F.M.

TRANSMITTER (Using :)

REVANTH.G Department of Physics St. Judes Public School and Junior College Kotagiri.

2012-2013

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Synopsis
The project is about the working and making of a FM transmitter. It is a device used for transmitting radio waves. It is based on the principal of radio transmission. A detailed instruction about the project is given in the first chapter. The components required for this circuit includes Crystalic microphone, capacitors and other minor components. The components are clearly explained in chapter two. The chapter three shows a clear labelled circuit diagram of the circuit which presents the circuit and the various components position in the circuit. The whole circuit depends on this circuit diagram. The FM transmitter can be used to send radio waves which can be received using a radio. It is a source of entertainment. It is used for communications through walky-talkys. The working of the FM transmitter is explained in the fourth chapter. The next chapter gives a conclusion about the whole project. The project is concluded rightly saying the uses of FM transmitter and their importance. The last chapter let us know about the source of information of the project.

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Contents Chapter 1 Introduction Chapter 2 Components Requited Chapter 3 Circuit Diagram Chapter 4 Working Chapter 5 Conclusions Chapter 6 Bibliography

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Chapter-1 Introduction
Most transmitters let you choose the station, and have enough power to overwhelm a radio thats 10 or fewer feet away. Some do a competent job from as far as 30 feet away. This makes FM transmitters useful in any situation - most commonly, in cars - where theres no way to make a wired connection between an iPod and speakers. Governmental agencies such as the U.S. FCC and its international analogues restrict the power of FM transmitters to limit both radio interference and pirate radio stations. Even companies that want to create clearer, more powerful versions are limited by law. Consequently, it is nearly impossible to find an FM transmitter that is truly static-free, and other issues such as sound distortion, size, appropriate positioning, and power consumption affect even the best available options. The static and positioning problems are worst in metropolitan areas with numerous radio stations, and generally have less impact on those in rural and suburban areas. An FM transmitter is a portable device that plugs into the headphone jack or proprietary output port of a portable audio or video device, such as a portable media player, CD player, or satellite radio system. The sound is then broadcast through the transmitter, and plays through an FM broadcast band frequency. Purposes for an FM transmitter include playing music from a device through a car stereo, or any radio. FM transmitters are usually battery driven, but some use the cigarette lighter socket in cars, or draw their power from the device itself. They are typically used with portable audio devices such as CD or MP3 players, but are also used to broadcast other outputs (such as that from a computer sound card) throughout a home or other building. Both mini and low-power FM transmitters have such limited powerless than 1 wattthat they pose no concern to communications regulators. On the other hand, high-power or professional FM transmitters that are commercially availablesome with as many as 35 watts of powertheoretically have the capacity to make anyone a radio broadcaster. This could pose serious concerns with regard to interference and communication jamming, and by 1998, the availability of FM transmitters forced the FCC to at least consider the idea of legalizing low-power transmission. The concept has been under consideration for some time, but many would-be broadcasters are as likely to choose the Internet as a simpler, non-interfering environment in which to operate a radio site. Most electronic retail stores sell several different models of FM transmitter, including generic brands, which may vary greatly in price, even though quality of audio is indistinguishable.

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Block diagram of an FM (frequency modulated) transmitter is given on Pic.2.4. Information being transferred, i.e. the modulating signal, is a signal from some LF source. it is being amplified in LF amplifier and then led into the HF oscillator, where the carrier signal is being created. The carrier is a HF voltage of constant amplitude, whose frequency is, in the absence of modulating signal, equal to the transmitter's carrier frequency fS. In the oscillatory circuit of the HF oscillator a varicap (capacitive) diode is located. It is a diode whose capacitance depends upon the voltage between its ends, so when being exposed to LF voltage, its capacitance is changing in accordance with this voltage. Due to that frequency of the oscillator is also changing, i.e. the frequency modulation is being obtained. The FM signal from the HF oscillator is being proceeded to the power amplifier that provides the necessary output power of the transmission signal. Voltage shapes in FM transmitter shows the LF modulating signal. The frequency modulation begins at moment t0 and the transmission frequency begins to change, as shown on Whilst current value of the LF signal is raising so is the trasmitter frequency, and when it is falling the frequency is also falling, the information (LF signal) is being implied in frequency change of the carrier. The carrier frequencies of the radio difusion FM transmitters (that emmit the program for "broad audience") are placed in the waveband from 88 MHz til 108 MHz, the maximum frequency shift of the transmitter (during the modulation) being 75 kHz. Because of that the FM signal should be drawn much "thicker", but it would result in a black-square-shaped picture.

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Components Required R1=220K R2=

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Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in anelectric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.

Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. Thecurrent through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented by Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent of the current. Resistors are common elements of electrical networks andelectronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical
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resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the resistor. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them

A transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and power. It is composed of asemiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in the early 1950s the

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transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things

Chapter-4 Working
As it has already been mentioned the transmitted signal is Frequency Modulated (FM) which means that the carriers amplitude stays constant and its frequency varies according to the amplitde variations of the audio signal. When the input signals amplitude increases (i.e. during the positive half cycles) the frequency of the carrier increases too, on the other hand when the input signal decreases in amplitude (negative half-cycle or no signal) the carrier frequency decreases accordingly. In figure 1 you can see a graphic representation of Frequency Modulation as it would appear on an oscilloscope screen, together with the modulating AF signal. Theoutput frequency the transmitter is adjustable from 88 to 108 MHz which is the FM band that is used for radio broadcasting. The circuit as we have already mentioned consists of four stages. Three RF stages and one audio preamplifier for the modulation. The first RF stage is an oscillator and is built around TR1. The frequency of the oscillator is controlled by the LC network L1-C15. C7 is there to ensure that the circuit continues oscillating and C8 adjusts the coupling between the oscillator and the next RF
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stage which is an amplifier. This is built around TR2 which operates in class C and is tuned by means of L2 and C9. The last RF stage is also an amplifier built around TR3 which operates in class C the input of which is tuned by means of C10 and L4. From the output of this last stage which is tuned by means of L3-C12 is taken the output signal which through the tuned circuit L5-C11 goes to the aerial. The circuit of the preamplifier is very simple and is built around TR4. The input sensitivity of the stage is adjustable in order to make it possible to use the transmitter with different input signals and depends upon the setting of VR1. As it is the transmitter can be modulated directly with a piezoelectric microphone, a small cassette recorder etc. It is of course possible to use an audio mixer in the input for more professional results.

Chapter-5 Conclusion
The device is used for the transmission of radio waves. These are used in FM stations. To send radio waves .which can be received by devices like radios. These are used for entertainment. It is also used for communication .The expense of making a FM transmitter is very low, than a ready-made one .It is a very useful device used in radios , Walky-talkys ,etc.

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Chapter-6 Bibliography
1) WWW.Ask.com 2) WWW.Wikipedia.com 3) WWW.Howstuffwork.com 4) WWW.Seminarprojects.com

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