquid f i l m layer is r e l a t i v e l y thick.

O the other hand, there are some compensating f a c t o r s favoring the n shallow t r a j e c t o r i e s : The long heating time permits a sizable amount

of heat t o be radiated f r o m t h e vehicle surface, thus reducing the required mass f o r the ablator.

Also f o r l a r g e heavy vehicles the

f l i g h t Reynolds numbers are lower s o t h a t a laminar flow can often be maintained where otherwise t.l~rbvlent. flow wnllll! heating r a t e i s lessened.
C?CC??IT~ hence

+,he

The use of varying aerodynamic l i f t complicates

the problem since t h e surface distribution of heating r a t e v a r i e s with the vehicle a t t i t u d e .

Up t o t h i s point the t a c i t assumption has been made t h a t convective

heating c o n s t i t u t e s the t o t a l .

For speeds up t o nearly parabolic speed

Thus the t o t a l heat input, other

f o r Earth, t h i s i s e s s e n t i a l l y the case.

things being equal, only increases as about t h e square of the speed.

It i s not immediately apparent that there i s a necessity t o consider

entry speeds above parabolic speed f o r Earth return from t r a v e l t o the neighboring planets.
For Hohmann t r a n s f e r t r a j e c t o r i e s from Mars or

Venus t o Earth, the atmosphere entry speeds a t Earth a r e e s s e n t i a l l y Earth parabolic speed. However, as shown i n figure 3, t h e times

required f o r the minimum e n e r g y t r i p s a r e long, s u b s t a n t i a l f r a c t i o n s of a year. There are many good reasons f o r wanting t o shorten the

travel time.

Br t h e occupants, long f l i g h t duration w i l l probably b

Certainly, too, the More

promote some d i f f i c u l t psychological problems.

weight of l i f e support equipment increases with voyage t i m e .

obscurely, the vehicle weight, as determined f o r equal meteor impact hazard, f o r example, gives advantage t o short t r i p duration. Thus, f o r

even modest sojourns i n t o space there a r e v a l i d reasons f o r considering

10
atmosphere entry speeds i n excess o f the parabolic speed.

For more

d i s t a n t journeys of the future the demands are even g r e a t e r .

A t these higher speeds one must contend w i t h an additional heating

contribution which a r i s e s i n the following way:

The a i r entering the

shock l a y e r i s d r a s t i c a l l y slowed down r e l a t i v e t o the body and i s highly compressed.

L V L l v c I

The high kinetic energy i s then almost e n t i r e l y

rm.

---.---+*a

kcu

+,. w

LA-&

l ~ a k .

r ~ l a A L C : I ~ ~ I , I U L Ia t tiie higher E i g h t speeds is C

-----.L-I-.-.-

s u f f i c i e n t t o dissociate and ionize a large f r a c t i o n of t h e compressed gas. These atomic and molecular species become important sources of

radiation which serve t o promote additional heating of the vehicle (see, e.g., r e f s . 12 t o 1 6 ) . The phenomenon i s a complicated one since a chain of processes i s required t o e s t a b l i s h chemical and thermodynamic equilibrium. Thus the

r a d i a t i o n f r o m t h e shock layer varies along the s t r e a m l i n e s as air i n i t i a l l y out of equilibrium subsides t o the equilibrium state.

For the

purposes of t h i s discussion it i s sufficient t o note t h a t one can regard the shock-layer radiation as having two components, one from t h a t f r a c t i o n of the gas which is in equilibrium and one from the nonequilibrium fraction.

When radiative heating becomes comparable t o or

exceeds the convective heating, it has been found t h a t t h e equilibrium component f a r overshadows the nonequilibrium component. Accordingly,

we s h a U concentrate our attention on the equilibrium radiation herein.

Figure 4 shows the equilibrium radiation rate per u n i t shock-layer
gas volume as a function of

U, the upstream velocity component normal

These are calculated

t o t h e shock f o r several values of f l i g h t a l t i t u d e .

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (shown by the symboled points) and the l i n e s composed of s t r a i g h t segments a r e a r b i t r a r y fairings.

A t a given velocity U, the

1 1
variation of radiation with a l t i t u d e corresponds t o a variation w i t h
a i r density t o the 1.8 power. A t any given a l t i t u d e on increasing the

velocity, U, from about 8 km/sec t o 13.7 lun/sec, the i n t e n s i t y i s increased four orders of magnitude, the i n t e n s i t y varying with the velocity t o the

15.45

power.

Above the speed of

13.7 km/sec, the

radiation continues t o increase but only as the v e l o c i t y t o the 3.05 power.

