Settlements

9.1 Site: Land that a settlement is built on. People find it useful in locations of: Wet point- enough supply of water Dry point- poor supply of water Defense- places which you can defend yourself from attacks Shelter- good to have it in burning areas Aspect- where your place is positioned Gaps- Settlements in between hills Trade- Near to transporting areas for trade to happen and bring $ Resources- Farmland is very good.

The sites change. If its really good, the settlement will grow and adapt. They were more important in the past, but not so now because of technology. A settlement will grow anywhere if there is an economic reason. 9.2 Function: job or process Urban Function: is a process that happens in a town or city such as selling expensive and rare goods or have lots of entertainments etc. A hamlet is a group with only houses. A village has houses, one function, a meeting place and other important places. 9.3 Hierarchy- simpler word is ranking. Placing things into order of importance.

This shape of this pyramid shows a lot because if we look at a hamlet, it is on the bottom of the base; it has a large area meaning that there are lots of hamlets but fewer services in each one. Same as to a Conurbation, found in the top of the pyramid which shows that there a few conurbations but with the few that have, there are lots of services in each one There are 4 aspects to consider when locating a settlement hierarchy: Population Services (quantitative and qualitative) Size of land Capital (physical and human)

Sphere of Influence is the area surrounding a settlement that is affected by that settlement.

9.4

URBANISATION Rise in percentage of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas.

In MEDCs as the country industrialized many people from the rural areas went to towns and even cities to work for the factory owners, the new big thing. More than 90% is living in towns and cities since then. In LEDCs something else happens between the locals, droughts, civil wars, famine and landlessness. No chances for education, electricity, piped water etc and instead of becoming better it becomes worst. While LEDCs continue to grow, MEDCs are losing population. 9.5 Land uses Central Business District- CBD: Lots of things to see and do (entertainment and shops) Inner city: Small houses made for factory workers. Inner suburbs: Houses quite close together but more open space than inner city Outer suburbs: Houses small in groups, parks, woods and golf course Rural-urban fringe: Almost the country side.

9.6 Urban Zoning An Urban Zoning (areas of different land use in different areas) is what we saw on the last pg. the division into districts. The causes of this are: Cost of land Accessibility (the way to get to a place easily)

As far as you get from the CBD, the price of land gets cheaper. 9.7 Urban Problems in MEDCs The inner city has high levels of deprivation (poorest zone of most MEDC cities) When the factories developed in the 19 century, factory owners made some very small houses for their workers to live and would stuff a lot of them together, after some time, these factories closed because they ran out of resources and machines were too old, with this unemployment rose, single parents,
th

students, low paid and low skilled. Since then they have been trying to improve these things in the inner city such as cleaning canals, social building housing and stylish bars and restaurants. This provides many jobs. 9.8 Urban Problems in LEDCs In LEDCs such as Brazil, there is a something called shanty town (favelas) that is a community that springs up in an area that used to have no houses. They have no running supply, lack of health care, crime, drugs and many more problems inside them. There is lots of diseases and poverty. A squatter is someone who settles the land without legal rights. 9.9 Urban models of LEDCs

9.11

Urban Sprawl

Growth in the towns are resulting in rural-urban fridge (where urban reaches rural), this is growing to a bad way. Many MEDCs cities are losing population, who are going to smaller towns and villages nearby, this is called counter- urbanization. They are moving to villages because of the crime, the pollution, traffic, and others. They want better transport and peace and no noise, where they can have in the countryside. But, this amount of people going to the countryside can damage the wildlife; give off more air and noise pollution and other naturalists damages

Tourism
Main causes of Tourism Technology has grown a lot in the past few years which brought benefits to transportation methods, which made people more accessible to places in a much easier and faster way. It has intimidated more people to want to discover more cultures. Main advantages Brings more money to the country Souvenirs are sold giving more money for the locals to by more food, and attend more entertaining acts.

Main disadvantages

Pollution Increase in land cost (depending on if it is a beach) Locals are disturbed (maybe because of the loud music) Lack of water Less culture as people disappear

Coastal processes, Landforms and Management

Waves are caused by the friction of the wind on the surface of the water. The wind tugs cause the water to move, and each water particle moves in a circular motion and it returns to its starting point. It moves into the shallow water, until it breaks. Waves rushing up the beach are called the swash, waves draining back down the beach are called the backwash. Factors that make the wave bigger and stronger: Speed of the Wind (most important) The time the wind blows The fetch (length of water the wind blows over) The larger the fetch, the more powerful the wave.

