Basis for Bonding Theories

Models for the bonding in transition metal complexes must be consistent with observed behavior. behavior Specific data used include stability (or formation) constants, magnetic susceptibility, and the electronic (UV/Vis) spectra of the complexes.

Bonding Approaches
Valence Bond theory provides the hybridization for octahedral complexes. For the first row transition metals, the hybridization can metals be: d2sp3 (using the 3d, 4s and 4p orbitals), or sp3d2 (using the 4s, 4p and 4d orbitals). 4s orbitals) The valence bond approach isnt used because it fails to explain the electronic spectra and magnetic moments of most complexes.

Crystal Field Theory

In crystal field theory, the electron pairs on theory the ligands are viewed as point negative charges that interact with the d orbitals on the central metal. The nature of the ligand and the tendency toward covalent bonding is ignored. ignored

d Orbitals

Crystal Field Theory

Ligands, Ligands viewed as point charges, at the charges corners of an octahedron affect the various d orbitals differently. differently

Crystal Field Theory

Crystal Field Theory

The repulsion between ligand lone pairs and the d orbitals on the metal results in a splitting of the energy of the d orbitals. orbitals

d Orbital Splitting
__ __ e g dz2 dx2-y2 __ __ __ __ __
Spherical field 0.6o

__ dxy

0.4o

__ __ t 2g dxz dyz

Octahedral field

d Orbital Splitting
In some texts and articles, the gap in the d articles orbitals is assigned a value of 10Dq. The upper (eg) set goes up by 6Dq, and the lower set (t2 ) 6Dq 2g goes down by 4Dq. The actual size of the gap varies with the metal and the ligands.

d Orbital Splitting
The colors exhibited by most transition metal complexes arises from the splitting of the d orbitals As electrons transition from the orbitals. lower t2g set to the eg set, light in the visible range is absorbed absorbed.

d Orbital Splitting
The splitting due to the nature of the h f h ligand can be observed and measured using a spectrophotometer. Smaller l S ll values of o f result in colors in the green range. Larger gaps shift the color to yellow.

The Spectrochemical Series

Based on measurements for a given metal ion, the following series has been developed:
I-<Br-<S2-<Cl-<NO3-<N3-<F-<OH-<C2O42-<H2O <NO <NCS-<CH3CN<pyridine<NH3<en<bipy<phen CH CN idi NH bi h <NO2-<PPh3<CN-<CO

The Spectrochemical Series

The complexes of cobalt (III) show the shift in color due to the ligand. (a) CN, (b) NO2, (c) phen, (d) en, (e) NH3, (f) gly, (g) H2O, (h) ox2, (i) CO3 2.

Ligand Field Strength Observations

1. 1 o increases with increasing oxidation number on the metal. Mn+2<Ni+2<Co+2<Fe+2<V+2<Fe+3<Co+3 <Mn+4<Mo+3<Rh+3<Ru+3<Pd+4<Ir+3<Pt+4 2. o increases with increases going down a group of metals.

Ligand Field Theory

Crystal Field Theory completely ignores the nature of the ligand. As a result, it cannot explain the spectrochemical series. series Ligand Fi ld Th Li d Field Theory uses a molecular orbital l l bi l approach. Initially, the ligands can be viewed as having hybrid bi l h i a h b id orbital or a p orbital pointing bi l i i toward the metal to make bonds.

Ligand Field Theory

The A1 group 1g orbitals have the same symmetry as an s orbital on the central metal. metal

Ligand Field Theory

The T1 group 1u orbitals have the same symmetry as the p orbitals on the central metal. metal (T representations are triply degenerate.) degenerate )

Ligand Field Theory

The Eg group orbitals have the same symmetry as the dz2 and dx2-y2 orbitals on the central metal. metal (E representations are doubly degenerate.) degenerate )

Ligand Field Theory

Since the ligands dont have a combination with t2 2g symmetry, the dxy, dyz and dxy orbitals on the metal will be nonnonbonding when considering bonding.

Ligand Field Theory

The molecular orbital diagram is consistent with the crystal field approach. Note h h N that the t2g set of orbitals is non-bonding, non-bonding and the eg set of orbitals is antibonding. g

Ligand Field Theory

The electrons from the ligands ( (12 electrons from 6 ligands in octahedral complexes) will fill the lower bonding orbitals.

Ligand Field Theory

The electrons from the 4s and 3d orbitals of the metal (in the first transition row) ) will occupy the p middle portion of the diagram.

Experimental Evidence for Splitting

Several tools are used to confirm the splitting of the t2g and eg molecular orbitals. The broad range in colors of transition metal complexes arises from electronic transitions as seen in the UV/visible spectra of complexes. complexes Additional information is gained from measuring the magnetic moments of the i h i f h complexes.

Experimental Evidence for Splitting

Magnetic susceptibility measurements can b m r m t be used to calculate the number f np ir d n mb r of unpaired electrons in a compound. Paramagnetic i substances are attracted to a magnetic fi ld i field.

