HYDROGEN- THE FUTURE FUEL

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless gas that accounts for 75 percent of the entire universe's mass. Hydrogen is found on Earth only in combination with other elements such as oxygen, carbon and nitrogen. To use hydrogen, it must be separated from these other elements. Today, hydrogen is used primarily in ammonia manufacturing, petroleum refining and synthesis of methanol. It's also used in NASA's space program as fuel for the space shuttles, and in fuel cells that provide heat, electricity and drinking water for astronauts. Fuel cells are devices that directly convert hydrogen into electricity. In the future, hydrogen could be used to fuel vehicles and aircraft, and provide power for our homes and offices. Hydrogen as a fuel is high in energy, yet a machine that burns pure hydrogen produces almost zero pollution. NASA has used liquid hydrogen since the 1970s to propel rockets.

HYDROGEN - THE FUTURE FUEL:Hydrogen is the simplest element known to man. Each atom of hydrogen has only

one proton. It is also the most plentiful gas in the universe. Stars are made primarily of hydrogen. Hydrogen, first on the periodic table of the elements, is the least complex and most abundant element in the universe.

ATOMIC NUMBER: 1 ATOMIC SYMBOL: H ATOMIC WEIGHT: 1.0079 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION: 1S1

ATOMIC RADIUS: 78 pm MELTING POINT: -259.34C BOILING POINTS: -252.87C OXIDATION STATES: 1,-1

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Hydrogen is the element that has existed in the world for a long time; however, its usefulness came across only few decades ago. After that, people that work in the field of science, have tried to work out different ways that would be more efficient for getting hydrogen out of the combined elements and use it as a fuel in other places. The sun is basically a giant ball of hydrogen and helium gases. In the sun's core, hydrogen atoms combine to form helium atoms. This processcalled fusiongives off radiant energy. This radiant energy sustains life on earth. It gives us light and makes plants grow. It makes the wind blow and rain fall. It is stored as chemical energy in fossil fuels. MAIN BENEFITS OF HYDROGEN:

Stronger national energy security Reduced greenhouse gas emissions Improved air quality Increased energy efficiency. Flexibility

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CHAPTER 2 PREPARATION
Since hydrogen doesn't exist on earth as a gas, it can be separated from other elements. Hydrogen can be separated from water, biomass, or natural gas molecules. The two most common methods for producing hydrogen are steam reforming and electrolysis (water splitting). Scientists have even discovered that some algae and bacteria give off hydrogen. 2.1 Steam Reformer: Steam reforming is currently the least expensive method of producing hydrogen and accounts for about 95 percent of the hydrogen produced in the United States. It is used in industries to separate hydrogen atoms from carbon atoms in methane (CH4). Because methane is a fossil fuel, the process of steam reforming results in greenhouse gas emissions that are linked with global warming. Flowchart of a Steam Reformer: 1 Feed Pre-Treatment 2 Reforming & Steam Generation 2 3 4 High Temperature Conversion Heat Exchanger Unit Purification Unit optional, depending on reformer design a either heat exchanger for low pressure reformer or compression to 1 bar for high pressure reformer.

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Fig: STEAM REFORMER 2.2 Standard Electrolysis: Electrolysis is a process that splits hydrogen from water. It results in no emissions but it is currently a very expensive process. New technologies are being developed all the time.

Displacement from acids by certain metals. Reaction of sodium or potassium hydroxide on aluminum. Decomposition of certain hydrocarbons with heat.

2.3 The Fuel Cell

The fuel cell is the heart of a hydrogen-powered vehicle. A fuel cell uses the combination of hydrogen and oxygen to generate electricity. The side effect of this process is the generation of water and heat. The electricity can then be used to power the car. The fuel cell is the primary device that turns ordinary electrical vehicles into a practical, competitive alternative.
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An Extremely Brief History

Fuel cells were first invented back in 1839. However, it was not until the 1960s that NASA demonstrated the first practical use of fuel cells in space flight. From there the technology has grown. In the 1990s fuel cells began to become a viable option for powering a car. The late 1990s and the 2000s saw the first prototype hydrogen vehicles.