Constructive waves- smaller waves which deposit material in the beach because the swash is stronger than the backwash. (Spilling waves) Destructive waves- stronger waves which erode the beach because the backwash is stronger than the swash. (Plugging waves) Coastal Erosion Waves crash against the rock non- stop, with lots of these happenings, the rock ends up broken. Attrition- when pebbles dash themselves against the shore and brake into smaller particles and later form sand Hydraulic Action- when the waves hit very strongly into the cracks of the cliff, air is pressured into the cracks. When the wave sinks back again the air is pressured out and the cliff hole expands and becomes bigger and deeper Corrosion: When seawater reacts chemically with the minerals in the rock. By doing that it wears away the rock. Abrasion- When pebbles and boulders hit the base of the cliff and together with the waves, it destroys the base of the cliff, undercutting the base.

Spits are long and narrow ridges of sand running away from the cost which one end is attached to the land. Long shirt drift, relative shallow sea, good supply of sand and a firmly calm sea with constructive waves, all of this things help to form a spit.

1. 2. 3.
4.

Longshore drift moves material along the coastline. A spit forms when the material is deposited. Over time, the spit grows and develops a hook if wind direction changes further out. Waves cannot get past a spit, which creates a sheltered area where silt is deposited and mud flats or salt marshes form.

Bars are a line of sand and other materials that run parallel to the coast line. They block rivers mouths and bays. The water behind is called LAGOON. The lagoos dont last forever because the waves erode the bars and the lagoon and sea get together.

Tombolos are ridges of sand and other materials that link the main land to an island

Headland - geographical feature which borders the ocean; its formation is done by erosion of the coast. Cave- underground space Arch- structure that spans when supporting weight Stack- pile of something Sandy beaches sandy beaches Lagoon a body of shallow sea water or brackish water separated from the sea by some form of barrier. Salt marshes an environment in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and salty or brackish water Sand dunes- hill of sand Wave cut platform - narrow flat area often found at the base of a sea cliff or along the shoreline of a lake, bay, or sea that was eroded by the waves

LONGSHORE DRIFT Is the process by which material is moved along a stretch of coastline

The wind causes the waves direction to move therefore the material is carried to the opposite way. It is the link between erosion and deposition, along the coast, as the eroded material is deposited further along the coastline.

To stop long shore drift, the government on risk areas have adapted Groynes They interrupt the process of long shore drift as they are wooden and strong! This prevents the material from the beaches from being transported. One problem with this is that is causes less material to be transported along the coast line- so this means that other places (along the coast) can suffer increased erosion Changes in sea level Raised beaches- old beaches which are left high above the new sea level Rias- seaward end of a river valley that has been drowned by a rise in sea level Fjords- long, narrow bay caused by the drowning of a glaciated valley

Global warming increases sea level as more ice will melt and water expands in volume when it is warmed. This will cause more erosion of coastlines as there will be more water, and our defenses wont be enough. Management of coastlines How can we stop coastal erosion? Using hard engineering!

Sea walls- can stop waves reaching valuable land Rock armour- large barrier of rocks which reduce the impact of waves Beach replenishment- add more sand and shingle.

Sustainable strategy: If land and houses are worth less than the defenses will cost, do not defend them Think about the effect of defense on other places When planning land use along the coast in the future, always keep erosion on your mind.

Tectonic Activity and Land-based hazards

As you move towards the core, it becomes denser! There are 2 types of crust: Oceanic crust (made of basalt) , so dense that it sinks into the mantle where oceanic and continental crust meet Continental crust is the crust that makes the continents.

The map shows where the plates which make up the outer crust of the earth are located

The mantle below the earth is liquid (very liquid) but it still moves. It is heated from the core which makes the convection currents and the broken pieces of the crust get moved around on convection currents.

PLATE MARGINS Conservative -> (moving against each other ) when there is friction between the plates, one plate moves faster than the other one, causes pressure and lead to earthquakes.

Constructive -> (moving apart) the magma cools down several times so it starts to form mountains and islands in the middle of the sea. You often find eruptions at these margins.

Collision - > (two continental plates pushing into each other) Neither of them can sink as they have the same density so they squeeze upwards, forming mountains.

Destructive - > The oceanic crust is denser than the continental one, so the oceanic sinks. The friction between these two plates causes friction. The edge of the continental crust gets squashed up to make fold mountains. The oceanic rust melts and goes into the mantle, but it takes some sea water (less dense) so it the magma rises and it explodes at the surface as a volcano. They form fold mountains Just to remember:

Advantage of living next to volcanoes Volcanic rock weathers to produce soil ideal for farming Disadvantages of living next to a volcano. You live under a certain pressure The volcano produces ash clouds which can cause deaths by asphyxiation A mudflow mixed with volcanic ash follows river valleys at very high speed.

