A drug, broadly speaking, is any substance that, when absorbed into the body of a living organism, alters normal

bodily function.[3] There is no single, precise definition, as there are different meanings in drug control law, government regulations, medicine, and colloquial usage.[4] In pharmacology, a drug is "a chemical substance used in the treatment, cure, prevention, or diagnosis of disease or used to otherwise enhance physical or mental well-being."[4] Drugs may be prescribed for a limited duration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders.[5] The molecules of drugs are complex, and most of them consist of many hydrogen and carbon atoms, a few oxygen atoms, and one or a few nitrogen atoms. Drugs may also have no nitrogen atoms in it and many may have chlorine atoms in it, such as chloral hydrate. Recreational drugs are chemical substances that affect the central nervous system, such as opioids or hallucinogens.[5] They may be used for perceived beneficial effects on perception, consciousness, personality, and behavior.[5][6] Some drugs can cause addiction and/or habituation.[6] Drugs are usually distinguished from endogenous biochemicals by being introduced from outside the organism.[citation needed] For example, insulin is a hormone that is synthesized in the body; it is called a hormone when it is synthesized by the pancreas inside the body, but if it is introduced into the body from outside, it is called a drug.[citation needed] Many natural substances, such as beers, wines, and psychoactive mushrooms, blur the line between food and recreational drugs, as when ingested they affect the functioning of both mind and body and some substances normally considered drugs such as DMT (Dimethyltryptamine) are actually produced by the human body in trace amounts.

Etymology
Drug is thought to originate from Old French "drogue", possibly deriving later into "droge-vate" from Middle Dutch meaning "dry barrels", referring to medicinal plants preserved in them.[7]

Medication
A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure and/or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness or medical condition, or may be used as preventive medicine that has future benefits but does not treat any existing or pre-existing diseases or symptoms. Dispensing of medication is often regulated by governments into three categoriesover-the-counter (OTC) medications, which are available in pharmacies and supermarkets without special restrictions, behind-thecounter (BTC), which are dispensed by a pharmacist without needing a doctor's prescription, and prescription only medicines (POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional, usually a physician.[citation needed] In the United Kingdom, BTC medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold in registered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a pharmacist. These medications are designated by the letter P on the label.[8] The range of medicines available without a prescription varies from country to country. Medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical companies and are often patented to give the developer exclusive rights to produce them, but they can also be derived from naturally occurring substance in plants called herbal medicine.[citation needed] Those that are not patented (or with expired patents) are called generic drugs since they can be produced by other companies without restrictions or licenses from the patent holde

How do drugs work? Drugs are chemicals or substances that change the way our bodies work. When you put them into your body (often by swallowing, inhaling, or injecting them), drugs find their way into your bloodstream and are transported to parts of your body, such as your brain. In the brain, drugs may either intensify or dull your senses, alter your sense of alertness, and sometimes decrease physical pain. A drug may be helpful or harmful. The effects of drugs can vary depending upon the kind of drug taken, how much is taken, how often it is used, how quickly it gets to the brain, and what other drugs, food, or substances are taken at the same time. Effects can also vary based on the differences in body size, shape, and chemistry.

Understanding "what are drugs?" is fundamental to understanding their potential abuse. A drug is any biological substance, synthetic or non-synthetic, that is taken primarily for non-dietary needs. Most of the drugs are systemic that is they act on all parts of the body that they get to. A psychoactive drug is something which acts on the brain & CNS and affects how we feel, think or behave. The term drugs also cover a number of substances that are taken under the medical supervision of a Doctor to treat illness. Further drugs also mean a legally controlled substance including marijuana, cocaine, amphetamines, opiates, and phencyclidine (PCP).

What are drugs: Source of drugs Drugs were earlier made from the plant sources i.e. they were extracted from plants. Examples are coca paste, opium and marijuana. Further processing of the plant crudes can give drugs like cocaine and heroin. Now we have drugs that are prepared from chemicals. They are synthetic drugs like speed, ecstasy, LCD etc. Today lot of designer drug cocktails are also available and abuse of these are leading to serious problems in the society.

What are drugs: Legal and Illegal drugs

Drugs are both legal and illegal. Illegal drugs are drugs like cannabis, ecstasy and cocaine. Illegal drugs are against law and they also include drugs like speed, heroin, LSD and magic mushrooms. There are many drugs which are legal but still they have potential to cause harm to the body and mind like alcohol, headache tablets, cigarettes and glue. Addiction to them is potentially very dangerous for the overall health of the individual. Most of the legal drugs are actually used as medicines and are available to the patient through a doctors prescription. One Example is tranquilisers. A doctor gives a special letter called prescription which has to be given to the chemist and he provides the drugs to the patients.

What are drugs: Different types of Drugs Medicines Are Legal Drugs- These drugs are prescribed by Doctors to treat diseases and can be purchased through a doctors prescription which has to be presented at the chemist shop where these drugs are sold. Cigarettes and Alcohol-They are legally permitted to be consumed by the general population beyond a permissible age limit but have serious short term and long term health problems in case of addiction. Illegal Drugs-Abuse of illegal drugs like marijuana, ecstasy, LCD, crystal meth and heroin has deadly and lethal consequences. What are drugs: Class A, B and C drugs

