Photosynthesis

All Materials Cmassengale

I. Capturing the Energy of Life

A. All organisms require energy B. Some organisms (autotrophs) obtain energy directly from the sun and store it in organic compounds (glucose) during a process called photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C6H12O6 II. Energy for Life Processes
A. Energy is the ability to do work B. Work for a cell includes growth & repair, active transport across cell membranes, reproduction, synthesis of cellular products, etc. C. Work is the ability to change or move matter against other forces (W = F x D) D. Autotrophs or producers convert sunlight, CO2, and H2O into glucose (their food) E. Plants, algae, and blue-green bacteria, some prokaryotes, are producers or autotrophs F. Only 10% of the Earths 40 million species are autotrophs G. Other autotrophs use inorganic compounds instead of sunlight to make food; process known as chemosynthesis

H. Producers make food for themselves and heterotrophs or consumers that cannot make food for themselves I. Heterotrophs include animals, fungi, & some bacteria, & protists

III.

Biochemical Pathways

A. Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are biochemical pathways B. Biochemical pathways are a series of reactions where the product of one reaction is the reactant of the next C. Only autotrophs are capable of photosynthesis D. Both autotrophs & heterotrophs perform cellular respiration to release energy to do work E. In photosynthesis, CO2(carbon dioxide) and H2O (water) are combined to form C6H12O6 (glucose) & O2 (oxygen)

F. In cellular respiration, O2 (oxygen) is used to burn C6H12O6 (glucose) & release CO2(carbon dioxide), H2O (water), and energy G. Usable energy released in cellular respiration is called adenosine triphosphate or ATP

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy -> 6O2 + C6H12O6

IV. Light Absorption in Chloroplasts

A. Chloroplasts in plant & algal cells absorb light energy from the sun during the light dependent reactions B. Photosynthetic cells may have thousands of chloroplasts C. Chloroplasts are double membrane organelles with the an inner membrane folded into disc-shaped sacs called thylakoids D. Thylakoids, containing chlorophyll and other accessory pigments, are in stacks called granum (grana, plural) E. Grana are connected to each other & surrounded by a gel-like material called stroma F. Light-capturing pigments in the grana are organized into photosystems

V. Pigments
A. Light travels as waves & packets called photons B. Wavelength of light is the distance between 2 consecutive peaks or troughs

C. Sunlight or white light is made of different wavelengths or colors carrying different amounts of energy D. A prism separates white light into 7 colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, & violet) ROY G. BIV E. These colors are called the visible spectrum

F. When light strikes an object, it is absorbed, transmitted, or reflected G. When all colors are absorbed, the object appears black

H. When all colors are reflected, the object appears white I. If only one color is reflected (green), the object appears that color (e.g. Chlorophyll)

VI. Pigments in the Chloroplasts

A. Thylakoids contain a variety of pigments ( green red, orange, yellow...) B. Chlorophyll (C55H70MgN4O6) is the most common pigment in plants & algae C. Chlorophyll a & chlorophyll b are the 2 most common types of chlorophyll in autotrophs D. Chlorophyll absorbs only red, blue, & violet light E. Chlorophyll b absorbs colors or light energy NOT absorbed by chlorophyll a F. The light energy absorbed by chlorophyll b is transferred to chlorophyll a in the light reactions

G. Carotenoids are accessory pigments in the thylakoids & include yellow, orange, & red

VII. Overview of Photosynthesis

6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

6CO2 +

A. Photosynthesis is not a simple one step reaction but a biochemical pathway involving many steps B. This complex reaction can be broken down into two reaction systems --- light dependent & light independent or dark

reactions

Light Reaction: H2O O2 + ATP + NADPH2

Water is split, giving off oxygen. This system depends on sunlight for activation energy. Light is absorbed by chlorophyll which "excites" the electrons in the chlorophyll molecule. Electrons are passed through a series of carriers and adenosine triphosphate or ATP (energy) is produced. Takes place in the thylakoids.

