Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Structure of Guide:
I. Environmental Chemistry by Subject
II. Everything Else by Subject – Guides, reactions, etc.
Some topics are accompanied by page references for the green
book.
All sections are completed in order of the outline given.
Notice that our most recent section, analytic chemistry, will be on the
exam, despite thoughts to the contrary. It is on the hand-written
outline Mrs. Nagel gave us.
I. Environmental Chemistry
1. Nitrates – pp.135-136
They are nutrients.
Food for algae/microfauna in water.
Present from fertilizer runoff; accumulated by eutrophication
--overproduced with lack of DO (dissolved oxygen) in lakes
Dying plants decompose anaerobically, build up, DO drops
(cycle)
Nitrates are also present in drinking water, thanks to fertilizers
and acid rain.
They’re super-soluble, so HARD to remove (tertiary treatment
necessary: see next section)
Ingestion of too many nitrates can cause diseases in babies and
cancer in adults
Treatment
--sometimes raw sewage is released! It breaks down,
but slowly…
1. Primary – removes solids and some oxygen-
demanding
waste
Uses filters and sedimentation tanks
Flocculation: removal of suspended matter
2. Secondary – removes most oxygen
demanding waste
Uses aerobic bacteria to degrade waste
Trickle filters and/or activated sludge
3. Tertiary – rarely done – removes heavy
metals, nitrates, phosphates
Precipitation of phosphates & ions
Removes nitrates using ion exchange,
denitrifying bacteria,
or algal ponds
3. Chlorination/Ozoneation
2. Propagating (2 subs)
CH4 + Cl∙ CH3∙ + HCl
And CH3∙ + Cl2 CH3Cl + Cl∙
3. Terminating (3 subs)
Cl∙ + Cl∙ Cl2
Or C2H5. ∙ C2H5.:C2H5
Or Cl∙ + C2H5. ∙ C2H5Cl
5. Global Warming
Overaccumulation of CO2 and other gases Temp. increase
But: Ice core samples imply fluctuation in temperature for
centuries!
Still, there’s been a gradual temperature increase.
Consequences: Agricultural/biodiversity changes; rising sealevels
6. Photochemical smog
Occurs in “bowl-shaped” cities: less air circulation
Occurs with temperature inversion: layer of warm air above cool
air
Trapped pollutants
Photochemical: Reducing smog due to combustion
Yellow-brown, SO2 w/soot, etc.
Primary pollutants: NOx and VOC’s (volatile org’c cmpds)
converted to secondary in sunlight: see table below
2. IR Spectra:
--Alcohol has a broad absorption at 3300 cm-1.
--Fingerprint region: Far right side of graph. Unique to each
molecule.
--Functional groups: special absorptions (like alcohols, above)
3. NMR:
Distinguish - # of peaks = H environments
Area under = ratio of # of H’s (using relative heights)
Splitting = # of neighbors for that environment (n+1)
4. Mass Spec:
Used to determine abundance of isomers, molecular mass, and
possible functional groups of a specific sample, thanks to
fragmentation
5. Chromatography
Adsorption: Adherence of a solute to a solid surface by
chemical bond or physical attraction
Partition: The ratio/equilibrium between mobile phase (elution
of the solute) and stationary phase (adsorption of the solute)
6. Retention factor:
Rf = Dist. Traveled by solute
Dist. Traveled by solvent
7. Processes of Chromatography
Paper: dot paper with solute, wet paper with solvent – observe
dist. Traveled
Thin Layer C: like paper, but on glass with a thin gel of silica as
mobile phase
Gas C: volatile sample is heated to gas in a capillary tube, with
Helium as inert aid
Column: Uses gel as mobile phase: eluent is poured over solute,
which then seeps through gel in tube – sample can be recovered
High-perform. Liquid C: Like gas, but more efficient—sample is
forced by pressure through a short column/tube, using silica particles
with alkane chains
ADDITION
a. Hydrogenation – Alkene + H2 Alkane (Platinum catalyst)
b. Addition – Alkene + HX Halogenoalkane
c. Halogenation – Alkene + X2 “Double-halogen”-alkane
d. Hydrolysis – Alkene + H2O Alcohol
POLYMERISATION
Occurs through addition (using free radicals) or, more commonly,
condensation
Condensation also forms esters (carboxylic acid + alcohol =
ester)
These are the fast, strong, two-step processes that beat up even
carbons that travel surrounded by lots of themselves (ie, tertiary):
1. SLOW step
2. FAST step
Substitution involving nitrogen:
A NITRILE is an R-C≡N.
Name it using the longest chain including N, then add “-nitrile” at
end. So the root (eg ethanenitrile) is one word.
E2: Primary Carbon: Halogen detaches AS the hydrogen leaves for the
OH, and electrons join the carbons as usual. One step.
It’s like a clean breakup. The halogen and hydrogen both leave
the carbons for greener pastures and better fish, so the electrons are
the rebound relationship—which is really clingy and double-bonded,
because the carbons are lonely and traumatized.
Got it?
_______________
That’s it for this guide! Please be sure to look over your notes,
especially on reactions. The theoretical explanations may not have
fixed information as well as complicated drawings might have.
Remember that your green book is your friend. It loves you!
Good luck on the exam, everyone. Peace on earth!