Illegal drugs are put in different categories and Class A drugs are considered to the most harmful. Examples are heroin, cocaine, Ecstasy and LSD. Class B drugs include amphetamines such as speed and barbiturates. Class C drugs include cannabis, tranquillisers, valium and anabolic steroids. Possession and transaction of all these drugs are illegal and warrant penalties and punishments according to the class of drugs with Class A at the top of the list for severity of penalties and punishments. What are drugs: Drugs can seriously harm our body and mind Drugs affect the body in different ways. Illegal drugs are the most dangerous and can cause hallucinations that is seeing and perceiving strange things under the influence of these drugs, false sense of security, feeling of otherworldliness, cutting off from the reality of the world, overall general sickness, depression, liver and kidney related problems. Illegal drugs can kill the person and overdose of any drug is potentially lethal. Too much alcohol can cause liver failure, smoking can cause lung and mouth cancer and serious heart and stomach problems. Moreover all illegal drugs and drugs like alcohol and smoking nicotine can cause serious addiction problems and destroy life itself. WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE William Shakespeare was baptized April 26, 1564, in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. From roughly 1594 onward he was an important member of the Lord Chamberlains Men company of theatrical players. Written records give little indication of the way in which Shakespeares professional life molded his artistry. All that can be deduced is that over the course of 20 years, Shakespeare wrote plays that capture the complete range of human emotion and conflict.
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Quotes

All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players
William Shakespeare prev1 / 5next Profile

Known throughout the world, the works of William Shakespeare have been performed in countless hamlets, villages, cities and metropolises for more than 400 years. And yet, the personal history of William Shakespeare is somewhat a mystery. There are two primary sources that provide historians with a basic outline of his life. One source is his work--the plays, poems and sonnets--and the other is official documentation such as church and court records. However, these only provide brief sketches of specific events in his life and provide little on the person who experienced those events. Though no birth records exist, church records indicate that a William Shakespeare was baptized at Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon on April 26, 1564. From this, it is believed he was born on or near April 23, 1564, and this is the date scholars acknowledge as William Shakespeare's birthday. Located 103 miles west of London, during Shakespeare's time Stratford-upon-Avon was a market town bisected with a country road and the River Avon. William was the third child of John Shakespeare, a leather merchant, and Mary Arden, a local landed heiress. William had two older sisters, Joan and Judith, and three younger

brothers, Gilbert, Richard and Edmund. Before William's birth, his father became a successful merchant and held official positions as alderman and bailiff, an office resembling a mayor. However, records indicate John's fortunes declined sometime in the late 1570s. Scant records exist of William's childhood, and virtually none regarding his education. Scholars have surmised that he most likely attended the King's New School, in Stratford, which taught reading, writing and the classics. Being a public official's child, William would have undoubtedly qualified for free tuition. But this uncertainty regarding his education has led some to raise questions about the authorship of his work and even about whether or not William Shakespeare ever existed. The next documented event is William Shakespeare's marriage to Anne Hathaway on November 28, 1582, in Worcester, in Canterbury Province. Hathaway was from Shottery, a small village a mile west of Stratford. William was 18 and Anne was 26, and, as it turns out, pregnant. Their first child, a daughter they named Susanna, was born on May 26, 1583. Two years later, on February 2, 1585, twins Hamnet and Judith were born,. Hamnet later died of unknown causes at age 11. After the birth of the twins, there are seven years of William Shakespeare's life where no records exist. Scholars call this period the "lost years," and there is wide speculation on what he was doing during this period. One theory is that he might have gone into hiding for poaching game from the local landlord, Sir Thomas Lucy. Another possibility is that he might have been working as an assistant schoolmaster in Lancashire. It is generally believed he arrived in London in the mid- to late 1580s and may have found work as a horse attendant at some of London's finer theaters,
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a scenario updated centuries later by the countless aspiring actors and playwrights in Hollywood or on Broadway who parked cars for famous actors. There is evidence that, by 1592, William Shakespeare earned a living as an actor and a playwright in London and possibly had several plays produced. In the September 20, 1592 edition of the Stationers' Register (a guild publication), there is an article by London playwright Robert Greene that takes a few jabs at William Shakespeare, "...there [William Shakespeare] is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tiger's heart wrapped in a Player's hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country." Scholars differ on the interpretation of this criticism, but most agree that it was Greene's way of saying Shakespeare was reaching above his rank, trying to match better known and educated playwrights like Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe or Greene himself. Documents show that, by the early 1590s, William Shakespeare was a managing partner in the Lord Chamberlain's Men, an acting company in London. After the crowning of King James I, in 1603, the company changed its name to the King's Men. From all accounts, the King's Men company was very popular, and records show that Shakespeare had works published and sold as popular literature. The theater culture in 16thcentury England was not highly admired by people of high rank. However, many of the nobility were good patrons of the performing arts and friends of the actors. Early in his career, Shakespeare was able to attract the attention of Henry Wriothesley, the Earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicated his first published poems "Venus and Adonis" (1593) and "The Rape of Lucrece" (1594).