Dark Reaction: CO2 C6H12O6

ATP + NADPH2 +

Carbon dioxide is split, providing carbon to make sugars. The ultimate product is glucose. While this system depends on the products from the light reactions, it does not directly require light energy.

Includes the Calvin Cycle. Takes place in the stroma.

VIII. Calvin Cycle

A. Carbon atoms from CO2 are bonded or "fixed" into organic compounds during a process called carbon fixation B. The energy stored in ATP and NADPH during the Light Reactions is used in the Calvin cycle C. The Calvin cycle has 3 main steps occurring within the stroma of the Chloroplast

STEP 1

CO2 diffuses into the stroma from surrounding cytosol An enzyme combines a CO2 molecule with a five-carbon carbohydrate called RuBP The six-carbon molecule produced then splits immediately into a pair of three-carbon molecules known as PGA

STEP 2

Each PGA molecule receives a phosphate group from a molecule of ATP This compound then receives a proton from NADPH and releases a phosphate group producing PGAL These reactions produce ADP, NADP+, and phosphate which are used again in the Light Reactions.

STEP 3

Most PGAL is converted back to RuBP to keep the Calvin cycle going Some PGAL leaves the Calvin Cycle and is used to make other organic compounds including amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates PGAL serves as the starting material for the synthesis of glucose and fructose Glucose and fructose make the disaccharide sucrose, which travels in solution to other parts of the plant (e.g., fruit, roots)

Glucose is also the monomer used in the synthesis of the polysaccharides starch and cellulose

D. Each turn of the Calvin cycle fixes One CO2 molecule so it takes six turns to make one molecule of glucose

IX. Photosystems & Electron Transport Chain

A. Only 1 in 250 chlorophyll molecules (chlorophyll a) actually converts light energy into usable energy B. These molecules are called reaction-center chlorophyll C. The other molecules (chlorophyll b, c, & d and carotenoids) absorb light energy and deliver it to the reactioncenter molecule D. These chlorophyll molecules are known as antenna pigments E. A unit of several hundred antenna pigment molecules plus a reaction center is called a photosynthetic unit or photosystem F. There are 2 types of photosystems --- Photosystem I & Photosystem II

G. Light is absorbed by the antenna pigments of photosystems II and I H. The absorbed energy is transferred to the reaction center pigment, P680 in photosystem II, P700 in photosystem I I. P680 in Photosystem II loses an electron and becomes positively charged so it can now split water & release electrons (2H2O 4H+ + 4e- + O2) J. Electrons from water are transferred to the cytochrome complex of Photosystem I K. These excited electrons activate P700 in photosystem I which helps reduce NADP+ to NADPH L. NADPH is used in the Calvin cycle M. Electrons from Photosystem II replace the electrons that leave chlorophyll molecules in Photosystem I

X. Chemiosmosis

(KEM-ee-ahz-MOH-suhs)

A. Synthesis or making of ATP (energy) B. Depends on the concentration gradient of protons ( H+) across the thylakoid membrane

C. Protons (H+) are produced from the splitting of water in Photosystem II D. Concentration of Protons is HIGHER in the thylakoid than in the stroma E. Enzyme, ATP synthetase in the thylakoid membrane, makes ATP by adding a phosphate group to ADP

XI. Alternate Pathways

A. The Calvin cycle is the most common pathway used by autotrophs called C3 Plants B. Plants in hot, dry climates use alternate pathways to fix carbon & then transfer it to the Calvin cycle C. Stomata are small openings on the underside of leaves for gas exchange (O2 & CO2) D. Guard cells on each side of the stoma help open & close the stomata E. Plants also lose H2O through stoma so they are closed during the hottest part of the day

F. C4 plants fix CO2 into 4-Carbon Compounds during the hottest part of the day when their stomata are partially closed G. C4 plants include corn, sugar cane and crabgrass H. CAM plants include cactus & pineapples I. CAM plants open their stomata at night and close during the day so CO2 is fixed at night J. During the day, the CO2 is released from these compounds and enters the Calvin Cycle