TYPES OF FUEL CELLS There are multiple types of fuel cells. Each has different operating conditions and some use a fuel other than pure hydrogen. For example, methanol fuel cells are commonly used. They break down methanol into hydrogen and carbon, and then combine the hydrogen with oxygen to produce water and energy. However, they release the carbon into the atmosphere, thereby polluting. The only practical type of fuel cell for a clean, efficient vehicle is a Proton Exchange Membrane cell (PEM). PEMs are the most suitable type of fuel cell for vehicular applications because of their lower operating temperature. (They operate at the lowest temperature, around 80 degrees Celsius. Other cells require higher temperatures, which makes them unsuitable for a vehicular application.) PEM fuel cells rely on the simple combination of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity. At all points in this book, whenever fuel cell is mentioned, we are talking about PEM fuel cells.

How Fuel Cells Work The basic concept behind how a fuel cell works is very simple. The following illustration from Ballard Power Systems provides an excellent view into the workings of a fuel cell. The only practical type of fuel cell for a clean, efficient vehicle is a Proton Exchange Membrane cell (PEM). PEMs are the most suitable type of fuel cell for vehicular applications because of their lower operating temperature. (They operate at the lowest
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temperature, around 80 degrees Celsius. Other cells require higher temperatures, which makes them unsuitable for a vehicular application.) PEM fuel cells rely on the simple combination of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity. At all points in this book, whenever fuel cell is mentioned, we are talking about PEM fuel cells.

Fig: Fuel Cell Illustration from Ballard Power System

On the left side of this illustration, hydrogen enters the fuel cell. On the right, oxygen is provided. Hydrogen is a reactive element, and will combine with oxygen given the opportunity. Each hydrogen molecule, H2, has two hydrogen atoms each with one electron. The oxygen has 6 valence electrons. The rules of chemistry tell us that each atom is in its most stable state when it has a full outer shell of electrons, which for hydrogen is 2 electrons and for oxygen is 8. Each atom tries to move towards this optimal quantity and arrangement of electrons by binding with other atoms. In this case, each oxygen atom needs two more electrons. Each hydrogen atom needs one. The oxygen will therefore pull in two hydrogen atoms to fill its valence electron shell to a total of eight electrons. Each hydrogen atom, in return, shares one of the oxygens electrons, resulting in a full shell of 2 electrons to stabilize the hydrogen.

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This process requires the hydrogen and oxygen to bind together, and in the above illustration, they are on opposite sides of the fuel cell. The hydrogen, being the smaller atom, is more mobile and is pulled to the right. To reach the oxygen atom the hydrogen must pass though the Proton Exchange Membrane. The PEM membrane, as its name suggests, allows only the passage of a proton, which happens to be the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. As the hydrogen atom passes through the membrane the hydrogens electron is left behind. Upon reaching the oxygen, the hydrogen nucleus is joined by another which also crossed the membrane, and both bond to the oxygen. However, the oxygen-hydrogen complex (which is H20 water) is missing the two electrons that the two hydrogen atoms left behind when they crossed the PEM membrane. The oxygen is not yet satisfied because it still only has 6 valance electrons as the hydrogen arrived without any. The hydrogen-oxygen complex is therefore positively charged, because electrons carry a negative charge and the hydrogen-oxygen complex is missing two. Meanwhile, the left side of the fuel cell, where the hydrogen originally was, now has two extra electrons. An electric circuit connects the two sides of the cell. The electrons (negatively charged) are drawn around the circuit, attracted to the hydrogen-oxygen complex because it is positively charge. The only path to the oxygen is along the electric circuit. The potential difference in charges (positive and negative) between each side of the cell creates voltage, generally in the range of 1 to 2 volts for a PEM cell. If the electric circuit is closed, the electrons are allowed to cross over to the hydrogen-oxygen complex, generating current. There is now electricity that can be used to turn a motor and power a car. To produce enough electricity to do this, many of the single cells illustrated above are connected together in series to generate higher voltage.

