Chapter 8

Input is sinusoidal
Steady state output
will be sinusoidal with
same frequency for
linear systems
amplitude and phase
will vary with
frequency
Example :
1 s
1
(s) G
r (t) = sin

t
2 2
s
(s) R
e
e
) s ( 1) (s
(s) C
2 2
e
e

s
1

s
s
-
1 s
1


) (1

2 2 2 2
2
e e
e
e
C (s) =
C (t) =
t sin

1
t cos - e

) (1

t -
2
(

+
+
e
e
e
e
e
In steady state
) - t ( sin
1

(t) C
2
u e
e
1
where = tan
1

Examine
G (s) with s = j
1 j
1
) (j G
e
e
tan
1
1

-1
2
Hence when input is
Sin t
) t ( sin ) j ( G
state steady in put out
u e e
) j ( G
where
e u
Hence we plot
magnitude and phase
angle of as a
function of frequency
G ( j )
- frequency response
- sinusoidal transfer
function.
put s = j in the
transfer function
1 s
1
(s) G
1 j
1
) (j G
e
e
tan
1
1

-1
2
Bode plot
magnitude as a
function of frequency
phase angle as a
function of frequency
Polar plot
For a particular
frequency, mark ( r, )
on the polar graph,
Where r is magnitude &
is phase angle.
P
r
Example
1 j
1
) (j G
e
e
1
1
) ( M
2
e
e
( ) = - tan
1

= 0 M = 1 = 0

= M = 0 = - 90

= 1 M = 2
1
= - 45
. .
P
1

P
2

P
3

2 1
.
e =
e = 0
- 45
Polar plot of
1 s
1
(s) G
.
.
circle
1
e=
e=0
It can be proved that
the plot is a semi circle
2
1
1 j -

j e
e
e 1
1
2 2
1

j -
1
1

e
e
e
quadrant fourth to
confined be will
plot the , positive
always being e
. .
1
2
e 1
1
.
2

e
e
1
2
2
e + 1
1
2
e
e
1
2

1
j
e
e
) 1 (s
(s) G
s
1
) 1 j ( j
) (j G
e e
e
1
Ex:
2
1
) ( M
e e
e
1
e e | tan - 90 - ) (
-1
= 0, M = = -90
= M = 0 = - 180

) 1 j ( j
) (j G
e e
e
1
) 1 (
) 1 j - ( j

2 2
e e
e e
) 1 (
j -

2 2
2
e e
e e
1
1
- (R) part Real
2
1) (
j

(X) part Imaginary
2
Plot in
third
quadrant
= 0 , R = - 1
X = - j
- 1
= 0
e =
2
) 1 (s
(s) G
1
2
1) (j
) (j G
e
e
1
Ex:
1
1
) ( M
2
e e |
-1
tan 2 - ) ( =
= 0, M = 1 = 0
= M = 0 = - 180
2
1) (j
) (j G
e
e
1
2 2
2
) 1 (
) 1 j - (

e
e
2 2
2
) 1 (
- j 2 - 1

e
e e
2 2
2
1) (
- 1
R
e
e
2 2
1) (
2
j - X
e
e
Real part = 0
Imaginary axis crossing
at = 1 rad / sec.

= 1, x = - j 0.5
Polar plot of
2
1) (s
1
.
1
3
) 1 (s
(s) G
1
3
1) (j
) (j G
e
e
1
Ex:
1
2
1
) ( M
3
e e |
-1
tan 3 - ) ( =
0 1 M , 0 | e
270 - 0 M , | e
3
1) (j
1
) (j G
3 2
3
) 1 (
) 1 j - (

3 2
2 2
) 1 (
) 3 ( j ) 3 - (1

3 2
2
1) (
3 - 1
R
3 2
2
1) (
3
j X
Real part = 0
Imaginary axis crossing
at = 1 / 3 rad / sec.

Imaginary part = 0
Real axis crossing at
= 3 rad / sec.