Intrusive and Extrusive features of a volcano

Volcanic Hazards
Causes: Volcanoes are formed when magma is forced through the crust. It happens on destructive margins because the melted crust is less dense than the rest of the mantle. If there are gases involved, they can escape as the magma gets higher, they cause an explosion. If there is old solidified lava (called plug) blocking the way, the gases and the magma break out in the side of the volcano. Effects: Ash cloud comes out and can cause deaths by asphyxiation, a mud flow made of water mixed with volcanic ash, slides down at high speeds and follows the rivers paths. Solutions: When a seismometer detects any rising magma, it should send an alert signal for immediate evacuation of the area so that no people die and suffer from the ash clouds.

Earthquake Hazards
Causes: The underlying cause of earthquakes is friction. When the plates try to move, they are still held by friction, this can be with another plate or with the mantle. The force pushing the plate continues pushing until there so much force that it overcomes friction and the plate jerks forward causing what we call earthquakes. Effects: The amount of energy an earthquake gives out is called magnitude, and we measure this energy on the Richter scale (if you go up 1 point on the scale = 10 x bigger and 30x more energy is given out)

Solutions: Run away. Keep something like a table where you can go under for protection in case anything falls from the ceiling. Go somewhere where there isnt anything on top, as it going to fall.

Tsunami
Formation: Tsunamis are formed as a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides that occur under the sea. When these events occur under the water, huge amounts of energy are released as a result of quick upward bottom movement. For example, if a volcanic eruption occurs, the ocean floor may very quickly move upward several hundred feet. When this happens, huge volumes of ocean water are pushed upward and a wave is formed. A large earthquake can lift thousands of square kilometers of sea floor which will cause the formation of huge waves. The Pacific Ocean is especially prone to tsunamis as a result of the large amount of undersea geological activity. Effects: Massive physical damage. It is difficult to predict how big they are but the safest thing to do is go to a very high place, so you are not hit.

Ecosystems: Tropical Rainforests & Savannahs Deforestation& Desertification

An ecosystem is a unit made up of 2 parts: living things (plants animals) and the environment (air, water, soil and climate). A biome is a large ecosystem (rain forest is one biome). A biome is mainly determined by climate because it affects the growth conditions of vegetation as: Temperature varies according to latitude (higher latitudes, more cooler temperatures) Precipitation- the amount of rain and snow is measured by the atmospheric pressure. High pressure = dry and settled conditions, low pressure = cloudy and wet conditions) E.g At the equator sun heats up very strongly causing warm moist air to rise, as it cools a giant cumulonimbus form by convection to produce heaving rain, as the air is rising, the air pressure is low. However, the warm air is also rising because of 2 prevailling trade winds colliding at the equator region which is called Inter- Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Number of sunshine hours (photosynthesis) Rates of evaporation, transpiration and humidity

Characteristics of Rain Forests

The way the Forest is divided into four distinct layers is all due to the availability of light (plants need for photosynthesis). The emergent trees and the canopy are the one which receive most light. The ones in the under canopy have to wait for their chance to have some availability as they are shorter. The growth of the shrub layer is more limited, as it is located in the forests floor.

Some trees have buttress roots which are the roots which support them in shallow soil. Lianas woody climbing vines which drape the forest. Epiphytes- plants that grow in branches of the trees Soil and nutrient cycle of the forest

Deforestation Causes: Logging- wood is highly disputed for consumption to make paper Mining- causes deforestation as it needs to make clear access to the resources Cattle Ranching- needs large area for cattle extract Building roads- you build roads to have the mining area access so trees are brought down to build roads Peasant farming- urban centers are full so the government has set settlements to the farmers live forests were burnt down for the making of these off cities.

Effects: Floodwater from heavy rain runs across deforested area (nothing to stop it) -> top soil eroded and taken to river - > Rivers become silted and burst their banks -> crops flood -> famine -> sanitation is ruined -> more diseases. Sustainable management strategies: Afforestation- planting of new trees once mature have been felled, guarantees the canopy. Selective Logging a tree can only be felled when they have matured. Helps preserve the canopy Tree measuring- tree can only be felled once it has reached a certain height, ensuring younger trees have chance of survival Forest reserves- areas which cannot be harmed Agro forestry- combination of growing trees with agricultural crops. Farmers take advantage of the protective canopy and the supplying material of the decomposing plant matter. Education- teaching other people how to protect the future!