DEVELOPMENT Current hydrogen fuel cells need further development before they will be able to replace Internal combustion engines. The present generation of fuel cells requires expensive metals such as platinum, which is required as a catalyst to speed the reaction between the hydrogen
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and oxygen. Additionally, fuel cells today require very pure hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas with small amounts (even fractions of a percent) of sulfur or carbon in it will cause degradation of the fuel cell by binding to the platinum catalyst. This decreases both efficiency and lifetime. Obtaining hydrogen without any impurities is difficult and expensive. Therefore, current fuel cells are not cost-effective. However, research is underway at Cornell University, other universities, and the private sector to solve these problems. While todays fuel cells cost tens of thousands of dollars, tomorrows could be far cheaper. Hydrogen fuel cells also face several other issues that are rapidly being solved. The first Concerns temperature. To operate, a PEM fuel cell must run at 80 degrees Celsius to perform the hydrogen-oxygen combination. Fuel cells consequently have trouble in lower temperatures. However, this issue can simply be solved by proper thermal management and providing the cell with a heater when necessary. The other major issue concerns start-up times; many fuel cells take several minutes to warm up before a car can begin driving. However, this has recently improved a fuel cell system by the manufacturer Ballard Power Systems can start in less than 40 seconds. Most people give their cars a few seconds to warm up when they first start them, and so this amount of time is not unreasonable. It should also improve even further in the future. The final issue is weight; a current 80 kW fuel cells weighs nearly 500 lbs (220 kg). This is a significant fraction of the total weight of a vehicle and consequently degrades the vehicles performance. However, this issue can be solved hand in hand with the cost issue a cheaper fuel cell would by necessity use lesser amounts of platinum and would therefore weigh less. Additionally, clever designing of the car can decrease the weight of other systems so the fuel cells weight becomes less onerous.

CHAPTER 3 HYDROGEN DISTRIBUTION

The vast majority of the hydrogen produced today is transported only a short distance before use. Short-distance distribution is by pipeline; similar to the method used
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for natural gas. At present, long-distance distribution is primarily in liquefied form in large tanks. Both options pose certain technical challenges. Techniques for central bulk storage are also important for the distribution infrastructure. If fuel use of hydrogen is to be expanded significantly, a shift of emphasis seems likely, from tanker to pipeline. 3.1 Handling Hydrogen: From the perspective of safety, storing and transporting hydrogen safely is very similar to handling natural gas or propane, which are currently piped all over the world to industries and homes. A safe hydrogen infrastructure will include a system of detectors to pinpoint leaks, alarms in order notify of leakage, and a system of cut-off points, all of which will be regularly tested. Five percent of natural gas is already reformed to produce hydrogen for industrial use in petrochemical production, food processing, microchip manufacture and for spacecraft fuel. These industries have already resolved the safety issues around the storage and transportation of hydrogen.

The Hydrogen Storage Tanks

A hydrogen car needs hydrogen, obviously. The car is powered by the energy given off by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen into water. Oxygen is readily available from the air, but hydrogen must be supplied by a separate source.

The traditional method for storing hydrogen (or any other gas) is in a pressurized tank. This is the storage method we have opted for here, but it does, however, have several disadvantages. Hydrogen is a very low-density gas, and so to store the necessary quantity to provide adequate driving range to a car, very large or high-pressure tanks are required. This is obviously not all that desirable because high pressures can be dangerous and difficult to use and larger tanks consume a lot of vehicle space and weight.

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hydrogen storage tanks increase in pressure the latest are available at pressures up to 10,000 psi vehicle range rivals that of conventional gasoline vehicles.

A seemly ordinary hydrogen tank, the BL-400 can actually store up to 400 liters of H2 by compressing it into a metal.

There are several other methods of storing hydrogen that look promising for the future. None have reached a point where they can be integrated into our car, but ten years from now they may well have replaced compressed hydrogen tanks. The first option involves storing hydrogen by binding it in a metal. The metal compound is heated, and it absorbs hydrogen. Done correctly, this allows for the storage of more hydrogen molecules per volume than with pressurized tanks. However, the total weight per mole of hydrogen is more than with conventional pressurized tanks. The process is also more complicated; the metal has to be heated when hydrogen is being pumped in, and heated again to get the hydrogen out. This would create an additional drain on a fuel cell in a car, decreasing the overall efficiency slightly. This system also has another advantage: even if the tank is broken open, the hydrogen cannot leak out because it is bound to the metal. The car becomes even safer in an accident because a hydrogen fire would be extremely unlikely.
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3.2 Liquid Distribution: At atmospheric pressure, liquid hydrogen (known as LH 2) boils at 20K (-423F), making liquefaction, storage, and distribution challenging. Liquefaction is also very energy-intensive. Nevertheless, greatly reduced space requirements compared with gaseous hydrogen make the use of LH2 an attractive option in some cases.