3
1) (s

1
.
1
Polar plot of
1 s
(s) G
1
Ex:
1 j
) (j G
e
e
1
1
1
) ( M
2
e
e
e
e |
1 -
tan 180 -
) (
+
=
( Hows that ? )
.
-1
j
e u tan
e u
-1
tan
e e |
-1
tan - 180 - ) (
2
1
) ( M
e
e
1
e
e |
-1
tan 180 -
) (
180 - 1, M , 0 | e
90 - 0, M , | e
1 j
) (j G
e
e
1
2
1
1 j -

e
e
,
1
1
R
2
e
always negative
,
1
j - X
2
e
e
always negative
.
.
circle
-1
Polar plot of
1 s
1

2) (s 1) (s s
K
(s) G
2) (j 1) (j j
K
) (j G
e e e
e
Ex:
4 1
K
) ( M
2 2
e e e
e
2 tan - tan 90 -
) (
-1 -1
e e
e |
90 - M , 0 | e
270 - 0 M , | e
) (4 ) 1 (
K 2) j (- 1) j (- j -
) (j G
2 2 2
e e e
e e e
e
,
) (4 ) 1 (
K 3
R
2 2
e e
Always negative
) (4 ) 1 (
K ) 2 - ( j
X
2 2
2
e e e
e e
0 X , sec / rad 2
0 X , sec / rad 2
0 X , sec / rad 2
sec / rad 2 at , 0 X
real axis crossing
6 K - 2 at R
2) (s ) 1 (s s
K
.
.
6 K -
Polar plot of
2) (s ) 1 (s
) 1 - s ( K
(s) G
Ex:
2) (j 1) (j
) 1 - j ( K
) (j G
e e
e
e
4
K
) ( M
2
e
e
2 tan -
tan - tan 180
) (
-1
-1 -1
e
e e
e |
180 2, K M , 0 | e
90 - 0 M , | e
4) ( ) 1 (
2) j (- 1) j (- 1) j (- K
) (j G
2 2
e e
e e e
e
4) ( ) 1 (
2) - ( K
R
2 2
2
e e
e 4
= 0 imaginary axis
crossing
rad/sec.
2 1 t a e
K/3 2 j 2 1 at X e
4) ( ) 1 (
) - ( K j
X
2 2
2
e e
e e 5
= 0 real axis
crossing
Real axis crossing at
0 - 5
2
e
sec. / rad 5 e
3 K 5 at R e
2) (s ) 1 (s
) 1 - s ( K

+ +
. .
.
.
2 K
3 K
K 3 2 j
|
.
|

\
|
Polar plot of
Bode plot
) ( j
e ) (j G ) j ( G
Taking natural log of both sides
) ( j
) (j G ln ) j ( G ln
e u
e e
) ( j
e log
) (j G log
) j ( G log
e u
e
e
) ( j 434 .
) (j G log
e u
e
0
graph semilog
on log versus ) (
and ) (j G log 20 plot
e e u
e
scale linear magnitude
scale log e
. b d or decibel
in ) j ( G log 20 e
Ex:
T j 1
1
) j ( G
e
e
T
T
tan -