It i s readily q g a r e n t that. althnijgh radiat,ive heatring constitutes a

t r i v i a l contribution a t the lower speed, it becomes t h e dominating f a c t o r a t higher speeds, p a r t i c u l a r l y i f these high speeds a r e a t t a i n e d a t low altitudes. One concludes t h a t when atmosphere e n t r y speeds exceed about Earth
1 parabolic speed ( 1km/sec) the blunt-body solution i s no longer the

optimum.

Conical shapes for vehicles become a t t r a c t i v e i n t h i s higher

speed range since the bow shock e s s e n t i a l l y i s no longer normal t o the direction o f motion. nearly
As we have seen f o r normal shock speeds up t o

14 km/sec,

the principal radiative contribution varies a s some-

thing more than the fifteenth power of the velocity component normal t o the shock.

Thus, f o r a given f l i g h t speed, t h e r a d i a t i v e rate varies

as t h e fifteenth power of the sine of the bow shock angle, and so the
radiative input is d r a s t i c a l l y reduced f o r even very modest inclination
of the bow shock.

The conical shape i s less favorable than the blunt

body from the convective heating aspect, but since t h e required cone shape is not one of high fineness r a t i o , t h e penalty is small. This

i s r e a d i l y apparent i n the next three figures, taken from reference

17

which contains an extended analysis of the heating of conical entry vehicles a t speeds i n excess o f Earth parabolic speed. Figure 3 shows

t h e fraction of the entry kinetic energy of the vehicle which must be

contended w i t h a s heat t o the vehicle as a function of e n t r y speed f o r

a conical shaped body having a half-cone angle of 3 ' 0

of a r c .

The

ablator assumed here i s Teflon, and the dimensionless b a l l i s t i c parameter

B =

CDPoA

pm s i n y

has a value of 200 which, as estimated from our meager present knowledge,

i s about as small a s can be allowed i f the flow, as assumed f o r t h i s case,

i s t o be laminar.

Note, here, that the radiative heating does not

contribute substantially u n t i l speeds of the order of 20 kilometers a r e exceeded a f t e r which it dominates. bution The nonequilibrium r a d i a t i v e contri-

qn, as noted e a r l i e r , remains small compared t o the equilibrium qe

and the laminar convective portion, q 2.

r a d i a t i v e contribution

Figure 6 shows t h e total. energy f r a c t i o n as a function of e n t r y speed f o r a range of cone half-angles f o r the same value of the b a l l i s t i c parameter. The optimum energy fractions f o r t h i s value of
B

a r e shown by the envelope (dotted curve).

These values a r e but a small

p a r t of 1 percent of the entry kinetic energy.

If one assumes t h a t laminar flow can be maintained up t o a Reynolds

number of

lo7 based

on body length and l o c a l flow c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the

f r a c t i o n of the entry mass which must be ablated as a function of e n t r y speed for two ablators (subliming Teflon and vaporizing quartz) i s shown i n f i g u r e 7.

It is seen t h a t the ablated mass can apparently be kept

a reasonably small f r a c t i o n of the e n t r y mass even t o f a i r l y high entry

speed

- well

i n t o the range of entry speeds of meteors.

If turbulent

flow occurs, the mass l o s s fraction i s much greater since the energy f r a c t i o n is increased about an order of magnitude. Considerable future

13
research on the age-old t r a n s i t i o n problem i s c l e a r l y needed a t these high speeds. W must learn the f a c t o r favorable t o the e

maintenance of laminar flow i n boundary l a y e r s composed of a i r and ablation vapors. There i s another problem w i t h conically shaped e n t r y vehicles t o touch on before w leave t h i s subject. e The convective heat t r a n s f e r

i s iiigiiesi a i ihe cone apex and diminishes toward tne cone base.

Thus %he cone ablates t o a round-nosed, near-cone shape with increased cone half-angle a s the atmosphere entry progresses. I f the e n t r y

speed i s high, the rounded nose becomes f l a t t e n e d and extended i n width by t h e radiative heating contribution a t the lower a l t i t u d e s . the advantage of the o r i g i n a l conical shape may thus be l o s t . Much of In

reference 17 t h i s problem i s treated in some d e t a i l and it appears t h a t the p e n d t y can be kept small, provided excessive shape change i s avoided by extra f i l m cooling a t t h e apex.
O f course, the mechanical.

complication attendant with t h i s cooling i s undesirable but it i s a price which perhaps m u s t be paid t o e f f e c t a s a t i s f a c t o r y solution t o t h e problem.
]o Fr

manned vehicles a t these higher speeds the problem of providing

As shown i n figure

an adequate altitude corridor becomes severe.