By 1597, William Shakespeare had published 15 of the 37 plays attributed to him. Civil records show that at this time he purchased the second largest house in Stratford, called New House, for his family. It was a fourday ride by horse from Stratford to London, so it is believed that Shakespeare spent most of his time in the city writing and acting and came home once a year during the 40-day Lenten period, when the theaters were closed. By 1599, William Shakespeare and his business partners built their own theater on the south bank of the Thames River, which they called the Globe. In 1605, Shakespeare purchased leases of real estate near Stratford for 440 pounds, which doubled in value and earned him 60 pounds a year. This made him an entrepreneur as well as an artist, and scholars believe these investments gave him the time to write his plays uninterrupted. Tradition has it that William Shakespeare died on his birthday, April 23, 1616, though many scholars believe this is a myth. Church records show he was interned at Trinity Church on April 5, 1616. In his will,
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he left the bulk of his possessions to his eldest daughter, Susanna. Though entitled to a third of his estate, little seems to have gone to his wife, Anne, whom he bequeathed his "second-best bed." This has drawn speculation that she had fallen out of favor, or that the couple was not close. However, there is very little evidence the two had a difficult marriage. Other scholars note that the term "second-best bed" often refers to the bed belonging to the household's master and mistress--the marital bed--and the "first-best bed" was reserved for guests. William Shakespeare's first plays were mostly histories written in the early 1590s. "Richard II" and "Henry VI," parts 1, 2, and 3 and "Henry V" dramatize the destructive results of weak or corrupt rulers and have been interpreted by drama historians as Shakespeare's way of justifying the origins of the Tudor dynasty. Shakespeare also wrote several comedies during his early period: the witty romance "A Midsummer Night's Dream," the romantic "Merchant of Venice," the wit and wordplay of "Much Ado About Nothing," the charming "As You Like It," and Twelfth Night. Other plays, possibly written before 1600, were "Titus Andronicus," "The Comedy of Errors," "The Taming of the Shrew" and "The Two Gentlemen of Verona." It was in William Shakespeare's later period, after 1600, that he wrote the tragedies "Hamlet," "King Lear," "Othello" and "Macbeth." In these, Shakespeare's characters present vivid impressions of human temperament that are timeless and universal. Possibly the best known of these plays is "Hamlet," with its exploration of betrayal, retribution, incest and moral failure. These moral failures often drive the twists and turns of Shakespeare's plots, destroying the hero and those he loves. In William Shakespeare's final period, he wrote tragicomedies. Among these are "Cymbeline," "The Winter's Tale," and "The Tempest." Though graver in tone than the comedies, they are not the dark tragedies of "King Lear" or "Macbeth" because they end with reconciliation and forgiveness. William Shakespeare's early plays were written in the conventional style of the day, with elaborate metaphors and rhetorical phrases that didn't always align naturally with the story's plot or characters. However, Shakespeare was very innovative, adapting he traditional style to his own purposes and creating a freer flow of words. With only small degrees of variation, Shakespeare primarily used a metrical pattern consisting of lines of unrhymed iambic pentameter, or blank verse, to compose his plays. At the same time, there are passages in all the plays that deviate from this and use forms of poetry or simple prose. About 150 years after his death,

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questions arose about the authorship of William Shakespeare's plays. Scholars and literary critics began to float names like Christopher Marlowe, Edward de Vere and Francis Bacon--men of more known backgrounds, literary accreditation, or inspiration--as the true authors of the plays. Much of this stemmed from the sketchy details of Shakespeare's life and the dearth of contemporary primary sources. Official records from the Holy Trinity Church and the Stratford government record the existence of a William Shakespeare, but none of these attest to him being an actor or playwright. Skeptics also questioned how anyone of such modest education could write with the intellectual perceptiveness and poetic power that is displayed in Shakespeare's works. Over the centuries, several groups have emerged that question the authorship of Shakespeare's plays. The most serious and intense skepticism began in the 19th century when adoration for Shakespeare was at its highest. The detractors believed that the only hard evidence surrounding William Shakespeare from Stratfordupon-Avon described a man from modest beginnings who married young and became successful in real estate. Members of the Shakespeare Oxford Society (founded in 1957) put forth arguments that English aristocrat Edward de Vere, the 17th Earl of Oxford, was the true author of the poems and plays of "William Shakespeare," The Oxfordians cite de Vere's extensive knowledge of aristocratic society, his education, and the structural similarities between his poetry and that found in the works attributed to Shakespeare. They contend that William Shakespeare had neither the education nor the literary training to write such eloquent prose and create such rich characters. However, the vast majority of Shakespearean scholars contend that William Shakespeare wrote all his own plays. They point out that other playwrights of the time also had sketchy histories and came from modest backgrounds. They contend that Stratford's New Grammar School curriculum of Latin and the classics could have provided a good foundation for literary writers. Supporters of Shakespeare's authorship argue that the lack of evidence about Shakespeare's life doesn't mean his life didn't exist. They point to evidence that displays his name on the title pages of published poems and plays. Examples exist of authors and critics of the time acknowledging William Shakespeare as author of plays such as "The Two Gentlemen of Verona," "The Comedy of Errors" and "King John." Royal records from 1601 show that William Shakespeare was recognized as a member of the King's Men theater company (formally known as the Chamberlain's Men) and a Groom of the Chamber by the court of King James I, where the company performed seven of Shakespeare's plays. There is also strong circumstantial evidence of personal relationships by contemporaries who interacted with Shakespeare as an actor and a playwright. What seems to be true is that William Shakespeare was a respected man of the dramatic arts who wrote plays and acted in some in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. But his reputation as a dramatic genius wasn't recognized until the 19th century. Beginning with the Romantic period of the early 1800s and continuing through the Victorian period, acclaim and reverence for William Shakespeare and his work reached its height. In the 20th century, new movements in scholarship and performance have rediscovered and adopted his works. Today, his plays are highly popular and constantly studied and reinterpreted in performances with diverse cultural and political contexts. The genius of Shakespeare's characters and plots are that they present real human beings in a wide range of emotions and conflicts that transcend their origins in Elizabethan England.

Parts of Typewriter

1. Keys and Typebars

o

You press keys to print characters on your page. Several keys, such as the space bar, margin release and shift keys, have special functions. Typebars, typewheels and typeballs strike the ribbon when you press keys.