XII. Factors Determining the Rate of Photosynthesis

A. Light intensity - As light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis initially increases and then levels off to a plateau B. Temperature - Only the dark, not the light reactions are temperature dependent because of the enzymes they use (25 oC to 37oC) C. Length of day D. Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide available improves the photosynthesis rate E. Level of air pollution

BACK

The following verbs take tre as the helping verbs. These are verbs of movement that make up the acronym DR MRS VANDERTRAMPP. Devenir, Rester, Monter, Rester, Sortir, Venir, Arriver, Natre, Descendre, Entrer, Retourner, Tomber, Rentrer, Aller, Mourir, Passer, and Partir. Reflexive verbs also use the forms of tre as the helping verb. (Ex. Elle s'est lav les cheveux ce matin.) Remember the DR MRS VANDERTRAMPP acronym.

The heart is one of the most important organs in the entire human body. It is really nothing more than a pump, composed of muscle which pumps blood throughout the body, beating approximately 72 times per minute of our lives. The heart pumps the blood, which carries all the vital materials which help our bodies function and removes the waste products that we do not need. For example, the brain requires oxygen and glucose, which, if not received continuously, will cause it to lose consciousness. Muscles need oxygen, glucose and amino acids, as well as the proper ratio of sodium, calcium and potassium salts in order to contract normally. The glands need sufficient supplies of raw materials from which to manufacture the specific secretions. If the heart ever ceases to pump blood the body begins to shut down and after a very short period of time will die. The heart is essentially a muscle (a little larger than the fist). Like any other muscle in the human body, it contracts and expands. Unlike

skeletal muscles, however, the heart works on the "All -or-Nothing Law". That is, each times the heart contracts it does so with all its force. In skeletal muscles, the principle of "gradation" is present. The pumping of the heart is called the Cardiac Cycle, which occurs about 72 times per minute. This means that each cycle lasts about eight-tenths of a second. During this cycle the entire heart actually rests for about four-tenths of a second.

What is the heart? The heart is a hollow, cone-shaped muscle that's about the size of an adult fist and usually found to the left of our breastbone. The heart is the most important organ in our body. It is basically a complex pump, responsible for circulating blood, oxygen and nutrients around the body. Parts of the heart Did you know? The average weight of a healthy female human heart is 9oz (255g). A man's heart is usually slightly bigger at around 10.5oz (300g).

Every heart is made up of three layers: an inner lining called the endocardium a middle layer of muscle called the myocardium an outer fluid-filled sac known as the pericardium. The heart is divided into four chambers: the right atrium and left atrium are the upper chambers of the heart the right ventricle and left ventricle are the lower chambers.

A muscular wall called the septum separates the right and left sides of the heart. Each of the chambers has valves. The valves have different names: the tricuspid valve is at the exit of the right atrium the mitral valve is for the left atrium the pulmonary valve is at the exit of the right ventricle the aortic valve is at the exit of the left ventricle. Their purpose is to allow blood to move forwards through the heart and to prevent it flowing backwards into the previous chamber. How does the heart work? The heart muscle contracts in two stages to squeeze blood out of the heart. This is known as systole. In the first stage, the upper chambers (atria) contract at the same time, pushingblood down into the lower chambers (ventricles). Blood is pumped from the right atrium down into the right ventricle and from the left atrium down into the left ventricle. In the second stage, the lower chambers contract to push this blood out of the heart to either the body via your main artery (aorta) or to the lungs to pick up oxygen. The heart then relaxes known as diastole. Blood fills up the heart again, and the whole process, which takes a fraction of a second, is repeated. The different sides of the heart have different functions. On the right side, the upper chamber fills with oxygendepleted blood from your body and pushes it via the lower chamber and the pulmonary artery back to the lungs. Here blood picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. On the left side, the upper chamber fills with oxygenrich blood from the lungs. This is pumped via the lower chamber into the aorta and out to the body to provide cells with the crucial oxygen they need.