Magnetic Moments
A magnetic balance can be used to determine the magnetic moment of a substance. If a substance has unpaired electrons, it is electrons paramagnetic, paramagnetic, and attracted to a magnetic field. For the upper transition metals the spinmetals, spinonly magnetic moment, s, can be used to determine the number of unpaired electrons. electrons s = [n(n+2)]1/2 [ ( )]

Magnetic Moments
The magnetic moment of a substance in substance, Bohr magnetons, can be related to the number of unpaired electrons in the compound compound. s = [n(n+2)]1/2 Where is h Wh n i the number of unpaired electrons b f i d l

Magnetic Moments
Complexes with 4-7 electrons in the d 4orbitals have two possibilities for the distribution of electrons. The complexes can be electrons low spin, in which the electrons occupy the lower spin, t2 set and pair up or they can be high spin. In up, spin. 2g these complexes, the electrons will fill the upper eg set before pairing. pairing

High and Low Spin Complexes

If the gap between the d orbitals is large, electrons will pair up and fill the lower (t2g) set of orbitals before occupying the eg set of orbitals. orbitals The complexes are called low spin. spin.

High and Low Spin Complexes

In low spin complexes, the size of o is greater than the pairing energy of the electrons. electrons

High and Low Spin Complexes

If the gap between the d orbitals is small, electrons will occupy the eg set of orbitals before they pair up and fill the lower (t2g) set of orbitals before. before The complexes are called high spin. spin.

High and Low Spin Complexes

In high spin complexes, the size of o is less than the pairing energy of the electrons. electrons

Ligand Field Stabilization Energy

The first row transition metals in water are all weak field, high spin cases.
do d1 d2 LFSE 0 .4o .8 .4 4 8 d3 1.2 12 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 .6 0 .4 .8 1.2 6 4 8 12 d9 d10 .6 0 6

Experimental Evidence for LFSE

The hydration energies of the first row transition metals should increase across the period as the size of the metal ion gets smaller. smaller M2+ + 6 H2O(l) M(H M(H2O)62+

Experimental Evidence for LFSE

The heats of hydration show two humps consistent humps with the expected LFSE for the metal ions. The ions values for d5 and d10 are the same as expected with a LFSE equal to 0.

Experimental Evidence of LFSE

do d1 d2 d3 d4 d5 d6 d7 d8 d9 1.2 .6 d10 0 LFSE 0 .4o .8 1.2 .6 0 .4 .8 .4

High Spin vs. Low Spin

3d metals are generally high spin complexes except with very strong ligands. CN- forms low spin complexes, especially with M3+ ions complexes ions. 4d & 4d metals generally h l ll have a l larger value of o l f than for 3d metals. As a result, complexes are typically low spin. i ll l spin. i

Nature of the Ligands

Crystal field theory and ligand field theory differ in that LFT considers the nature of the ligands. ligands Thus far we have only viewed the far, ligands as electron pairs used for making bonds with the metal. Many ligands can also metal form bonds with the metal. Group theory greatly simplifies the construction of molecular orbital diagrams.

Considering Bonding
To obtain red for bonding a set of bonding, d cartesian coordinates is established for each of the ligands. The direction of the bonds is ligands arbitrarily set as the y axis (or the py orbitals). The px and pz orbitals are used in bonding bonding.

Considering Bonding
reduces to: T1g + T2g + T1u + T2u. The T1g and T2u group orbitals for the ligands dont match the symmetry of any of the metal orbitals. orbitals The T1u set has the same symmetry as the px, py and pz orbitals on the metal. These orbitals are used primarily to metal make the bonds to the ligands. The T2g set has the same symmetry as the dxy, dyz and dxz y y orbitals on the metal.

 Bonding
The main source of bonding is between the dxy, dyz and dxz orbitals on the metal and the d, d p or * orbitals on the ligand. ligand

 Bonding
The ligand may have empty d or * orbitals and serve as a acceptor ligand, or full p or d orbitals and serve as a donor ligand ligand.

 Bonding
The empty antibonding orbital on CO can accept electron density from a filled d orbital on the metal. CO is a pi acceptor ligand metal ligand. filled d orbital empty * orbital

 Donor Ligands (L M)
All ligands are donors Ligands with filled donors. p or d orbitals may also serve as pi donor ligands. Examples of donor ligands are I-, Cl-, and S2-. The filled p or d orbitals on these ions interact with the t2 set of orbitals (dxy, dyz and dxz) on 2g the metal to form bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals. orbitals

 Donor Ligands (L M)
The bonding orbitals orbitals, which are lower in energy, are primarily filled with electrons from the ligand, the and antibonding molecular orbitals are primarily occupied by electrons from the metal.

 Donor Ligands (L M)
The size of o decreases, since it is now between an antibonding t2g orbital and the eg* orbital. This is confirmed by y the spectrochemical series. Weak field ligands are also g pi donor ligands.