8, for

an assumed fixed maximum deceleration of 10 g , a higher and higher l i f t drag r a t i o i s required as entry speed increases u n t i l a speed is

reached f o r which t h e corridor vanishes.

For t h i s deceleration the

l i m i t speed i s about 26 km/sec, t h i s being the speed f o r which, with

c

zero drag, the centrifugal force experienced i s 10 g . f o r a f l i g h t t r a j e c t o r y having a curvature equal t o the radius of the Earth. The

required aerodynamic lift force is, of course, directed toward the

14
Earth's center. From t h e foregoing it appears t h a t the e n t r y speeds

f o r manned vehicles, a t l e a s t , w i l l have t o be limited t o values l e s s than perhaps 20 km/sec and t h a t l i f t must be provided. Entry vehicles

shaped l i k e half-cones, perhaps, may provide s a t i s f a c t o r y configurations ( r e f . 10) f o r high-speed e n t r i e s . U t o t h i s point it has been t a c i t l y assuned t h a t aerodynamic p braking of a vehicle i s preferable t o rocket braking t o e f f e c t a landing on Earth.
It i s well t o digress, here, t o make a comparison. A s is

well known (see r e f . 18) the specific impulse of a rocket i s defined a s

where
i

specific impulse, sec thrust, kg m/sec2 g r a v i t a t i o n a l acceleration a t Earth surface, m/sec2

g0 dm/dt

time r a t e of mass flow of rocket propellants

For rocket braking t h i s t h r u s t provides the negative acceleration

-d V - = dt

Equations

(16) and (17) can be combined t o give

Comparing t h i s equation with t h e corresponding one for the ablation r a t e with aerodynamic braking (eq. (lo)), one sees that t h e equivalent

heat shield i s

15
where 7

i s t h e energy f r a c t i o n

For t h e optimum conical vehicles of reference 17 w i t h laminar

boundary-layer flow, and assuming

5,
f o r subliming Teflon and
CV

= 2 . 2 f i ~S / s e c 2

= 16x10~m2/sec2

f o r vaporizing quartz, one can calculate the equivalent s p e c i f i c impulse f o r aerodynamic braking. The v a r i a t i o n of t h i s impulse w i t h

speed f o r these two assumed ablators is shown i n f i g u r e

9. Though these

equivalent impulses drop w i t h increasing e n t r y speed, they are always well above what can be a t t a i n e d with chemical rockets ( l e s s than 500 sec) o r nuclear rockets (up t o about 1,000 sec) even f o r a rather i n e f f i c i e n t a b l a t o r such as Teflon. Hence as long as energy f r a c t i o n s f o r vehicles

with a b l a t i v e heat shields can be kept t o t h e order of 1 percent o r so, rocket braking cannot be considered competitive. Aerodynamic B r a k i n g i n t h e Atmospheres of Venus and Mars
The Earth's close neighbors, Venus and Mars, are objects of

p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h e space age.

Although t h e atmospheres of

these planets have been t h e object of study f o r many years, t h e f a c t s

are few.
stituent. total.

Both atmospheres have carbon dioxide as an important con-

The estimates range from a f e w percent t o about half of t h e

Nitrogen, presumably, and perhaps Argon are t h e other p r i n c i p a l Apparently oxygen and water vapor are present i n but

constituents.
L

r e l a t i v e l y small amounts.

I n any study of atmosphere e n t r y heating f o r

these plzzets ve m u s t , f c r the p r e s e ~ t ,sss'me t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e a m u n t s

of t h e constituents are varied over a wide range. The Venus atmosphere i s assuredly much more dense than i s the
E a r t h ' s so t h a t atmospheric braking i s not d i f f i c u l t .

O t h e other hand, n

16
t h e temperature near the surface o f t h e planet is high so t h a t even an instrument package may not survive f o r long. tenuous. The Mars atmosphere i s

Recent observations (ref. 19) indicate a very low surface

pressure indeed (25 k15 millibars) so t h a t braking an e n t r y vehicle t o

a low speed a t surface impact maybe impossible without t h e use of a

retrorocket a t touchdown.