2. Ribbons
o o

Generally, manual typewriters use inked cloth ribbons on spools, and electric typewriters use carbon cartridge ribbons. Surprisingly, both are still made. Sponsored Links New writer We Develop Writing Talent. Publish. We Find Top Publishers For You Fast www.WlWrItErSaGeNcY.com/NewAuthor

3. Carriage
o

Older typewriters use a moving carriage that consists of a cylindrical platen, paper table, paper bail and other parts. This is where you insert your paper. The carriage moves to the left as you type. Newer electric and electronic typewriters have a stationary carriage and moving typewheels or typeballs.

Levers
o

Every typewriter has various levers that perform specific functions: locking the carriage (to transport the machine), power (for electric models), releasing the paper, and changing or reversing the ribbon, for example. It is best to consult a typewriter manual specific to your model to understand the function of each lever.

Tabs and Margins

o

Typewriters feature various methods to set tabs and margins. Usually, buttons and levers are specifically labeled for these functions.

Cleaning your typewriter

Soft, clean, white cotton rags. You'll go through a lot of these. The gentlest approach (recommended at first) is to wipe the typewriter with a wet rag, or a rag dipped in water with a few drops of dishwashing liquid. Brushes: you can try toothbrushes, nail brushes, brushes for cleaning firearms or dentures, and artist's paintbrushes. The bristles on brushes can be trimmed to make them stiffer. Q-tips are nice for cleaning hard-to-reach areas. (Synthetic-tipped alternative: Tipton's shooters swabs. One collector has written to me: "Instead of using Q-Tips, you can also roll your own swabs using wooden applicator sticks (6" long x 1/16" diameter) and cotton batting. Bamboo skewers work just as well, and they last for days/weeks. One roll of cotton batting will yield about a million swabs. As soon as a swab is dirty, you pull it off and replace it. The most important thing is to use damp--not wet-swabs. You can achieve this by rolling a wet swab on a piece of blotting paper. By doing this, you avoid flooding the surface, and water won't seep into all the wrong places."

For initial dust removal, the vacuum-cleaner hose attachment kits sold in computer and computer supply stores and catalogs work very well. They are especially helpful in cleaning mechanical parts. For more precise blasts of compressed air, buy a canister intended for cleaning electronic equipment (these are available at most office supply stores). You can also sic your leaf blower on your dusty old typewriter, or take it down to the gas station and take advantage of their compressed air. (Probably not a great idea for rare typewriters!)

The following substances can help remove dirt and grease (often old typewriters have been over-oiled at some point in the past, or even dipped in a vat of oil, which in the long term turns into a sticky mess that must be removed).

Soft Scrub is a gentle liquid cleanser that is easily available. To remove heavy dirt, try applying diluted Soft Scrub with a finger or rag, and removing it with a rag, over and over and over. Careful: some finishes will be scratched even by this cleanser. But my Caligraph required vigorous scrubbing with undiluted Soft Scrub! Try Dentucreme: "yes, the toothpaste for dentures. It is very mildly abrasive and extremely effective on surfaces that would show scratches. I use it on mother-of-pearl and other delicate surfaces." --Lane Welch Steve Maloney reports that "Gojo," a hand cleaner, is excellent for cleaning original lacquer black. "For typewriters that have textured finishes, I would not recommend using furniture polish. I have found that the best way to clean these surfaces without buffing down the textured finish is to use a 'fingernail' brush and a solution of baking soda and mild dishwashing detergent. I am liberal with the baking soda and conservative with the dishwashing detergent. The dishwashing detergent is mainly there for removing oils. You might be surprised how much dirt gets accumulated in these textured finishes." -- Paul Dobias "A very good cleaner that works well with 'crackle lacquer' finishes is Dow Scrubbing Bubbles. It is a water based foaming cleaner that lifts out dirt and other grunge from the nooks and crannies in the finish. It also works well on smooth finishes, but is really good if you are trying to get down into the detail. It also is excellent for such things as the oil cloth and simulated leather of portable cases. The current product is made by Johnson, and is not as good in my estimation as the original Dow product, but it is still very good. I have used it on car interiors such as headliners, and or musical instrument cases, as well as music amplifiers with Tolex covering. Using a soft brush like an old tooth brush works well. It is then good, after wiping off the last application, to use plain water to wipe down the surface until clean." --Tim McCoy "Another more aggressive product, but still water based, is Krud Kutter; this stuff will clean the grease off of an old engine, but not harm the paint. It, like the Scrubbing Bubbles, should be finished with a clean water wipe down, until all traces of dirt are off. There is another even more aggressive version called Krud Kutter Graffiti Remover. Ive not tried it, but it might be useful in a watered down form, but test it on something before using it on some collectable." --Tim McCoy Oil will improve the functioning of some parts, notably when applied to the carriage rails. Apply very sparingly, with the end of a pin or paper clip. Use a light, high-grade oil. 3-in-1 Oil is an easily available option. Probably a better choice is gun oil, such as Hoppe's Gun Oil, or a penetrant such as PB Blaster. It's a bad idea to put oil in the segment (the slotted piece that holds the typebars); the oil can get dirty and gummy after a while. Gun cleaning solvents can be very useful. I have had good luck with Birchwood Casey Gun Scrubber. Other products I have heard about are M-Pro gun cleaning spray, G-96, and Break Free. Liquid Wrench Super Penetrant has worked very well for me in removing old oil and lubricating mechanisms. PB Blaster can remove old grease and free up parts. It also can restore shine to dark wrinkle paint, as it seeps into tiny crevices.