What makes the heart beat? On average, most people have a heart rate of around 72 beats per minute at rest. This varies according to fitness, age, exertion and general health. Each heart beat is triggered by an electrical pacemaker - a group of cells in the heart that have the ability to generate electrical activity. They cause electrical impulses to spread over the heart and make it contract. The largest natural pacemaker of the heart is called the sinoatrial or SA node and is found in the right atrium. From it, specialised groups of cells that carry the electrical charge lead off to the rest of the heart. How does the doctor check the heartbeat? Your doctor usually checks your heartbeat in two ways. Taking your pulse Your pulse can usually be felt at the wrist just below the level of the bottom of the thumb. Use your forefinger and middle finger of the other hand and gently press on this area - you will feel the pulse beating. Your doctor will check for its speed and consistency. Using a stethoscope Your doctor may listen to the heart with a stethoscope. The sound of the heart is often described as 'lub-dub'. The first heart sound (lub) is caused by the movement of blood through the heart and its vibration. This is due to the valves of the upper chambers closing. The second heart sound (dub) is caused by the same movement of blood, but this time vibrations are linked to the closing of the valves in the lower chambers. What can go wrong? Problems can arise in any part of heart from the muscle walls (cardiomyopathy) and valves (heart valve disease) to problems with the pacemaker (irregular heartbeat or arrhythmia) and blood supply.

If a coronary artery becomes furred up or partially blocked with fatty material called atheroma, that artery cannot then supply enough blood to the heart muscle to meet its needs during exertion or activity. The muscle cramps, causing chest pain. This is known as angina. If the poor blood supply to the heart worsens, so that chest pains start to happen more easily and with less exertion, it's known as unstable angina. This requires increasing levels of heart medication or active surgical intervention such as an angioplasty or heart bypass surgery. When a coronary artery is completely blocked and no blood or oxygen reaches the heart muscle served by that artery, it causes a heart attack. This also causes chest pain as the heart muscle served by that artery dies. Depending on which part of the heart muscle is affected and the severity of damage to the heart muscle, the effects of a heart attack can range from a good recovery to instant death. Heart disease is the biggest killer in the UK, often causing death before the person reaches hospital. In an average lifetime the heart is required to beat over 2.5 billion times--38 million times a day, doing the same amount of work as a machine lifting a one-ton weight to a height of 41 feet each day. The heart accomplishes this amazing feat without interruption. The heart is susceptible to many diseases. The most common disease of the heart is Coronary Artery Disease (CAD). Most Americans have cholesterol plaques lining and narrowing the inside of their arteries, which is known as artherosclerosis; when this happens in the arteries which supply blood to the heart, it is called CAD. These plaques reduce the amount of oxygen-carrying blood that can flow in a given period of time. Artheroclerosis does not provide advance symptoms. If the narrowing reaches an

advanced stage, it may result in a sudden coronary event such as cardiac arrest. Cardiac arrest means that the heart has stopped beating. How do you prevent this? Regular physical exams can help monitor blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Diet, exercising and quitting smoking also help. Congestive heart failure (CHF) is another common disease of the heart. This occurs when the pumping action of the heart becomes inefficient. The inefficiency could be caused by the muscle being weakened, by disease, mechanical fault in the valves that control the flow of blood, the heart having too work to hard because of high blood pressure, or it has to pump an overload of blood. Heart failure does not meant that your heart stops beating, it means that it is not working efficiently. Depending on how badly the heart is affected, symptoms could include shortness of breath, chest pain, and swollen ankles. Untreated heart failure imposes a strain on your entire system that can be fatal. There are diseases that are also related to the electrical impulses of the heart, such as ectopic heartbeats. Ectopic heartbeats are early beats in an otherwise steady beat. This can mean your heart skipping a beat or adding an extra beat. Other times the SA node(which is the pacemaker) of the heart can stop working or work very poorly. In these such cases a person may be required to have a pacemaker(an electrical device) implanted in their heart. Ultimately, the most-feared heart disease is the "heart attack," or, as health care professionals call it, an acute myocardial infarction (AMI). This is where the coronary arteries have narrowed so much that part of the heart muscle dies. This is usually due to CAD, but can be caused by blood clots or drug use (especially cocaine). Depending on how much damage is done, a person may return to an almost normal life, die, or anything in between.