The atmospheric temperature near t h e surface

sl;rx.riy.rd

i s a p p a r e n t l y even less t.ha-n for E n r t h j so vehicle

a f t e r lar,&-jng

does not appear t o present a problem. Convective heat t r a n s f e r i n the Venus and Mars atmosphere appears t o present no problem. Comparison of convective heat i n
CO,

and a i r

( r e f . 20) shows only a minor difference which i s i n e s s e n t i a l agreement

w i t h theory ( r e f . 2 1 ) .
I -

O the other hand, t h e r a d i a t i v e heating conn

t r i b u t e d from t h e shock l a y e r i s generally a more serious problem than f o r air (ref. 22) because of the formation of cyanogen, a strong

r a d i a t o r , from the nitrogen and carbon dioxide constituents.

of 6 o r

A t speeds

7 km/sec t h e experimental evidence indicates t h a t t h e r a d i a t i v e

However,

heating i s about one order of magnitude g r e a t e r than f o r a i r .

as speed i s increased, t h e

C, O

- N2 mixtures

approach more nearly a i r

values of r a d i a t i v e heating.

My colleague, James Arnold, has recently

measured t h e e f f e c t s of' adding argon and has found, contrary t o expectation, t h a t t h i s diluent does not appreciably influence t h e basic
COz

- Rz

results.

Because t h e actual composition of the Venus and Mars' atmospheres

i s doubtful, these estimates of the s e v e r i t y of the heating problem

may be i n considerable e r r o r .

17
Experimental Determination of Aerodynamic Heating a t Hypervelocities The accuracy of t h e foregoing r e e n t r y heating analyses i s only as good as the accuracy of our basic knowledge of t h e chemical and thermodynamic processes involved.
As i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c delineation of a l l

n a t u r a l philosophy, theory i s v i t a l l y important t o o u r understanding of t h e heating phenomena i n high-enthalpy a i r flows.

A s i s often the

case, constant input from experimental research i s needed not only t o progress a t a fast pace but t o assure t h a t t h e t h e o r e t i c a l results are, i n f a c t , valid. In hypersonic heat-transfer phenomena t h i s i s particu-

l a r l y t r u e because many of t h e basic physical concepts involved are not

too well understood.

Unfortunately, t h e present upper l i m i t on a i r

speed i n our ground-based laborabory equipment i s only a l i t t l e more than 13 km/sec. For present analyses a t higher a i r speeds, we must In t i m e we expect t h e l i m i t of

r e l y on extrapolation by theory.

a t t a i n a b l e speeds i n t h e laboratory w i l l increase but by unknown amounts.

It i s possible t o perform f l i g h t t e s t s using rockets t o

extend our experimental knowledge t o t h e higher speeds, but such tests are very expensive and so t i m e consuming that they cannot be counted on t o produce t h e experimental data we need. experimental sources f o r confirmation. Observations of meteor f l i g h t a r e one such source worthy of consideration. Meteoroids are known t o e n t e r t h e Earth's atmosphere a t One then looks f o r other

speeds ranging from parabolic speed ( 1km/sec) up t o t h e highest speed 1 they can have and s t i l l be members of t h e solar system (72 kq/sec)

The e n t r y speed requirements f o r our purposes are, therefore, more than

met.

O t h e other hand, t h e atmosphere e n t r y of meteoroids l a r g e enough n

t o enjoy continuum flow a r e sufficiently infrequent t h a t only occasionally

1 8
can one be tracked a t any one location. Until recently there have

existed but a few meteor observatories so t h a t the number of continuum flow meteors, f o r which accurate tracking data a r e available, i s very limited.
A s w i l l be discussed mre f u l l y l a t e r , there a r e presently

under construction many new meteor observatories s o t h a t future prospects as regards the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f nieteor data are good. Astronomers, for a number of years now (see r e f . 23 f o r a review), have successfully tracked meteors in the following way: One or more

cameras, located a t the two ends of a known base l i n e , a r e provided with r o t a t i n g shutters which occult t h e meteor image on the photographic p l a t e s a t even time intervals. triangulation.
The meteor t r a j e c t o r y i s determined by

The variation of velocity and, i n turn, acceleration,

of t h e meteoric body along the trajectory i s determined from the interrupted photographic track. Comparison of r e l a t i v e exposure of the

meteor t r a c k with the background f i e l d of stars whose photographic magnitudes a r e known provides the measurement of the variation of the meteor luminosity along the trajectory. assess t h e meteor composition, Spectra a r e orten measured t o

These data a r e s u f f i c i e n t , i n principle,

t o a l l o w the determination of the variation of s i z e and heat-transfer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e meteoric body w i t h a l t i t u d e and speed.

Two

methods of analysis generally employed are the "dynamical method" and the ttphotometrical method." paper. W shall t r e a t only the former i n t h i s e Suffice it t o say,

The l a t t e r i s discussed in reference 24.

here, t h a t the methods a r e essentially redundant i f meteor density i s known.

When the density i s unknown, t h e two methods are needed f o t~ e h

complete solution.