Savanna Grasslands It is the climate between tropical rainforests and deserts. It has Alternative seasons in wet and dry (wet season= lots of rain, 25C/ dry season = little rain, 30C/ wind direction = moderate strong winds blow ) Poor soil conditions Special plants (xerophytic drought resistant)

Desertification land degradation Takes place when human and climatic processes combine to reduce the ability of the land to support vegetation. Causes: Over cultivation- as population has increased, there is demand for more food, this will exhaust the land and its nutrients and this causes soil erosion through water and wind Deforestation- as population has increased, there is demand for more wood, so this will bring the cutting down of trees and this will expose the soil to erosion. Climate Change- the Sahel is becoming dryer, the underground water have been used up.

Consequences: Millions of hectares being lost No more crops in the savannas Starvation and famine Long droughts

Solution: Farmers diversifying into a variety of trees and crops as the vegetation will put supply of nutrients to the soil Rather than taking a whole tree, take branches, theyll grow back quickly Control burning of grasses to prevent the spread of devastating wildfires.

Climate Hazards and Change

Tropical Storms Causes: A hurricane can only develop in the conditions of:
The warm water (27C) of the sea to a depth of 60 m, is the source energy of a hurricane. It is transferred to the storms latent heat through evaporation . When the water vapour condenses and turns into clouds, the latent heat is released, adding to the storms power. When the hurricane reaches the land , this source of energy is cut and the storm weakens Low latitudes meaning that trade winds can form the spiral winds due to the earths rotation , this force is known as the Coriolis force Low atmospheric shear- for storms to maintain intact, they need to be close to ground level and 12 km in height.

Effects:
Destruction of homes Deaths (drowning ) Tornadoes , widespread flooding , landslides

Solutions:
Warnings can save lives Advances in tecnology Police will force people to move to safety

Effects in an MEDC:
80% of the people managed to survive (20% was the poor who had no transport) 1 million people were made homeless Oil facilities were damaged and fuel reserves were reduced so prices went up.

Responses in MEDCs

Evacuation was 80% successful Government released initially 50 million dollars for the rescue programme UK sent 1 million army ready metals to help

Effects in an LEDC:
Caused less deaths but it was also a weaker hurricane Damaged many roads No access to clean water, nor electricity

Responses in LEDCs :
6 million people without electricity Declared major disaster US paid lots of money for the reparations

Global Warming
Rise in temperature of the earths atmosphere The main cause of global warming is the abuse of what we can greenhouse effect. Without the greenhouse effect the Earth would be too cold for life The sun heats up the Earths atmosphere and some of this solar energy is reflected back. This is called the normal CO levels- what we need. But now with this increased layer of CO and greenhouse gases, the light is getting trapped in the atmosphere and heating up the earth rapidly.

Human activity is putting more greenhouse gases into the atmosphere by: Burning fossil fuels Cutting down forests Farming animals waste produce methane

Effects:
POSITIVE Better food output as there is more energy More plants growing Heating bills are lower

NEGATIVE More deserts Too much increase in temperature can cause dehydration Rise in sea level Health problems as disease will spread quickly Lakes and rivers dry up Plants can become extinct because of the heat

Solutions:
Kyoto Agreement- protocol signed to control this climate change. Countries agreed to reduce their emissions of CO, methane and other greenhouse gases Conserve water and water resources Save energy Ride a bicycle- cars emit greenhouse gases Plant trees in your backyard.

Changes in sea level

With global warming, the sea level rises meaning that: There will be more storms at sea Erosion on the coast will happen quicker Homes and lands will be lost without sea defenses Maybe the sea defenses wont be strong enough to support the flow of the water

Acid Rain
Acid rain is a corrosive rain resulting from air pollution. The main polluters are sulphur dioxide (coming from thermal power stations and industry) and nitrogen oxygen (coming from thermal power stations and motor exhaust vehicles.) The pollutants carry by wind across international boundaries. Some are deposited directly on the earths surface, the majority is turned into acids and fall on the ground acidifying the soil. Effects: Destruction of tree roots (so destroys trees) Makes freshwater acidic, kills fishes More acidic soils so less quality of crops Destruction of statues and building Other places are also being polluted as acid rain is an international problem as the polluting winds ignore political boundaries so the place which didnt cause anything is also affected

Solutions: Burning of natural gas has to be reduced Burn coal, which contains less sulphur, removing the sulphur form coal before burning it Use another type of boiler which allows the sulphur dioxide to remain in the ash Removing sulphur form waste gases after using it Use latter method (sulphur dioxide +water). Turns the gas into sulphuric acid and adds lime to neutralize it

Unfortunately, these methods are too expensive and increase the cost of electricity to the user. Emissions from cars have been reduced by using the unleaded petrol and fuel injection.