Hydrogen is usually liquefied in a complex, multi-stage process that includes the use of liquid nitrogen and a sequence of compressors. Detailed procedures are required throughout the process to control the proportions of the two types of hydrogen molecule, known as ortho and Para. If this were not done, ortho hydrogen in the distribution and storage tanks would slowly but spontaneously convert to Para hydrogen over a period of days or weeks, releasing enough heat to revaporize most of the liquid.

Gaseous Distribution
Compared with the hundreds of thousands of miles of existing natural gas network, the hydrogen pipeline system is very small, totaling only about 460 miles. If the use of hydrogen pipelines were to be expanded, possible embrittlement problems would have to

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be considered. Pipes and fittings can become brittle and crack as hydrogen diffuses into the metal of which they are made. The severity of this problem depends on the type of steel and weld used and the pressure in the pipeline. The technology is available to prevent embrittlement, but depending on the configuration being considered, distribution costs may be affected. The capacity of a given pipeline configuration to carry energy is somewhat lower when it carries hydrogen than when it carries natural gas. In a pipe of a given size and pressure, hydrogen flows about three times faster, but since it also contains about three times less energy per cubic foot, a comparable amount of energy gets through the pipe.

CHAPTER 4 PRESENT APPLICATIONS

As everyone knows, current vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine that runs off gasoline or diesel (fossil fuels). Current vehicles are also capable of nearly everything we ask of them, whether it is reaching high speeds, pulling heavy

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loads or undergoing rapid acceleration. However, the internal combustion engine is also a century-old invention. Internal combustion engines are beginning to show signs of age. Running off fossil fuels, they require a giant supply of oil. Without going into the politics of it, securing this supply of oil has cost the United States and many other countries billions of dollars, required compromising our values, and weakened the US economically as we become increasingly dependent on foreign importation. The dependence has, at the time of this writing, become particularly obvious as gas prices soar past the $2 dollar a gallon mark. And because many people believe that we have either reached or will soon reach the peak in the worlds supply of oil, prices will only rise. The increasing scarcity of oil points to the imminent doom of the internal combustion engine. A hydrogen fuel-cell car should also have integrated regenerative braking. This complicates the system somewhat. When the driver brakes, instead of conventional brakes slowing the car through friction, the motor begins to act as a generator. Regulated by the controller, which receives information the brake pedal, the motor slows the car at the desired rate. At the same time this generates electricity, which goes through the controller, is converted from the AC of the motor to DC, and charges the ultra capacitors. Hence, when the car brakes the ultra capacitors gather electricity. This increases vehicular efficiency. The amount of heat generated when a conventional 2500 lb car brakes from 60 mph to rest is enough to light a 100 W bulb for an hour. This energy is normally vented off to the atmosphere providing no useful function.

4.1 HYDROGEN PLANES

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Hydrogen planes are airplanes that use hydrogen as a fuel source. Hydrogen is the best known source of fuel to replace the current fuel for aircraft, kerosene. Disregarding storage mechanisms, hydrogen is the most energy-dense combustible fuel known. As aircraft efficiency can be tied closely with aircraft weight, a lightweight fuel is very desirable.

4.2 HYDROGEN VEHICLE

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle, such as an automobile or aircraft, which uses hydrogen as its primary source of power for locomotion. These vehicles generally use the hydrogen in one of two methods: combustion or fuel-cell conversion:

In combustion, the hydrogen is "burned" in engines in fundamentally the same method as traditional gasoline cars.

In fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is turned into electricity through fuel cells which then power electric motors.

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Filling of Hydrogen Tank: While handling hydrogen requires its own set of guidelines, refueling the car with this fuel will not be any more dangerous or inconvenient than filling up with gasoline today. Demonstration hydrogen refueling stations are currently operating in the United States, Japan, and Singapore, with the first commercial station debuting in Reykjavik, Iceland, in the spring of 2003. Fully open to the public, this station will initially serve three hydrogen-powered gas stations. Later on as with the concerned governments approval and in the general interest of the public this will fully convert to an advanced energy-saver mechanism. The traditional method for storing hydrogen (or any other gas) is in a pressurized tank. This is the storage method we have opted for here, but it does, however, have several disadvantages. Hydrogen is a very low-density gas, and so to store the
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necessary quantity to provide adequate driving range to a car, very large or high-pressure tanks are required. This is obviously not all that desirable because high pressures can be dangerous and difficult to use and larger tanks consume a lot of vehicle space and weight. However, as hydrogen storage tanks increase in pressure the latest are available at pressures up to 10,000 psi vehicle range rivals that of conventional gasoline vehicles.