 Acceptor Ligands (M L)
Ligands such as CN, CN N2 and CO have empty antibonding orbitals of the proper symmetry and energy to interact with filled d orbitals on the metal. metal

 Acceptor Ligands (M L)
The metal uses the t2g set of orbitals (dxy, dyz and dxz) to engage in pi bonding with the ligand. ligand The * orbitals on the ligand are usually higher in energy than the d orbitals on the metal. metal

 Acceptor Ligands (M L)
The metal uses the t2g set of orbitals (dxy, dyz and dxz) to engage in pi bonding with the ligand. ligand The * orbitals on the ligand are usually higher in energy than the d orbitals on the metal. metal

 Acceptor Ligands (M L)
The interaction causes the energy of the t2 bonding orbitals to 2g drop slightly, thus increasing the size of o .

Summary
1. 1 All ligands are donors In general ligand that donors. general, engage solely in bonding are in the middle of the spectrochemical series Some very strong series. donors, such as CH3- and H- are found high in the series. series 2. Ligands with filled p or d orbitals can also serve as donors This results in a smaller value of donors. o .

Summary
3. 3 Ligands with empty p, d or * orbitals can also serve as acceptors. This results in a larger value of o. I-<Br-<Cl-<F-<H2O NH3<PPh3<CO B Cl F H O<NH PPh CO
donor< weak donor< only< acceptor donor<

4 Coordinate Complexes
Square planar and tetrahedral complexes are quite common for certain transition metals. The splitting patterns of the d orbitals on the metal will differ depending on the geometry of the complex. complex

Tetrahedral Complexes
The dz2 and dx2-y2 orbitals point directly between the ligands in a tetrahedral arrangement. As a result, these two orbitals, designated as e in orbitals the point group Td, are lower in energy. energy

Tetrahedral Complexes p
The t2 set of orbitals, consisting of the dxy, dyz, and i i f h d dxz orbitals, are directed more in h direction f h ligands. i the di i of the li d These orbitals will be higher in energy in a tetrahedral field due to repulsion with the electrons on the ligands.

Tetrahedral Complexes p
The size of the splitting, T, i considerable smaller is id bl ll than with comparable octahedral complexes. Thi i h d l l This is because only 4 bonds are formed, and the metal orbitals f d d h l bi l used in bonding dont point right at the li d as they d i h h ligands h do in octahedral complexes.

Tetrahedral Complexes p
In general, T 4/9 o. Si Since the splitting h li i is smaller, all tetrahedral complexes are weakl weakk field, high-spin cases. high-

Tetragonal Complexes
Six coordinate complexes notably those of complexes, Cu2+, distort from octahedral geometry. One such distortion is called tetragonal distortion, in distortion, which the bonds along one axis elongate, with compression of the bond distances along the other two axes.

Tetragonal Complexes
The elongation g along the z axis causes the d orbitals with density along the axis to drop in energy. As a p gy result, the dxz and dyz orbitals lower in energy. g

Tetragonal Complexes
The compression p along the x and y axis causes orbitals with density along these axes to increase in energy. gy .

Tetragonal Complexes
For complexes with p 1-3 electrons in the eg set of orbitals, this type of , yp tetragonal distortion may lower the energy of the gy complex.

Square Planar Complexes

For complexes with 2 p electrons in the eg set of orbitals, a d8 configuration, g a severe distortion may occur, resulting in a 4g 4coordinate square planar p g shape, with the ligands along the z axis no longer bonded to the metal.

Square Planar Complexes

Square planar complexes are quite common for the d8 metals in the 4th and 5th periods: i h d i d Rh(I), IR(I), Pt(II), Pd(II) and Au(III) The lower Au(III). transition metals have large iga d ie d staba izatio ligand field stabalization energies, favoring fourfourcoordinate complexes. p

Square Planar Complexes

Square planar q p complexes are rare for the 3rd period metals. Ni(II) p ( ) generally forms tetrahedral complexes. Only with very p y y strong ligands such as CN-, is square planar geometry q p g seen with Ni(II).

Square Planar Complexes

The value of sp for a given metal, ligands and bond length is g approximately 1.3(o).

The Jahn-Teller Effect JahnIf the ground electronic configuration of a non-linear noncomplex is orbitally degenerate the complex will distort degenerate, so as to remove the degeneracy and achieve a lower energy.

The Jahn-Teller Effect JahnThe Jahn-Teller effect predicts which Jahnstructures will distort. It does not predict the nature or extent of the distortion. The effect is distortion most often seen when the orbital degneracy is in the orbitals that point directly towards the ligands.

The Jahn-Teller Effect JahnIn octahedral complexes the effect is most complexes, pronounced in high spin d4, low spin d7 and d9 configurations, configurations as the degeneracy occurs in the eg set of orbitals.
d4 d7 d9 eg t2g

The Jahn-Teller Effect JahnThe strength of the Jahn-Teller effect is Jahntabulated below: (w=weak, s=strong)
# eHigh spin Low spin 1 2 3 * * * 4 5 6 s 7 8 * 9 10 * s * -

- w w s

w w -

w w -

*There is only 1 possible ground state configuration. - No Jahn-Teller distortion is expected.