In the dynamical method of analysis the v e l o c i t y and acceleration h i s t o r i e s a r e all t h a t a r e needed t o determine heat-transfer charact e r i s t i c s , and, i f the density o f t h e meteoroid i s known, t h e s i z e variation with a l t i t u d e can be found as well. However, it i s presumed

t h a t air-density variation with altitude, h, and the body shape a r e

known.
&Ii

It i s usual t o employ a standard atmosphere (e.g.,

IL n

ref. 2 3 ) f o r

dellsity V&-ues*

rile

bodj- i s ~ s s - ~ i tod reralr, essentially e

spherical during t h e atmosphere entry since a sphere represents about the b e s t mean of possible shapes (see r e f . 26).
#

From t h e equation of

the product of the meteor density and radius as a motion (eq. (1)) function of a l t i t u d e can be found from
pmr =

3cr0 (&)
i s approxi-

where

'j = p/po

and f o r the assumed spherical shape, CD If

mately unity.

is known, then the s i z e can be determined.

Equations (1)and ( 9 ) combine t o give the heat-transfer parameter

since dt =

dh V sin y

Here we note a major d i f f i c u l t y we cannot f i n d

t h a t even presuming

CD

is known,

CH unless the heat of ablation i s known, which it i s not.

( which i s

There is, however, an upper l i m i t t o the possible value of

t h e t o t a l energy required t o bring the surface material from t h e cold

state t o the ~ q o st.ate so t h a t a.n u?per l i m i t f o r CH r

i n any event.

can be found

For stone meteoroids one expects, a p r i o r i , t h a t vapor-

i z a t i o n would be t h e usual ablation process since l i q u i d stone i s

20

r a t h e r viscous

but if the entry speed i s low o r the t r a j e c t o r y is not

steep, then the mass ablated in the l i q u i d s t a t e (as Chapman, refs. 27 and 28,has found f o r t e k t i t e s ) can be a r a t h e r l a r g e f r a c t i o n of the total. O t h e other hand, f o r large meteoroids which enter the atmosn

phere on a steep t r a j e c t o r y and at high speeds l i q u i d run-off would be

small.
LL

However, an important fraction of the ablated mass may be i n

U 2 2 A ~ W Z ~ C D ~
-&-LA

~ D

..A1

since stoiie i s

ti. ye&

r i t e r i d , aiid, b e c a s e the

thermal conductivity i s low, it may a l s o s p a l l as the result of excessive t h e m stress. For iron meteoroids one does not expect

ablation t o be important i n t h e solid state except f o r bodies of g r e a t s i z e since t h i s material is strong and the thermal conductivity i s r e l a t i v e l y high. However l i q u i d iron has a very low v i s c o s i t y so t h a t

ablation p r i n c i p a l l y as a l i q u i d should be expected.

A serious weakness of the dynamical method i s t h a t i n passing from

velocity t o meteor s i z e t o the heat-transfer f a c t o r each function involves, i n turn, differentiation of the l a s t . Hence, unless the

v e l o c i t y i s very accurately defined as a function of t i m e and altitude, the f i n a l results may be subject t o l a r g e mean e r r o r . The analysis

(see ref. 29) of t h e record of the Canadian meteor "Meanook 132" indicates that v e l o c i t i e s can, i n f a c t , be determined w i t h about t h e required accuracy. f o r t h i s meteor. Table I gives t h e velocity and acceleration h i s t o r y These r e s u l t s (see ref. 24) are more complete than

t h e o r i g i n a l values given i n reference 29 and include a correction t o one of t h e acceleration values (private communication from D r. Millman).

1 These data are p l o t t e d i n figures 10 and 1 along with t h e curves

determined by a sixth-degree l e a s t squares fit t o all the v e l o c i t y and acceleration data. The close agreement between the data and t h e curves

21

indicates t h a t t h e velocity and acceleration data are self-consistent.

I n figure 12 the dotted curve shows the v a r i a t i o n of the meteor densityradius product as computed from the sixth-order least squares s e r i e s .
The "point-to-point" values are calculated from each of the individual The s o l i d curve gives t h e photometrical

v e l o c i t i e s and accelerations.

r e s u l t s f o r a density of 850 kg/m3. Figure 1 3 gives the corresponding variation of the heat-transfer parameter w i t h a l t i t u d e . The dotted curve, again, i s obtained from the

sixth-degree l e a s t squares f i t while the c i r c l e d points are from neighboring point values of velocity and of acceleration t o evaluate the mean value over each a l t i t u d e interval. These dynamical r e s u l t s

compare favorably with the photometrical r e s u l t s , as the s o l i d l i n e shows. The dash-dot curves give estimated values of the heat-transfer

parameter when i n one case only vapor ablation was assumed t o occur and i n the other only f l u i d ablation. The implication, here, i s t h a t conThis l o w -

siderable ablation i n the s o l i d s t a t e must have occurred.

density material (less than water density) must evidently be porous and, accordingly, weak so that solid ablation would be expected. the r e s u l t s f o r t h i s meteor do not add t o
OUT

Hence,

knowledge of the heating

of t y p i c a l man-made e n t r y vehicles but they do show t h a t the meteor data derived from the photographic plates must be of high quality.