Stronger products (use outdoors, and test inconspicuously on decals and paint) include naphtha (lighter fluid) and carburetor cleaner. "Also a good cleaner is equal parts of acetone, automatic transmission fluid, kerosene, and mineral spirits. Be careful of the acetone, however. This is a standard firearms cleaning mixture for cleaning bores, etc. For really gunked up typewriters, it works pretty good." --Paul Ross Mineral spirits (e.g., Varsol or Stoddard Solvent, available at paint stores) have been recommended to me. "Brush the mineral spirits on, using a natural-fiber brush which is bonded onto the handle with metal, not plastic. The machine should then be GENTLY blown out with an air compressor. Then apply a light lubrication to moving parts." "When performing cleaning and lubrication, I would recommend following up after degreasers and lighter oils with a heavier oil. Also, oils used around chipped and delaminating coatings may contribute to further delamination. For instance, for blowing out dusts, removing some grease buildup, and to leave behind a think layer of lubricant, I would recommend using 'TV Tuner Cleaner,' and then follow up with a light oil." -- Paul Dobias "At 50 cents each, Southern Bloomer cleaning rags may be expensive (after all, they're going to get dirty quick), but they put out no lint, and they've been a big help." --Robert Neuwirth "Automatic transmission fluid, thinned 50% with kerosene, is an excellent rust preventive and general lubricant. Lots of anti-oxidant material in it, so it doesn't 'gum up' with time. As usual, in oiling, apply sparingly." --Paul Ross Instead of lubricating with oil, which can eventually collect dust and make the mechanism stick again, you can try dry, powdered graphite. (This is not recommended for use on anything that has aluminum, since graphite has a high galvanic difference to aluminum and will pit and corrode it.) "Tipton's Metal Magic rust and lead Removing Cloths do a good job rubbing grime, rust, and discoloration off typebars and other naked metal pieces. Leaves a bit of a greasy feel, so you have to rub down with a plain cloth after you're done". --Robert Neuwirth "Iosso Gunbrite is good at taking off serious surface rust without destroying chromed surfaces, though you have to rub like crazy." --Robert Neuwirth Platen cleaning: after an initial wiping with water and Soft Scrub, several brands of rubber/plastic restorer can remove more dirt. To recover a platen, see "Mechanical repairs" below. "Rubber rejuvenators" will clean platens, but not really rejuvenate the rubber. In my experience, the stuff is also good for dissolving old grease, such as grease stuck in the slots of a segment. Fedron Rubber Cleaner Conditioner is a heavy-duty solvent that cleans type and platens. If you can find a dauber (like the type used for liquid shoe polish) spread a thin coating on the type and let it work for about a minute or two, then wipe off with a rag. For the platen, if the platen can be removed, put some Fedron on a rag and wipe the rubber off. It instantly removes dirt, ink, and rust marks. Fedron is harsh: be sure to keep it away from paint, decals, and all delicate parts and materials (such as string and plastic). Use in a well-ventilated area: it stinks! An old platen may get hard and slick, so that it doesn't grip paper properly. Short of replacing it, you can try vigorous scrubbing with Soft Scrub. It can also help to roughen the platen by scrubbing it gently with soft steel wool. Brake fluid (DOT 3) damages rubber when exposed to it for the long term. A little exposure, however, can add some flexibility and grip to the exterior of a platen. You can wipe a thin layer of brake fluid on with a paper towel, leave it on for up to an hour, then wipe off the residue. Avoid skin and eye contact (wear gloves). Allow an hour for drying after this procedure, as at first the platen exterior will be too soft and should not be handled or used.

Improving paint, metal, and rubber

The typical deep-black color of an early typewriter consists of lacquer, which is quite difficult to restore. Enamel paint was introduced in the 1920s. Typewriters also have many metal parts which are susceptible to rust and discoloration. The shiny metal parts of older typewriters are nickel-plated; some newer machines have chrome-plated parts.

Rust removal should be attempted by the gentlest method first. In order from gentlest to roughest, I recommend: Mother's Mag & Aluminum Polish (available at auto supply stores); superfine steel wool (try to avoid getting the steel filings into the mechanism); superfine sandpaper; rougher steel wool; a synthetic scrubbing pad; a rotary tool (such as a Dremel) with a wire brush attachment (I recommend the cup-shaped brush; wear eye protection, as bits of wire will fly off); a rotary tool with a cratex attachment (rubber impregnated with a tough material). The cratex attachments do a great job of removing rust, but they will leave a mark; use them for initial heavy rust removal, then finish with a wire brush to smooth out the finish. Evapo-Rust is an excellent product if you need to remove rust from the whole body of a machine, or if you want to de-rust individual parts without using the methods above. You immerse things in this product and only the rust disappears. It is nontoxic and reusable. In order to immerse a whole typewriter, you will need 5 gallons (it can be diluted a bit with water if necessary). Remove the body panels and platen. Protect any remaining paint and decals with a coat of wax. (They will not be chemically attacked by Evapo-Rust, but just as you wouldn't submerge them in water for a long time, it makes sense to protect them this way.) After soaking in Evapo-Rust for up to 24 hours, things can be rinsed off in water. Then dry them immediately with a hair dryer or other means. (With some parts you may not mind having a residue of Evapo-Rust on them, which will protect against future rust, so there is no need to rinse.) The Evapo-Rust may leave a dull or dark residue on surfaces, which can easily be polished clean. "For minor rust removal, try using an electric eraser (also known as an 'architect's eraser'). Koh-I-Noor and Staedtler both make fairly inexpensive models with a variety of eraser refills. The gray, ink erasers are the most aggressive. The soft, white refills are especially good for removing light surface dirt and oxide layers (practice on a tarnished penny!)." Here's a really easy way to touch up small spots of black paint (which is by far the most common color on early typewriters): use a permanent black marker. This is easy to apply, lies flat on the surface, and can make a big difference. Despite the term "permanent," it is also easier to remove than paint. What if you want or need to use real paint? Touch-up paint for cars, which is sold in tiny bottles in auto shops, can be handy here. It dries to a glossy finish and is not thick or clumpy, as long as it's shaken enough in advance. But take a good look at your typewriter in the sunlight after this paint has dried -- you may find that it's not really as black as the original paint. "The paint pen to use is Uni-Paint medium line PX-20 (or fine line if you prefer) Opaque Oil Base marker. You can order them at Staples in just about any color of the rainbow.They only take a day or two to get." -- Robert Nelson "For coatings touch up, ensure that surfaces are free of oils, buff exposed substrate materials with an abrasive pad, and recoat with nail polish. The 'anchor tooth' from abrading will ensure adhesion, but your requirements probably won't be higher than a simple visually detected surface profile. Nail polishes come in many shades, so you should be able to get your exact match. Also, they have a tendency to set up a little thicker than some of the automotive paints, which adds to the depth and luster of the color to better simulate the multiple layer effect of lacquers." -- Paul Dobias "Goo Gone" can remove unwanted paint that has been added by a previous owner, revealing the original paint and decals below. It also removes Wite-Out. Many early typewriters are decorated with pinstripes -- often these are thin parallel lines of blue and yellow. Beugler offers a kit for precision pinstriping with paint. Other pinstriping supplies are available from Finesse Pinstriping. You can also find pinstriping decals at many hobby shops, or order them from The Antique Phonograph Supply Co., Route 23, Box 123, Davenport Center, NY 137510123, phone 607-278-6218. Bits of gold may be missing from the decals or lettering. One amateurish solution is to touch them up with a fine-point metallic gold marker. This is easily scratched off, but for the beginner that's probably a virtue. The metallic marker really can improve the neatness of your typewriter if it's used wisely. It's possible to get nickel parts replated. You may want to consult a professional, but a home replating kit is made by Vigor-Bestfit, 320 Thornton Road, Lithia Springs, GA 30057. Phone 770-944-2733, fax