1
1

1 -
2 2
e
e
2 1 - 2 2
1 log 20
) j ( G log 20
T e
e
) 1 ( log 10 -
2 2
T e
for frequencies
, 1 T e
(1) g o l 0 1 -
) j ( G g o l 0 2 e
= 0 db
For high frequencies
, 1 T e
) T ( g o l 0 1 -
) j ( G g o l 0 2
2 2
e
e
T g o l 0 2 - e
T g o l 0 2 -
g o l 0 2 - e
Value is zero db
, T 1 At e
. .
.
0
db
-20
0 db line
T 1 e
T 10 e
e log
The db magnitude
plot for
, 1 T e
is a straight line with
-20 per unit change in
log e
1 log or
1 2
e e
1 2
10 or e e
This slop is - 20 db/decade
or
-6 db / octave
The straight line
approximation is
called asymptotic plot
Two asymptotes meet
at the corner
frequency 1 / T.
To get actual plot,
T 1 0 for e
1 log 10 ) T 1 ( log 10 -
error
2 2
2 log 10 - error
,
T
1
at e
= - 3 db
1 log 10
) 4 1 1 ( log 10 -
T 2
1
at error e
= - 1 db
T 1 for e
T log 20 ) T 1 (
log 10 - error
2 2
e e
1 log 20
(2) log 10 - error
,
T
1
at e
= - 3 db
2 log 20
4) 1 ( log 10 - error
,
T
2
at e
= - 1 db
Ex:
Bode plot for
) 1 s ( s
) 2 s ( 5
(s) G
1) (j j
2) (j 5
) j ( G
e e
e
e
) 1 j (1 j
) 2 j (1 10

e e
e
10 20 log 10
= 20 db
constant for all
frequencies
e
e e
log 20 -

1
log 20
j
1
It is a straight line
with - 20 db/decade
slope ; passes
through 0 db line
for
e = 1 rad/sec
rad/sec 2 frequency corner
) 2 j 1 (
decade / db 20 , 2
db 0 , 2
rad/sec 1 frequency corner

) j (1
1
decade / db 20 - , 1
db 0 , 1
db
20
e log
db
.
e log
1
- 20 db/decade
db
. .
e log
2
+ 20 db/decade
0 db
db
.
e log
1
- 20 db/decade
0 db
20
e log
db
.
1 2
- 20 db/decade
- 20 db/decade
- 40 db/decade
.
0.1
40
8
20
-12
0 db line
Frequency Response of
Second Order Systems
Critically damped system
2
) 1 (
1
) (
+
=
s
s G
0 < e < 1 0 db/decade
e > 1 - 40 db/decade
Corner frequencies (rad/sec): 1, 1

Overdamped system
) 2 1 )( 1 (
1
) (
s s
s G
+ +
=
Corner frequencies (rad/sec) : 1, 0.5
0 < e < 0.5 0 db/decade
0.5 < e < 1 - 20 db/decade
e > 1 - 40 db/decade
db
e log
- 40 db/decade
0 db line
2
1
40
- 20 db/decade
0.1
Ex:
db
e log
- 40 db/decade
0 db line
0.5
40
- 20 db/decade
0.1
Ex:
db
e log
- 40 db/decade
0 db line
0.5
26
- 20 db/decade
0.1
Ex:
0
e log
32 db
.
.
1 5
.
0.5
Slopes in db/octave
db
Corner frequencies( rad/sec): 0.5 , 1, 5
+ 12 db / octave : s
2

) 0.5 / s (1
1
: octave / db 6
) s 1 (
1
: db 0
) 5 / s 1 (
1
: db 6 -
.
.
0.5
1
26
32
6
e log
db
6
38
20 log K = 38
K = 79.8
) s 0.2 1 ( ) s 1 ( ) 2s 1 (
s 8 . 9 7
(s) G
2
Gain margin & phase margin
.
.
.
- a
- 1
|
Gain margin =
a
1
for stable system a <1
hence Gain Margin is +ve
=20 log(1/a) db
Phase margin(|)
=ZG(je)H(je) + 180
phase margin is + ve for
stable system
e= e
1

e log
180 -
0
db
PM
GH Z
e log
GM
Gain Cross Over Freq.
Phase Cross Over Freq.
Frequency
Response of
Second Order
Under damped
Systems
Put s = je to get
the sinusoidal transfer function
) s 2 s (
) s ( R
) s ( C
2
n n
2
2
n
e + ,e +
e
=
u
n
=
e
e
Put normalised driving
Signal frequency
2
n n
2
2
n
) (j 2 ) (j