A fuel cell vehicle driver connects the electrical and computer cable to the vehicle to confirm that the safety systems are established and functioning properly. The information transferred by this process to the computer includes details of the vehicle fuel tank, the vehicle manufacturer and specific conditions set by the manufacturer that must be met to begin fueling, such as confirming the car ignition is off. Following that, the driver connects the fill nozzle and fills the vehicle. Refueling should take about four minutes, a comparable time to a conventional fill up. While the general public is not currently familiar with the conventions of handling of hydrogen, this substance has been widely used in industry for a very long time. This experience has contributed to the development of rigorous safety standards and sound practices.

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Hydrogen has been used effectively in a number of internal combustion engine vehicles as pure hydrogen mixed with natural gas.

4.3 REGENERATIVE BRAKING

Regenerative braking has greatly benefited hybrid cars, increasing both their range and efficiency. Regenerative braking requires an electrical power system, and so is impossible to incorporate into a conventional internal combustion vehicle. With electric and hydrogen cars, it is easy to implement. Regenerative braking recaptures the kinetic energy of a vehicle when it brakes. A car traveling at 30 mph has significant kinetic energy; it used a lot of fuel to get its mass going that fast. When a normal car brakes, all that energy is transformed to heat in the brakes and is essentially wasted. With regenerative braking, that energy is used to turn a generator and charge up a battery, or in our case, a bank of ultracapacitors. The generator is often the very same motor that powers the car one advantage of electric motors is that while putting electricity in turns the motor, turning the motor also sends electricity out. Regenerative braking can therefore be incorporated into the system with little addition to the vehicles weight. In practical terms, regenerative braking is handled by the motor controller. The brake pedal will be attached to the controller. When the driver wants to brake, he or she will push down on the petal in the normal fashion. This will send a signal to the controller to open up the
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connection to the ultracapacitors, which will effectively put a load on the generator (the motor). Because the motor is connected to the wheels, it will be spinning with the wheels. Adding a load (the ultracaps) will force the motor to generate electricity. Because the energy comes from the kinetic energy of the vehicle, the motor will slow down as it charges the ultracaps, slowing the wheels and thereby the car. The rate at which the motor slows the vehicle will be determined by the controller and in turn by the amount the driver pushes down on the brake pedal. All this happens in real time, and many drivers would not notice the difference between regenerative and conventional braking. For normal braking situations, regenerative braking is all that is necessary. However, it would be wise to include regular friction brakes in case of an emergency. Also, long downward hills would generate more electricity than the ultracapacitors could hold. After the capacitors filled up, regenerative braking would no longer slow the car. Friction brakes would be necessary to allow the driver to maintain control of his or her vehicle. For that reason, in a hydrogen vehicle conventional brakes would also be connected to the brake pedal, albeit at a level where they would not engage until the petal was pressed most of the way down. If a driver slammed on the brakes, both the regenerative and conventional brakes would go on, giving the car maximum braking power. Otherwise only regenerative braking would come into play, as long as the ultracapacitors are not fully charged. For more information the specific energy involved in regenerative braking, see the section on Ultracapacitors. In summary, our car will contain enough ultracapacitors to store 225,000 Joules of energy, which is the approximate amount that a car, given some internal inefficiency, can gain from a 44 mph deceleration to zero. Ideally, for regenerative braking to be most effective, the ultracaps should be able to store all the power generated from any deceleration. However, having that quantity of ultracapacitors is not feasible at this point in time. Regenerative braking can still be very effective, especially in city driving, even if it can capture the energy from only a 44 mph speed decrease.