The heart is a complex organ, and one of the two most important organs in your body (the other being the brain). Regular physicals and talking to your doctor can help you take care of it for your lifetime.

Have you ever heard of the water cycle or the earth's energy cycle? Well there is a carbon cycle as well. The carbon cycle is very important to our planet. The carbon cycle, when tampered with by humans, can also be very harmful for our world. On this page we will learn about the carbon cycle and how it works. We will then learn about the importance of the carbon cycle on earth. There is carbon all over the world, whether in the atmosphere or the oceans. Carbon first has to get into the ocean or atmosphere. Carbon can get into the atmosphere from soil, decomposing animals, waste product, burning sediment from the earth, or events like a volcanic eruption. Some of this carbon goes into the ocean while some of it goes into the atmosphere. Plants on land and phytoplankton in the ocean take in carbon during photosynthesis, turning it into carbohydrates and sugars. Plants and phytoplankton then release oxygen as a byproduct which most living organisms use to breath (including marine life). When land animals or marine life eat plants or phytoplankton they consume the carbon stored from photosynthesis. Organisms then release that carbon when they breath, create waste products, or die and decompose. Some of the carbon goes back into the atmosphere or oceans, some goes into the soil which will later be released into the atmosphere and some forms into rocks, like coal or diamonds. This is an explanation of the carbon cycle. The carbon cycle is very important to life on earth. The carbon cycle is critical to the food chain. Near the base of the food chain are things like plants and phytoplankton. The next creatures up eat plants and phytoplankton; these animals then get eaten by other organisms and so on. If plants and other organisms who use photosynthesis were not able to get carbon they would die, unable to create food. This would then mean that organisms that eat them would die and so on. Carbon normally tends to collect in certain areas, such as the ocean, forests, and atmosphere, known as sinks. Without the carbon cycle, these areas would collect dangerous levels of carbon, most likely killing living organisms in the area. Thanks to the carbon cycle carbon can flow from areas where it collects into other areas of the earth. The carbon cycle allows organisms to create food and it stops dangerous levels of carbon from collecting in sinks. The carbon cycle, as we now know, encompasses the whole world and plays a critical role to our earth. Humans are changing the carbon cycle and it could have dangerous affects to life on earth. Trees and plant life are major absorbers of carbon dioxide; this keeps carbon from building in one place. Humans however are cutting down more trees to fulfill our ever growing consumption of natural resources. When we cut down trees and use them for other purposes we release the carbon dioxide they collect back into the atmosphere and oceans. We also get rid of precious storing sources that use the carbon dioxide and convert it into oxygen or store it and release it into the soil. When more carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere it increases the level of greenhouse gases, increasing the greenhouse effect, trapping heat into the planet, and increasing global warming. To learn more about global warming, visit my next page, "The Evidence Behind Global Warming", located under Links to My Other Pages.

 Volcanoes release carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas), which can raise the Earths surface temperature. Carbon dioxide in the air interacts with rain to form acid rain that reacts with rocks and is eventually deposited into the oceans. Sea creatures, like coral and clam, take the carbon out of the water to build their bodies/shells. When these sea creatures die, their bodies form limestone, which is eventually subducted under a continental plate and released again as volcanic gas. This process is part of the carbon cycle.

 No matter is created or destroyed in this process. It only changes form and location. Humans and other life forms require a balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to maintain a moderate surface temperature. The carbon cycle provides this balance. Volcanoes can also release ash, which can block the Suns light from reaching Earths surface, therefore decreasing the surface temperature