The data f o r t h e Sacramento Peak Meteor 19816 (ref. 30) analyzed

i n reference 24 do yield results which a r e encouraging, f o r they indicate t h a t extrapolation of our present knowledge of heat t r a n s f e r up t o speeds of about 20 W s e c may not be far from f a c t . The v e l o c i t y and acceleraA and V

t i o n s with the corresponding least squares e r r o r s (indicated by

AdV/dt) are given i n t a b l e I1 for t h i s meteor whose spectrum indicates

t h a t i t s composition is t y p i c a l of a s t e r o i d a l stone (pm = 3400

a/&').

22

"he r e s u l t s of the dynamical analyses (point-to-point

and l e a s t squares

s e r i e s ) are shown i n figure 1 4 along w i t h the values estimated when vapor and f l u i d ablation a r e assumed. Even when only vapor ablation i s

assumed, t h e data indicate values o f the heat-transfer coefficient only

about twice as high as those estimated.
A s noted e a r l i e r some f l u i d

ablation probably occurred f o r t h i s small stone ( t h e e n t r y radius i s about 1 cm).

A proper estimate would be somewhat increased therefore

s o t h a t the data and a proper estimate would be i n b e t t e r agreement.

It i s probable, i n f a c t , that a t these higher speeds our estimates

of heat-transfer coefficient a r e l o w because one additional source of

heating has not been accounted f o r .

The a i r molecules i n the boundary When

layer and i n the wake c o l l i d e w i t h the ablated vapor molecules.

these c o l l i s i o n s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y energetic, as f o r the air-to-air

molecular c o l l i s i o n s i n the shock layer, they become a source of

radiation. The observed luminosity of meteors is, i n l a r g e p a r t ( o r The

completely i n f r e e molecular flow), a r e s u l t of t h i s radiation.

photometrical method of analysis for meteors employs, i n f a c t , t h i s radiation f r o m t h e ablated vapor collisions a s a means f o r determining the mass loss rate of a meteoric body. The magnitude of the radiation

per unit ablated mass depends not only on the f l i g h t speed ( i . e c o l l i s i o n energy) but also on the composition of the vapors.

.,

Even a t

r a t h e r low speeds t h e radiation can be important f o r c e r t a i n ablators. Figure 15 is a photograph of a Lexan model i n f l i g h t . The photo w a s

taken with an image-converter camera by m colleague Max Wilkins a t y Ames Research Center. The 1/2-inch-diameter model, which has a round

nosed cone f o r the forward face, i s i n f l i g h t i n a b a l l i s t i c range a t

a speed of 7.2 km/sec.

A l l of the wake radiation and a l a r g e p a r t of

23
t h e radiation from t h e region of t h e forward face results from
11

a b l a t i o n products radiation. "

Some important features of t h i s

r a d i a t i o n are t h a t , i n addition t o heating t h e forward face, it may g r e a t l y augment t h e afterbody heating of high-speed r e e n t r y bodies.

Also, as noted by Craig and Davy (ref. 31, see a l s o r e f . 24) t h i s

r a d i a t i v e heating tends t o become self-perpetuating a t s u f f i c i e n t l y high speeds. Designers of future high-speed e n t r y vehicles would do w e l l t o

c a r e f u l l y choose a b l a t o r s f o r heat s h i e l d s which have low ablationproduct radiation.

To r e t u r n t o the subject of meteors, it does appear t h a t meteor

tracking records can provide experimental heat-transfer c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

a t very high e n t r y speeds.

In particular, we stand t o l e a r n a good d e a l

about ablation-products radiation and about t h e a b i l i t y of various a b l a t i v e materials t o resist s t r u c t u r a l failure caused by thermal stress, provided t h e meteor composition can be determined. Recently t h e NASA

supported a proposal by t h e Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory t o construct and operate a network of meteor observatories covering a l a r g e

area i n t h e midwest.

This "Prairie Network" i s intended t o provide

tracking data on bright fireballs with s u f f i c i e n t precision t o allow t h e

meteoritee t o be retrieved.

Improved analysis of these tracking records

should result since, f o r t h e retrieved bodies, t h e f i n a l mass and shape and t h e meteor density and composition w i l l be known.