770-944-2765. The kit is available at Zak Jewelry Tools, 55 West 47th Street, New York, NY, phone 212-768-8122. The rubber feet on old typewriters are often damaged or missing. Bob Aubert offers replacements: "I have new black repro feet available for the following typewriters. Oliver Models 1 - 11, Royal Flatbed Models 1 - 5, Royal 10, Underwood Models 1 - 5, LC Smith Models 1 - 8, Smith Premier Models 1 10, Columbia/Barlock Models 1 - 20, Yost Models 1 - 4, Williams Models 1 - 6, Wellington Models 2 & 3, Remington Standard Models 2-7, Remington Pop-up Portable Mounting Grommets, and some portables which use round feet. At the present time, I don't stock any square or rectangular feet. Prices vary from $6.00 to $12.75 per set, postpaid within the US, depending on type and whether or not the mounting hardware is needed. Discounts provided for quantity purchases. E-mail at rite2aubert@juno.com or call me at (856) 461-7080. Note: There are two different sizes of stepped feet available. These may be suitable for other machines which are not listed above. The first will fit anything which has 1/2" mounting holes. The other requires 5/8" holes. Some machines need a size other than the those just mentioned. Either can be sanded down to fit using an electric utility drill and a home made holding jig in just a few minutes. Detailed info on how to do it is supplied with purchase." You can also visit your local hardware store in search of rubber parts that will work as feet. Sometimes a rubber stopper will be ideal (tip: squeeze the big end in first, not the small end). Andy McWilliams writes that this item worked perfectly to replace the feet on a Remington portable #5 (and they will probably work on similar Remington portables): 27/32 x 9/32 inch slip joint washers, Home Depot stock number 38809b, made by Danco Co., Concordville, PA 19331. Ryan Long had luck fitting his own Remington portable #5 with "Replacement Aqua-Seal Washers for 'American Standard,'" size: fits 2k-2h and 2c, made by Danco for faucet repair. They fit into place and lock with an O-Ring. Another possibility is refurbishing the old rubber feet. Carl Strange recommends "a product called Plasti Dip, which is usually thought of as a coating for hand tools; it gives new life (and restored bulk, to say nothing of a rubbery grip) to emaciated typewriter feet. A can costs about $8. I used it on a 1941 Underwood Champion and my dear old Underwood 11 with very satisfactory results." Replacement leather handle straps (for cases) can be cut from used leather belts. Nice replacement leather handles are also available at some music stores, as they are used on instrument cases.

Polishing
Here's the sensuous phase. Loving applications and re-applications of polishing agents will leave your typewriter looking glossy, fresh and grateful. You'll be amazed at the difference!

For a safe, effective finish used by museums, I recommend Renaissance brand microcrystalline wax. It can be found on eBay and at various online suppliers. Apply and buff the wax with clean cotton cloth. A good alternative is a commercial blend of microcrystalline waxes, in paste form, such as Johnson's "Klear" or "AeroWax." Mother's Carnauba Cleaner Wax (available in auto supply stores) works nicely. Other car finishes, such as Turtle Wax, can also work well. Wax can be removed with a cloth dampened in mineral spirits (such as Varsol and Stoddard Solvent). Use in a well-ventilated area. Pledge is an easily available polish that I have often used as a cleaning and polishing agent. Spray it on a clean rag, wipe the part you're polishing thoroughly with the rag, repeat until the rag doesn't look brownish at all. However, I have been warned that overuse of Pledge can leave a sticky residue. It also contains silicone, which may be impossible to remove later; do not spray it on the mechanism, and do not use Pledge on a rare machine. Endust claims that it contains no silicone. I've also heard that Fantastick works well as a polish and cleaner. Mother's Mag & Aluminum Polish (available at auto supply stores) is an excellent cleaner and polish for metal parts both large and small. On machines with a lot of aluminum (such as the Blick 6 or Hammond Folding) this stuff can work a miraculous transformation.

