EvidenceofLethalMosquitoTransmittedViralDiseaseinCaptiveOrcinusorca

JohnJett1,JeffreyVentre2,CourtneyVail3,LoganDodson4
1Stetson University,jjett@stetson.edu; 2LouisianaStateUniversityHealthSciencesCenter,jmventre@gmail.com;3WDCS,courtney.vail@wdcs.org;4StetsonUniversity

Introduction
Mosquitotransmitted viral diseases have killed at least two captive orcas (Orcinus orca) in the United States. The 25 yearold (est.) male orca, Kanduke, died suddenly in 1990 at Sea World of Florida. Saint Louis Encephalitis Virus (SLEV) was identified as the cause of death (Buck et al., 1993). Later, 14 yearold male orca, Taku, died suddenly in 2007 at Sea World of Texas. West Nile Virus (WNV) was confirmed in brain tissue of Taku (St. Leger et al., 2011). In addition, all other orcas in the Texas facility tested positive for WNV titers.

RiskFactorsforCaptiveOrcas
Based on our collective and direct experience (13 years) observing captive orcas, the following risk factors are identified: 1. Adult captive orcas: >50% of time logging, with dorsal surfaces exposed to mosquitoes. Males = greater time spent.
Logging behavior partly a function of animal/pool size and depth. E.g., Kandukes pool system: only one pool deeper than he was long. Biting mosquitoes commonly found on dorsal surfaces of logging captive orcas. Mosquitoes cued to: exhaled CO2 (e.g.Dekker et al. 2005); body heat (e.g. Wang et al. 2009); dark surfaces (e.g. Browne et al. 1981) and other cues presented by logging orcas.

2. Captive orcas: broken, ground and/or drilled teeth (Figure 1). Bore holes flushed daily, forcing debris/pathogens into blood.
Poor dentition associated with various chronic health problems. Lowgrade infections in the oral cavity: subclinical systemic inflammatory response (e.g. Taylor et al. 2006). Periodontal infection/carries=transient bacteremia (e.g., Forner, et al. 2006). Chronic use of antibiotics among captive orcas to control bacteremia (Jett & Ventre, 2011). Immunosuppressed more likely to die from WNV (Bode et al. 2006). Not known if bacteremia/chronic antibiotic use= susceptibility to viral pathogens.

Figure 2: UV index (EPA, 2012). Note the high UV radiation in Florida, Southern California and Texas (where orcas are held in captivity) relative to Pacific NW where orcas live naturally. Figure 3: High UV radiation exposure secondary to living in shallow, clear water in sunny environments with painted, reflective surfaces. Note lack of cover (left) and trainer protecting his eyes and head (right).

SpatialExtentofSLEVandWNV
BothvirusesarefoundthroughouttheU.S.(seemaps) (CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention(CDC),2012). Bothexhibitlargetemporalandspatialvariability. St.LouisEncephalitisVirusDiseaseCasesbyState, 19642010(CDC,2012)

MosquitoTransmittedVirusinWildCetaceans
Bottlenose dolphin titers (0304) in the Indian River Lagoon, FL and Charleston, SC (Schaefer et al. 2009). Severaldolphinsexposedtomosquitobornviruses. Eastern/Western/Venezuelan Equine encephalitis WNV. Titerscollectednearinlandmarsh/mangrovesinsoutheast. Habitatnever visitedbywildorcas. All cases subclinical; disease not manifested.
AnimalPlantHealthInspectionService(APHIS).(2002).RoutineInspectionReport:SeaWorldSanAntonio,March. USDA AnimalPlantHealthInspectionService(APHIS).(2007)RoutineInspectionReport:LosAngelesZoo,March.USDA. AnimalPlantHealthInspectionService(APHIS).(2010).RoutineInspectionReport:SixFlagsDiscoveryKingdom, November.USDA. Bode,A.V.,etal.(2006).WestNileVirusdisease:adescriptivestudyof228patientshospitalizedina4county regionofColoradoin2003.ClinicalInfectiousDiseases.42(9):12341240. Buck,C.,etal.1993).IsolationofSt.Louisencephalitisvirusfromakillerwhale.ClinicalandDiagnosticVirology. 1:109112.

LiteratureCited

WestNileVirusDiseaseCasesbyState,2010(CDC,2012)

Figure 1: Broken, ground and drilled teeth of Taku, Kanduke, and Kalina. Poor dentition is common among captive orcas , allowing bacteria to enter the blood. 3.Captiveorcas:UVradiationdosingasaresultofclear,reflective,shallow

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pools;logging;andlivingatlowerlatitudesthaninthewild(Figure2).
Captiveorcassufferfromsunburn(personalobservations). LackofcovernotableatSeaWorldandotherparks(Figure3). UVradiationsuppressesimmunesystem(e.g.Kripke ,1994). UVradiation:resultedincornealandeyeinjuryinothercaptivemarinemammals(sealion) andbelugawhales(APHIS,2002,2007)inparks. Revealsthepotentialdamagingeffectsofsunlightexposureoncaptivecetaceans. APHISinspectionreport:prolongeddirectsunlightexposurecanadverselyaffectthehealth andwellbeingoftheanimals(APHIS,2010).