Also, as noted

earlier, many more tracking records f o r meteors i n continuum flow should

become available than have been available up t o t h e present.

24 References

1 McAdams, W i l l i a m H.: .
Book Co., N. Y.,
2.

Heat Transmission.

Second ed., McGraw-Kill

1942, pp. 162-164.

A Study o f t h e Motion

Allen, H. J u l i a n , and Eggers, A. J., Jr.:

and Aerodynamic Heating of B a l l i s t i c Missiles Entering the Earth's Atmosphere a t High Supersonic Speeds.
&jr/".

NACA Rep. 1381,

1058

f slnawcnaocl ( uyrAY&.u&.Y

nTAnA

LlcIvcI

rnnT J I A ) I ~ ~
A&V

W-rl I

3.

Gross, Joseph F., Marson, David J., and Gazley, Carl, Jr.: General C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Binary Boundary Layers with Applicat i o n t o Sublimation Cooling. Rand Rep. P-1371, May 8, 1958,

A u g . 1, 1958 ( r e v . ) .

4.

Roberts, Leonard: Vaporization.

Stagnation-Point Shielding by Melting and

NASA TR R-10,

1959.

5. Lees, Lester:

Convective Heat Transfer With Mass Addition and Presented a t t h e Third Combustion and

Chemical Reactions.

Propulsion Colloquium, AGARD, NATO, Palermo, S i c i l y , Mar. 17-21,

1958

6.

Adams, Mac C.:

Recent Advances i n Ablation.

ARS Jour., vol. 29,

no. 9, sept. 1959, pp. 625-632.

Chagman, Dean R.:

An Approximate Analytical Method f o r Studying

NACA TN 4276,

Entry I n t o Planetary Atmospheres.

1958.

8.

Chapman, Dean R.:

A Analysis of t h e Corridor and Guidance Requiren

NASA

ments f o r Supercircular Entry I n t o Planetary Atmospheres.

TR R-55, 1960.

9.

Lees, Lester, Hartwig, B e d e r i c W.,

and Cohen, Clarence B.:

The

Use of Aerodynamic L i f t During W t r y I n t o t h e Earth's Atmosphere. Space Technology Lab Rep. GM-TR-0163-00519, Nov. 1958.

25
10.

Eggers, Alfred J.:

The P o s s i b i l i t y of a Safe Landing.

Space

Technology, ch. 13, Howard S. Seifert, ed., John Wiley & Sons,

New York, 1959.

1 . Levy, Lionel L., 1

Jr.:

A Approximate Analytical Method f o r n

Studying Atmosphere Entry o f Vehicles With Modulated Aerodynamic Forces.

12.
NASA TN

D-319, 1960.
Tables o f Radiation From High Tempera-

Kivel, B.,

and Bailey, K.:

ture A i r .

Avco-Everett Res. Lab. RR-21, Dec. 1957. m d i a t i o n Heat Transfer t o Hy-personic Vehicles. Sept. 5 , 1958. and Teare, J. D : . Absolute

13.

Meyerott, Roland E.:

Lockheed Aircraft Corp. LMSD 2264-=,

14.

Camm, J. C.,

Kivel, B.,

Taylor, R. L.,

I n t e n s i t y of Non-Equilibrium Radiation i n A i r and Stagnation Heating a t High Altitudes. Avco-Everett Res. Lab. RR-93, Dec. 1959. Craig, Roger A . , and

15. Page, W i l l i a m

A.,

Canning, Thomas N.,

Stephenson, Jack D.:

Measurements of Thermal Radiation of A i r

From t h e Stagnation Region of Blunt Bodies Traveling a t V e l o c i t i e s U t o 31,000 Feet Per Second. p
NASA TM

x-508, 1961.

16. Canning, Thomas N.:

Recent Developments i n t h e Chemistry and

V o l . 2 , Proc. NASA-

Thermodynamics of Gases at Hypervelocities.

University Conference on the Science and Technology of Space Exploration.

NASA SP-11, no.

56, 1562,

pp. 283-290. Aerodynamic

17. Allen, H. J u l i a n , Seiff, Alvin, and Winovich, Warren:

Heating of Conical Entry Vehicles a t Speeds i n Excess of Earth Parabolic Speed.

NASA T R-185, 1563. R

18.

Summerfield, Martin, and S e i f e r t , Howard S.: of a Rocket i n Straight-Line Motion. pp. 3-01

F l i g h t Performance

SPACE TECHNOLOGY, Chap. 3,

- 3-28,
1959.