Other metal polishes include Flyt (available at gun shops) and Simichrome (which has been highly recommended to me for aluminum -- ask at auto supply shops).

Mechanical repairs
Click here for a basic illustrated guide to simple repairs from a 1977 Reader's Digest book. Manual typewriters operate on relatively simple principles, and you can usually fix a problem using patient investigation and some screwdrivers. But don't underestimate the need to keep track of all the parts you remove! You can easily find yourself with a pile of parts that you can't fit together again. Check Online Typewriter Support, by Will Davis, for further advice on operating, maintaining, and repairing a manual typewriter. As for typewriter repair shops, visit my list of them here.

You may want to invest in a set of gunsmith's screwdrivers. They are available in boxed sets with up to 58 interchangeable bits, as well as ultrathin sets. This allows you to find a perfect fit for every slotted screwhead, so damage is less likely to occur. (Note that older screws tend to have much narrower slots than modern ones.) "The best source for these screwdrivers is Brownell's, Inc., 200 South Front Street, Montezuma, Iowa 50171; tel. 515-623-5401; fax 515-623-3896. Check out their 'Magna-Tip Super-Sets.' You'll wonder how you managed without them. About $82.00, but they'll last a lifetime." Magnetic screwdrivers are helpful for holding on to screws. Sears sells very useful sets of Craftsman tools meant for repairing computers and other electronic equipment. The tools are hard steel, many have fine tips, and an ample variety of screwdrivers is included. Dental picks are helpful as a means of reaching and manipulating interior areas. A common problem is a broken carriage pull string or pull cord. The basic principle is simple: attach a new cord to the barrel (containing the mainspring) and one end of the carriage. The mainspring normally does not have to be wound up while you are doing this; it can be tightened later. But this is all easier said than done, and this repair can be frustrating. The method will vary based on the model of typewriter. You may want to use or create a long, thin wire with a hook at the end which can be pushed under the carriage and used to pull the cord through. Fishing line can be a helpful replacement for carriage pull strings. Rob Bowker writes, "In the absence of fine waxed string I have at one time used baler twine, but more poetically I have used 'cat-gut' - a nice organic replacement. A 1950s, warped and unplayable tennis racket was the donor." Shoelaces can replace carriage pull straps. Sometimes the mainspring itself is broken. Usually one end of it has snapped off. Open up the barrel to take a look. You can usually make a new hole in the end of the spring using a Dremel wheel, and reattach the spring to the barrel. Feed rollers are often hardened or have developed "flats" from being pressed against the platen for decades. Matthieu Thort reports that shrink tubing is the solution. "For the back rollers, I used about 8 layers of tubing, shrunk and cut to attain a great look. The front rollers took only 4 layers. I used a smaller diameter tube that I loosened with my pliers, so that the shrunk result would be really tight." Platens will be recovered in rubber at a reasonable price by the Ames Supply Company (phone 1800-323-3856). Call in advance to confirm the price and availability. Then ship your platen to: Ames Supply Company 1936 University Lane, Unit C Lisle, IL 60532 attn: platen department

On the west coast, you can also deal with West Coast Platen Co. They ship the platen to Ames (see above) to be recovered, but you may be able to save shipping costs by going through West Coast Platen. Baco Ribbons, 2914 Brentwood Blvd., St. Louis, MO 63144, 314-968-2258, will also accept platens for recovering. Bob Aubert suggests using rubber hose for cars to recover your own platens. "I've done it this way at least a hundred times and it works! Simply take your old rollers to a auto place, ask to see their hose stock, pick something that is close and it will be just fine. Shop for a brand that is smooth on the outside! Cut it roughly to size, slip it on, put the shaft into an electric drill, and trim the excess off with a razor while it's turning. It will look like it was done in the Remington factory!" -- I (Richard Polt) tried this with a radiator hose and found that, while it was acceptable for display, the surface was too rough for actual typing. Rob Blickensderfer (blickr@comcast.net) makes parts for various antique typewriters, such as Hammond ribbon spool covers, Blickensderfer paper supports and release bails, and cranks for the Smith Premier brush cleaner. Very reasonably priced. Jim Donahue (770-714-0556, jcd30281@yahoo.com) runs "Oliverservices," with many parts for Olivers as well as several products to service them: ribbons, touch-up paint, stainless return cable, replated parts, etc. Visit his eBay store here.

So now you're ready to do some actual typing with your machine! Even if you're not going to use it for everyday correspondence, it's nice to know that it's functioning and "alive" once again. You need to deal with a few issues such as inking, clean type, and alignment.

