Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Y. J . Z h a n g
Indexing terms. Mothemoticul techniyurs, Image processmy,
Signal processiny
A new grey-level mapping law for direct histogram specification is proposed. Using this law, the accuracy of mapping the original histogram to the specified histogram can be improved. A comparison between this new method and the currently used one with both artificial and real histograms, and a discussion of the error limits of both mapping laws, are also presented.
rounding off error. One example is given here with the histogram shown in Fig. la, which is also used in Reference I (Fig. 4.1qA)) for illustration of the histogram-specification method. Suppose the specified histogram has the shape shown in Fig. lb. The resulting histogram obtained by using SML is shown in Fig. IC. Note that, for example, because U,, is nearest to s,, p,(rl) is mapped into p,(zo); however, it is better to map it into p,(z,). Comparing Fig. I C to Fig. Ib, the shape difference of the two histograms is quite important.
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useful histogram modification techniques for image enhancement. It consists of transforming the histogram of an original image to a specified histogram capable of highlighting certain grey-level ranges in the image. This technique can be considered as a general version of the histogram equalisation technique. The procedure of direct histogram specification can be summarised as follows (see, for example, Reference 1):
(1) equalise the levels of the original image using a transformation function as in histogram equalisation
06 05 0 4 03 02 01
0 6,
( 2 ) specify the desired histogram and obtain the transformation fuction which is able to equalise the levels of the desired histogram
0 0
0-
3
C
4 d
p5
h Specified histogram
I=O
2 PArJ
j = 0, 1, . . . , M - 1
(I)
This type of error may be reduced by using the following () I new mapping law, suppose f / , = 0, I , ..., N - 1 is an integer function, that satisfies 0 S f ( 0 )Sf(/) . . . I f ( N - 1) I M - 1, then for I = 0, 1, ..., N - I , to determine f ( 1 ) which minimises:
Similarly, let p,(z,J, k = 0, 1, . . . , N - 1, represent the specified histogram: the transformation function that can produce its equalised version is
OI
I1
111)
,=U
pr(rt) -
k=O
f:
Pz(zk)
l=O,l,.,.,N-l
(4)
= c(zk) =
*=0
cP Z ( ~ ~ )
I = 0, 1, . . . , N
- 1
(2)
To obtain the specified histogram from the original histogram, we should map all p,(r,J, i = 0, 1, . .. , M - 1, into p,(z,), k = 0, 1, . . . N - 1, as indicated in step (3) of the above mentioned procedure. The mapping law employed in Reference 1 is: for , each s. j = 0, I , .. ., M - 1, determined by eqn. 1, to find its nearest ut (calculated according to eqn. 2), i.e. to find j and I that minimise
and if / = 0, map all p,(rJ, where i ranges from 0 to f(O),into p,(zo); if I2 I , map all p,(r,), where i ranges from f ( l - 1) 1 to f(l) into p,(z,). Here, each time a group of p,(r,J are mapped; therefore, this mapping law can be called the group mapping law (GML). The resulting histogram obtained by using the G M L from Fig. l a is shown in Fig. Id. Comparing Fig. Id with Fig. I b and c, it is obvious that the G M L is much better than the SML and the resulting histogram is quite close to the desired one.
and then map p,(r,J to p,(z,). Because each p,(r,) is mapped separately, this mapping law can be called the single mapping law (SML). Although this approach is quite intuitive and straightforward, it may, however, sometimes produce considerable
ELECTRONICS LETTERS
Comparison und discussion: Both mapping laws yield exact results only in the continuous case. With the discrete case, when the number of levels increases, the mapping error tends to decrease. Even in this case, however, the difference between the SML and G M L can still be significant. One reason is that in using the SML, for all p,(r,) mapped to one p,(z,J, several of them may be incorrectly mapped, whereas by using the GML, mapped to one p,(z,), only one p,(rJ has a contrifor all pr(rL) bution to the rounding off error. This can be seen from another example where the original histogram (shown in Fig. 2a and listed in Table I ) is determined from a coded image,
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Fig. 8.6 of Reference 1. In this case M = 32. It is desired to transform this histogram so that it will have the shape shown in Fig. 2b. The resulting histogram obtained by using the SML and G M L are shown in Fig. 2c and Fig. 2d, respectively. The accuracy of the G M L is again much better. Note here that, for example, according to the SML, all pr(r,), for i from
i
0
1
PJrJ
i
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
P,(r;)
i
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
PkJ
i
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
PkJ
L-
0 4 .