CHAPTER 5 THE FUTURE OF HYDROGEN

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As everyone knows, current vehicles are powered by an internal combustion engine that runs off gasoline or diesel (fossil fuels). Current vehicles are also capable of nearly everything we ask of them, whether it is reaching high speeds, pulling heavy loads or undergoing rapid acceleration. However, the internal combustion engine is also a centuryold invention. Internal combustion engines are beginning to show signs of age. Running off fossil fuels, they require a giant supply of oil. Without going into the politics of it, securing this supply of oil has cost the United States and many other countries billions of dollars, required compromising our values, and weakened the US economically as we become increasingly dependent on foreign importation. The dependence has, at the time of this writing, become particularly obvious as gas prices soar past the $2 dollar a gallon mark. And because many people believe that we have either reached or will soon reach the peak in the worlds supply of oil, prices will only rise. The increasing scarcity of oil points to the imminent doom of the internal combustion engine. There is a second price to gasoline vehicles: pollution. Ignore it as some might, clouds of smog hang over many of the countrys cities. This problem can be even worse in other nations around the world. It is not fully known at this point what this smog does to our health and how responsible it is for causing various cancers, leading to the national increase in allergies and asthma, and creating other health problems. Burning oil in our cars dumps an estimated 302 million metric tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year. Many other greenhouse gases are also released. It is gradually becoming clear that global warming is a real problem, and at this point the only people who deny this are people who dont want to bother fixing it. The gasoline engine is not something the planet can sustain for much longer, both in terms of providing fuel and in terms of keeping the environment hospitable. The development and adoption of alternative options now would enable the use of gasoline engines for the next several hundred years at least. However, keeping and continuing to expand the number of internal combustion engine vehicles will only hasten their cataclysmic end when fuel supplies run out. We do not advocate abandoning oil power, but we do feel that in order to preserve the technology for uses where it is required, critical, or essential, we must stop wasting fuel in applications where other alternatives exist. A gradual shift to alternative energy sources, beginning now, could reduce or possibly even

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eliminate any economic plight that would be caused by the sudden expiration of internal combustion engines as a usable technology. The most obvious alternatives to gasoline engines are electric motors. Electric motors are, actually, far more suited to a transportation application than internal combustion engines. Electric motors sport far higher efficiencies, lower weights, and higher torques than their gasoline equivalents. Motors can also provide adequate power over a large range of engine speeds, potentially eliminating the need for a transmission in a vehicle. However, an electric motor system has one fatal downfall: energy storage. A wellmade internal combustion engine can propel a car for 30 or more miles per gallon of gasoline. Vehicular ranges average around 300 miles on a tank, with a lot of variation depending on the vehicle. Hybrid vehicles, which feature the marriage of internal combustion engines and electric motors, get even better mileage, still consuming only oil. The best electric cars, however, can barely travel 100 miles on a full battery charge. Unfortunately, the current generation of batteries is unable to hold enough energy to power an electric car any further. The batteries are heavy, consume a lot of space and take several hours to recharge. Consequently, electric vehicles have never become practical alternatives to conventional cars. Also unfortunate is that in effort to squeeze the highest possible mileage out of an electric vehicle, the electric motors have been minimized to a size unable to match todays standards of performance and power in gasoline engines. This has fostered the myth that electric vehicles are not and cannot be as powerful as conventional cars.