) R(j
) C(j
+ e , + e
=
e
e
u 2 j u 1
1
2
, +
=
2 / 1 2 2
] ) u 2 ( ) u 1 [(
1
M
, +
=
]
u 1
u 2
[ tan
2
1

,
= |

u = 0 M = 1 | = 0
u = 1 M = 1/2, | = -t/2
u = M = 0 | = - t
( )
u u u
u
for
u
u
log 40 log 20 1
0 1
4 ) u - (1 log 20
) j ( G log 20
2
2 1 2 2 2 2
= ~ >>
~ <<
+
=
,
Correlation between time &
frequency response:
Steady state output
for r(t) = Sin et
c(t) = M Sin(et+|)
0
du
dM
=
will give resonant
Frequency where
M is max.
u = u
r
u
r
: Normalised resonant frequency
2
r
2
n r
2
r
1 2
1
M
2 1
2 1 u
Where
u
r
: Normalised resonant freq
e
r
: resonant freq
M
r
: resonant peak value
M
M
r

1.0
0.707
0
e
r
e
c
e
Bandwidth
Typical magnification curve of a feedback control system
e
r
resonant frequency
e
c
cut off frequency

Bandwidth
where
The range of frequncies over which
M> 1/\2 (-3 db)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0.2 0.6 1 1.4 1.8
Normalized
bandwidth
u
b

Bandwidth versus damping factor
,
0.707
2
n d
d
p
1
p
1
t
e M
2
,
t ,

Frequency domain
Time domain
2
n r
2
r
2 1
1 2
1
M
, e = e
, ,
=
For
2
1
= ,
r
= 0
M
r
= 1
2
n r
2
r
2 1
1 2
1
M
0 <,<1/\2 e
r
< e
n

M
r
>1

ng1=[0 0 1];
dg1=[0 1 1];
bode(ng1,dg1)
ng1=[0 0 1];
dg1=[0 1 1];
bode(ng1,dg1)
grid % To show the Grid lines
ng1=[0 0 1];
dg1=[0 1 1];
w=logspace(-2,3,100);
bode(ng1,dg1,w)
% to generate a vector of 100
points logarithmically
equally spaced, including
boundary points.
ng1=[0 0 1];
dg1=[0 1 1];
w=logspace(-2,3,100);
bode(ng1,dg1,w)
title('Bode Plot for G(s) = 1/(1+s)');

ng1=[0 0 1];
dg1=[0 1 1];
sys=tf(ng1,dg1);
bode(sys)
[Gm,pm,wcp,wcg]= margin(sys);
Gmdb = 20*log10(Gm);
[Gmdb pm wcp wcg]
title('Bode Plot for G(s) = 1/(s+1)');
ans =
Inf -180 NaN 0
ng1=[0 0 1];
dg1=[1 2 1];
w=logspace(-2,3);
bode(ng1,dg1,w)
[mag,phase,w]=bode(ng1,dg1,w);
[Mp,k]=max(mag);
resonant_peak=20*log10(Mp)
resonant_frequency=w(k)

% generates a vector of 50 points
logarithmically equally spaced,
including boundary points.
ng1=[0 0 1];
dg1=[1 2 1]; % Critically Damped System
bode(ng1,dg1)

ng1=[0 0 1];
dg1=[1 3 2]; % Over Damped System
bode(ng1,dg1)

ng1=[0 2 3]; % adding a zero between two poles
dg1=[1 3 2];
bode(ng1,dg1)

ng1=[0 0 1];
dg1=[1 1 1];
dg2=[1 0.8 1];
dg3=[1 0.6 1];
dg4=[1 0.4 1];
dg5=[1 0.2 1];
dg6=[1 0.001 1];

bode(ng1,dg1,'b')
hold on
bode(ng1,dg2,'r')
hold on
bode(ng1,dg3,'g')
hold on
bode(ng1,dg4,'y')
hold on
bode(ng1,dg5,'*')
hold on
bode(ng1,dg6,'-')
hold on
hold off
title('bode diagram for different under damped systems')