Howard S. S e i f e r t , ed., John Wiley & Sons,

New York,

26

19. Kaplan, L e w i s D . , Mkch, Guido, and Spinrod, Hyron:

of t h e Spectrum of Mars.

A n Analysis

The Astrophysical Jour., v o l . 139,

no. 1, Jan. 1, 1 9 4 , pp. 1-13. 20. Goodwin, Glen, and Howe, John T.: Recent Developments i n Mass, Gas Dynamics

Momentum and Energy Transfer a t Hy-pervelocities. i n Space Exploration. N S SP-24, Dec. 1962, pp. AA

41-51.

S a t e l l i t e Speeds. pp. 1344-32.

22.

ARS Jour., v o l . 32, no. 10, Oct. 1962,

James, Carlton S.:

Experimental Study of Radiative Transport

From Hot Gases Simulating i n Composition t h e Atmospheres of

Mars and Venus.

23.

A I M Jour., v o l . 2, no. 3, M r 1964, pp. 470-5. a.

M i l l m a n , P e t e r M.,

and Hoffleit, Dorret:

Meteor Photographs

Taken Through a Rotating Shutter.

Percenkewiry -per

Harvard College Observatory

Annals,

31, Harvard Univ. Obs.

v o l . 105,

1937, pp. 601-21.

24.
Allen, K. J G L Z a n , Ebnd James, Nataline A,:
Prospects for

Obtain-i Aerodynamic Heating Results From Analysis of Meteor

F l i g h t Data. 25.

NASA TN D-2069, 1964.

Minwrer, Raymond A.

, Chaapion,

K.

S. W.,

and Pond, H. L.:

The

A R E Model Atmosphere, 1959.

A i r Force Surveys i n Geophysics

no. 115, (AFCRC-TR-59-267),

A%* 1959.

A i r Force Cambridge R e s . Center,

26.

Allen, H. Julian:

O t h e Motion and Ablation of Meteoric Bodies. n

Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nicholas John Hoff and Walter Guido Vincenti, eds., Pergamon Press, 190, pp. 378-416.

27.

Chapman, Dean R.: Tektites.

O the Unity and Origin of t h e Australasian n

NASA T M

X-54,004, 1963.

27
28. Chapman, Dean R.

, and Larson,

Howard K.:

The Lunar Origin of

Tektities.
29.

NASA TN D-15%, 1963.

and Cook, Allan F.: Photometric Analysis of a Astrophys. Jour., vol. 130,

Miilman, Peter M.,

Spectrogram of a Very SlowMeteor. no. 2, Sept. 1959, pp. 648-662.

30.

Cook, A. F., Jacchia, L. G., and McCrosky, R. E.: Efficiency of Iron and Stone Asteroidal Meteors. Contributions t o Astrophysics. and Physics of Meteors, vol.

Luminous Wthsonian

Proc. Symposium on the Astronomy

7, 1963, pp. 209-20.

Thermal Radiation From

31.

Craig, Roger A.

, and Davy,

W i l l i a m C.:

Ablation Products Injected Into a Hypersonic Shock Layer.

NASA TN 0-1978, 1963.

28
TABLE I.- FLIGHT DATA FOR MEANOOK METEOR 132
(sin 7 =

0.868)

t, s ec
0

av/at ,
km/sec2

67 5 9
.1 .2

64.56

.4 61.55 17 25 17.18 -5 .6 5 5 8 7 17.10 17.00 -7 .8 55.58 16.89 *9 16.75 1.0 5 . 1 16.58 271.1 16-37 1.2 49.87 16.12 15.82 1-03 1.4 47.12 15 4 5
1.5
15.01

-3

17.42 17 3 9 17.35 17 30 .

-0.31

-.36

-.42 -.50

-.a

18 . 1.9

1.6 44.51 1*7

42.11 2.0 2.1 2.2
. .

14.49 13.86
13.10

39198
38.21

12.24 11.28
10.25

-*73 -.88 -1.06 -1.28 -1.55 -1.88 -2.28 -2.76 -3- 4 3 -4.02 -4.77 -5.67 -6.97 -8.18 -9.08 -9.97 -io. 5 8
-11 21

9.16
(.0 80)

2.3 - 37 46

TABLE 1 . FLIGHT DATA FOR SACRAMENTO P A METEDR 1 EK

186 91

(sin y =

0.716

-I

dV/dt

km/sec2

AdV/dt , km/sec2

1.135

1.860

I 74.02 I 19.87 I 64.16

20.57

5.02 k.05

-0.158 -.416
-2.02

9.009 f .018
2.05

-2.75 -5 92 -8.45 -9.67 3-90

+.lo

k.ll k.18

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