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Dispelling this myth brings us to the topic of this booklet: hydrogen power. Hydrogenpowered vehicles come in two types: hydrogen combustion engines and hydrogen fuel cells. Through combustion, a hydrogen engine acts like an ordinary engine, except hydrogen is burned in the cylinders instead of gasoline. However, this requires the use of a modified combustion engine that still results in the inefficiency inherent of any exothermic reaction. The other option, using hydrogen fuel cells, is far better. Hydrogen fuel cells take hydrogen and combine it with oxygen. This generates electricity. The electricity is then used to power an electric motor, using the same technology as todays electric vehicles. Because the energy is stored in the form of hydrogen, and not in a battery, this enables electric vehicles to carry significantly more energy. This allows for vehicles with larger motors and longer ranges. In fact, with development, the average hydrogen vehicle should be able to go further and be more powerful than the average gasoline vehicle. The use of hydrogen fuel cells will allow us to advance automotive technology to levels unreachable in past times. Hydrogen fuel cells overcome the two major flaws of internal combustion engines. First, hydrogen is the universes most common element. There is no risk of ever running out. As hydrogen can be produced from the electrolysis of water, it can be made in any county anywhere. The issue of importing hydrogen will not exist. And because fuel cells output water, there is no need to worry about consuming the worlds water supply. Essentially, the hydrogen can be manufactured anywhere in large quantities by breaking down water into oxygen and hydrogen. The hydrogen is then distributed to the gas stations of the future to fill your car. The car will be powered by the fuel cells, which recombine the hydrogen with oxygen in the ambient air to form all the water originally used. For more information on the manufacturing process of creating hydrogen. Secondly, hydrogen vehicle will not pollute. The fuel cell potentially enables a hydrogen car to be completely environmentally friendly. Because a fuel cell needs only hydrogen and oxygen, no carbon, greenhouse, or other harmful gases are produced. Oxygen is already found freely in the air. The hydrogen involved is also not environmentally damaging for two reasons. First, the pure hydrogen will be completely contained at all times during the process, and will not come in contact with the outside world. Second, even if any hydrogen does leak into the atmosphere, it will immediately combine with atmospheric oxygen to form H2O (water). Water does not damage the environment.
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Hydrogen vehicles have the potential to revolutionize the transportation industry. However, the massive size of the automotive business makes it slow to change and hesitant to adopt new technology. Only through public and political pressure will hydrogen vehicles be developed within a reasonable time frame. Hydrogen could very likely be the future. The sooner we reach that future, the sooner we decrease pollution of the planet and cure the economic and political woes caused by a dependency on foreign oil. This booklet is an effort to explain just how easy that future is to construct. Hydrogen has great potential as an environmentally clean energy fuel and as a way to reduce reliance on imported energy sources. Before hydrogen can play a bigger energy role and become a widely used alternative to gasoline, many new facilities and systems must be built. There is need for facilities to make hydrogen, store it, and move it. Today economical fuel cells are needed. And consumers will need the technology and the education to safely use it. Hydrogen could provide clean, renewable energy for the future.

There is a saying that hydrogen is the ideal fuel for cars, homes, and even for laptop or cell phone. It might know that all major car companies are intensely researching hydrogen technology for the next generation of vehicles, and that in light of global climate
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change and our dependence on foreign oil, people are raving about the potential for a zeroemission, home-produced hydrogen economy. Hydrogen is the element that has existed in the world for a long time; however, its usefulness came across only few decades ago. After that, people that work in the field of science, have tried to work out different ways that would be more efficient for getting hydrogen out of the combined elements and use it as a fuel in other places. These machines also have to be very well built so that they would react correctly and create pure hydrogen energy.

CHAPTER 6 COMBUSTION

Hydrogen can combust rapidly in air. It burned rapidly in the Hindenburg disaster on May 6, 1937. Hindenburg was a GERMAN ZEPPELIN (RIGID AIRSHIP) Along with its sister-ship LZ 130 Graf Zeppelin II, it was the largest aircraft ever built. Zeppelin is a type of rigid airship pioneered by German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin in the early 20th century.

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Hydrogen gas (dihydrogen or molecular hydrogen) is highly flammable and will burn in air at a very wide range of concentrations between 4% and 75% by volume. The enthalpy of combustion for hydrogen is -286 kJ/mol.

2 H2(g) + O2(g) = 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)

Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air if it is 474% concentrated and with chlorine if it is 595% concentrated. The mixtures spontaneously explode by spark, heat or sunlight. The hydrogen auto ignition temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 C (932 F). Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and are nearly invisible to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faint plume of the Space Shuttle Main Engine compared to the highly visible plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster. The detection of a burning hydrogen leak may require a flame detector; such leaks can be very dangerous. The destruction of the Hindenburg airship was an infamous example of hydrogen combustion; the cause is debated, but the visible flames were the result of combustible materials in the ship's skin. Because hydrogen is buoyant in air, hydrogen flames tend to ascend rapidly and cause less damage than hydrocarbon fires. Two-thirds of the Hindenburg passengers survived the fire, and many deaths were instead the result of falls or burning diesel fuel. H2 reacts with every oxidizing element. Hydrogen can react spontaneously and violently at room temperature with chlorine and fluorine to form the corresponding hydrogen halides, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride, which are also potentially dangerous acids.