0 35
1
0
0 O2 5
'1
2 0
0 15
*Oi
0 ; 4 18 12 : 16 20 24 28 32 1: J
2 3 4 5 6 7
1 4
;0 0 5 O 0
04,
0 355
0 3
0250 2 0 20151
0 202
0 15
01
0 05 0
0 047
4 8 12 18 16 20 28 32
C
0O051
'1
Both mapping laws make some approximations in mapping the original histogram to the specified histogram, however, their expected error limits are different. From eqn. 3, it is easy to see that for one p,(ri) mapped to p,(zk), the maximum possible error when using the SML is p,(z,)/2, i.e. such an error depends on the value of each p,(zk), whereas from eqn. 4, it can be seen that the maximum possible error when using the M G M L is now p,(r,)/Z. Because N I , the expected value of the specified grey level will not be smaller than the expect value of the original grey level. When counting the number of errors produced, as in the preceding paragraph, the accuracy of the G M L should be superior. Moreover, from the above two examples, we note that some bias exists for the SML, as some mapped levels are shifted to the start mapping level, whereas for the GML, the expected shift is zero. It can be concluded that the results by using the G M L in direct histogram specifications should always be closer to the desired ones.
20th November 1991 Y. J. Zhang (Information Theory Group, Department o Electrical f Engineering, De@ University o Technology, PO Box 5031 2600 G A f Delft, The Netherlands)
Fig. 2 Comparison o mapping laws with histogram obtained from f coded image a Original histogram b Specified histogram c Resulting histogram obtained by using SML d Resulting histogram obtained by using GML
Reference
1 GONZALEZ, R. c., and WINTZ, 'Dlgital image processing' P.:
M. H. Er
Indexing ferms: Computer-aided design, Digitalfilters, Filters
A computer-aided technique for designing FIR digtal filters with close to linear phase property is presented. The approach IS based on a constrained optimisation problem
mean-square stopband coristraint. This formulation results in a quadratically constrained optimisation problem. The Letter presents an eficient numerical technique to obtain the optimal filter coeffcients. A computer-aided design approach is employed to achieve the desired filter specifications. Numerical results are presented to illustrate the effectiveness of the approach. Problem formulation: Consider an Nth order FIR filter with adjustable weights W = [W,, W,, .. ., W,]' and intertap delay spacing T . The frequency response of the filter is given by
N
designed to minimise the mean-square error between a desired response and the filter response over a passband of interest subject to a mean-square stopband constraint. Numerical results are presented to illustrate the performance achievable.
H(f)=
Introduction: Techniques for designing finite impulse response (FIR) digital filters to achieve a given set of specifications are well documented in the literature. There are basically three well-known classes of design technique for linear-phase FIR filters. namely, the window method, the frequency sampling, and optimal (in the Chebyshev sense) filter design methods [l], Each method is developed for a given class of problem. Vaidyanathan and Nguyen [2] presented a new method for designing linear-phase FIR filters by minimising a quadratic measure of the error in the passband and stopband. The method is based on the computation of an eigenvector of an appropriate real, symmetric and positive-definite matrix. In this Letter, a simple computer-aided design approach for designing FIR digital filters is presented. The basic idea is to minimise the mean-square error between a desired response and the filter response over a passband of interest subject to a
1 W, exp [-j2rrf(k
k=l
- I)T]
(1)
The mean-square error between the desired unity response and the filter response over a desired passband U,,, f,,] is given by
*l(k - 077
k , l = l , 2 ,..., N (3)
Vol. 28
No. 3
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E L E C T R O N I C S LETTERS