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CHAPTER 7 COOLING
Many elements of a hydrogen car require cooling. The motor, controller and fuel cells will all need water cooling. The water cooling system can probably be integrated together so that only one circulation method is needed. Additionally, these systems will be used to heat the cabin when the driver requires it. The water can also be circulated through the radiator in the same manner as in a conventional car, venting the heat out into the air. Because both the motor and controller are far more efficient than the internal combustion engine in a regular vehicle, they do not need such a large radiator and cooling system. This will decrease the cost and complicity of a hydrogen vehicle as compared to a conventional car. However, when converting a car to run off hydrogen, it is simply easiest to use the radiator and cooling system already there. It is important to ensure the motor in particular receives adequate cooling. As the wires in the circuitry of the motor heat up, they become more resistant. A higher resistance decreases the current flowing to motor (as given by the equation V = I * R), and so the motor becomes less powerful. Besides preventing the components from burning out, system cooling assures you will have maximum power. The specifics of the cooling system will be determined primarily by the final location of each component. As it is impossible to say at this point in time where the fuel cell will be located in the chassis, it is impossible to describe exactly how it will be cooled.
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If it is under the hood, cooling lines can simply be run over to the radiator. If it is under the vehicle, however, a different solution may be needed depending on how the cooling hoses can be run. Additionally, the fuel cell may (in the case of Ballards) have a cooling system already built in, and until the details on that system is fully determined, it is impossible to say if and how that system would tie into the rest of the car.

CHAPTER 8 SAFETY
Hydrogen is Not Dangerous Much skepticism still exists about the safety of carrying around pure hydrogen in a moving vehicle. Many cite the vivid images of the Hindenburg ablaze, or the 1986 Challenger catastrophe, or the Hydrogen bomb as testaments to the danger of hydrogen. Fortunately, these explosions have little bearing on the safety of hydrogen fuel for car or home.

Health and Environmental Safety

Hydrogen, which exists as a gas under normal atmospheric conditions, is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. It is both non-toxic and safe to breathe. It can also be safely transported. In a hydrogen-based energy economy, environmental disasters like the Exxon Valdez debacle would be relegated to history. Because hydrogen dissipates when leaked, a major hydrogen spill would amount to little more than a waste of precious fuel. Concerns about the safety of hydrogen are sometimes brought up. An objective evaluation, however, shows that hydrogen is likely to be safer than gasoline or methane as a fuel.

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CHAPTER 9 CONCLUSION
A simple chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen generates energy, which can be used to power a car producing only water, not exhaust fumes. Energy crisis in India can be overcome by using hydrogen as a fuel. Use of hydrogen as a fuel, wherever possible pollution can be drastically minimized. The evidence for both an impending energy disaster and a climate disaster if we do not respond in meaningful ways is becoming irrefutable, and the scientific case against hydrogen as a transportation fuel is also now undeniable. Five years from now, in hindsight, the hydrogen program will look more like a ruse then naive scientific exuberance if major changes in energy programs are not forthcoming in response to these scientific challenges. Simply changing priorities in existing hydrogen R&D programs will not bring a useful solution within 30 years and probably not within 70 years, as futuristic energy technology projections beyond five years by scientific organizations have a history of being overly optimistic. (For example, controlled fusion has been 40 years away for the past 50 years.) We must rapidly ramp up all available promising renewable options to lessen the effects of $150/bbl oil, $25/GJ natural gas, $200/kg uranium, and major climate catastrophes, probably within a decade. Major investments are needed into bio-methanol, cellulosic ethanol, advanced biodiesel crops, mixed-alcohols, high-oil algae,
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and advanced catalysts for biofuels from biosyngas. It's time we start putting some serious money into real options for renewable energy to address global warming and our future transportation needs.

REFERENCES
Hydrogen Storage
1. Brooks, Alec. Fuel Cell Disruptor. 7 Dec. 2002. EV World. May 2004

<http://www.evworld.com/view.cfm?section=article&archive=1&storyid=464>. 2. Dynetek Industries Ltd. June 2004 <http://www.dynetek.com/. Fuel Cells 1. Ballard Power Systems. May 2004 <http://www.ballard.com/. 2. Fuel Cells Green Power. Thomas, Sharon and Marcia Zalbowitz. Los Alamos National Laboratory. May 2004 <http://education.lanl.gov/resources/fuelcells/. 3. The Online Fuel Cell Information Resource. Fuel Cells 2000. June 2004 <http://fuelcells.org/>. 4. FuelCellStore.com. 2004. June 2004 <http://www.fuelcellstore.com/>. 5. www.hydrogenfuturetoday.com 6. www.alternative-energy-news.info/technology/hydrogen-fuel 7. www.hydrogendiscoveries.com/FueloftheFuture

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