Ribbons for most typewriters can sometimes still be found as close as your nearest office supply shop. The standard width is half an inch, and you'll find that this will work on almost all typewriters made after 1920 or so. If your typewriter can type in two colors (and most can), buy a black-and-red ribbon: it looks nice! For suggestions on ribbon sources, see my FAQ. Odd-size ribbons: try ribbons made for computer printers, printing calculators, time clocks, and cash registers. Ink rollers for Blickensderfers and other ink-roller machines can be procured at a good office supply shop. Buy rollers made for printing calculators. You'll have to cut them out of their plastic housing, and the price is a little steep ($3 or $4 for one roller -- the original Blickensderfer price was 25 cents a dozen!). Your fingers will get filthy. But it'll all be worthwhile when you see what nice work your old typewheel machine can do. Hammonds originally came with a rubberized cloth impression strip that came between the hammer and the paper. It is usually missing or broken, but it is necessary in order to get good typing. Paul Robert recommends: "If there is a bicycle shop in your area, go there and buy one of those narrow rubber protection strips that go around the wheel to protect the inner tube from being punctured by the spokes. Cut off a piece one half inch shorter than the full length of the carriage, punch two holes on each side and you have the perfect impression strip." Ink pads for machines like the Williams: I want to look into this, but haven't done research yet. Don't replace an ink pad unless you really want to use the machine, as in the long run the chemicals in the ink can corrode the type! A piece of black felt cut to the right size will look very nice. To make sure your types will print clearly, you'll probably need to clean out the crevices of letters like "e" and "s." Use the tip of a pin. Be gentle, so you won't harm the type. For heavy-duty type cleaning, try Fedron (see above under "Initial Cleanup"). Old products such as Star Type Cleaner were intended to fit into the type and lift out some ink. For a modern replacement, Matthieu Thort reports: "the Staedtler art eraser is malleable enough and lifts the old caked ink like a charm." Alignment may be a big problem in an old typewriter. The typebars may stick at the printing point, because they're too far to the right or left. The Oliver may produce especially wacky-looking work because of the nature of its typebars. The only solution is to bend the typebars back into position,

using guesswork and experimentation and care. If you're lucky, you can find some specialized tools for gently bending typebars; otherwise, try needle-nosed pliers.

Difference between petty cash book and main cash book

Petty cash book contains daily office expanses like tea, stationary etc. & we are daily close this book. cash book A book in which bank cash transactions are recorded. These include receipts (from customers) and payments (to suppliers) as well as bank charges, interest received, etc. 1)cash book is used for large firms while petty cash book is used for small firms like small shops. 2)cash book is monthly basis while petty cash book is daily basis. Petty Cash Book -It is another Cash Book which is maintained, generally, in large business concerns to reduce the burden of 'Main Cash Book', in which numerous transactions involving petty (small) amounts are recorded. Cash Book - contains all cash receipts and payments, including bank deposits and withdrawals. Entries in the cash book are then posted into the general ledger. The cash book is periodically reconciled with the bank statements as an internal method of auditing

Petty Cash Book:

It is another Cash Book which is maintained, generally, in large business concerns to reduce the burden of 'Main Cash Book', in which numerous transactions involving petty (small) amounts are recorded. For this purpose, a Petty Cashier is appointed by the Chief Cashier. The Chief Cashier advances a sum of money to the Petty Cashier to enable him to meet petty expenses for a fixed period. The Petty Cashier will record this amount on the Debit Side of the Petty Cash Book while the Chief Cashier will record the same amount on the Credit Side of the Main Cash Book.

The fundamental difference between the Main Cash Book and the Petty Cash Book is that only petty expenses are recorded in the Petty Cash Book. No receipt (with the exception of money received from the Chief Cashier), however small it may be, is recorded in it. But in the main Cash Book all receipts (big and small) and large expenses are recorded. Thus we see that in large organizations both the books are essential, although the importance of the Petty Cash Book is somewhat less than the Main Cash Book. Thus, the book in which small payments, which are not convenient to record in the Main Cash Book, (like postage, traveling expenses, purchase of stationery etc.) are recorded is called Petty Cash Book.

System Of Petty Cash Accounting :

1. Open System:
Under this system the Petty Cashier at first receives from the Chief Cashier a fixed sum of money for meeting petty expenses. As soon as the said amount is spent, the Chief Cashier again pays the required sum to the Petty Cashier.

2. Fixed Advance System:

Under this system the Petty Cashier receives from the Chief Cashier a fixed Slim of money for a fixed period of time i.e. $200 per month. The Chief Cashier will pay $200 to the Petty Cashier every month irrespective of this that whether the Petty Cashier has spent the total sum or not.

3. Imprest System :
This system is generally followed by most of the business concerns. Under this system, the total petty expenses for a particular period are estimated and that amount is advanced by the Chief Cashier to the Petty Cashier. This amount is called Imprest Cash. On the expiry of the fixed period the Petty Cashier prepares a statement of his expenses and submits it to the Chief Cashier. This statement is known as Statement of Petty, Expenses. The Chief Cashier examines the statement and if he finds it correct, hands over the Petty Cashier an amount equal to the amount actually spent. This amount plus the amount lying unspent with the Petty Cashier will be equal to the Imprest Cash. In this way the Petty Cashier will start every time with an amount equal to Imprest Cash. In other words, the amount lying with the Petty Cashier will never exceed Imprest Cash. Generally a columnar Petty Cash Book is used in which different columns are provided for different petty expenses. The balance of the Petty Cash Book will be shown on the asset side of balance sheet as "Cash in hand" at the end of the year.

Science Definition
The word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning knowledge. How do we define science? According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, the definition of science is "knowledge attained through study or practice," or "knowledge covering general truths of the operation of general laws, esp. as obtained and tested through scientific method [and] concerned with the physical world." What does that really mean? Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. Less formally, the word science often describes any systematic field of study or the knowledge gained from it. Science

(from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.[1] In an older and closely related meaning (found, for example, in Aristotle), "science" refers to the body of reliable knowledge itself, of the type that can be logically and rationally explained (see History and philosophy below).[2] Since classical antiquity science as a type of knowledge was closely linked to philosophy. In the early modern era the words "science" and "philosophy" were sometimes used interchangeably in the English language. By the 17th century, natural philosophy (which is today called "natural science") was considered a separate branch of philosophy.[3] However, "science" continued to be used in a broad sense denoting reliable knowledge about a topic, in the same way it is still used in modern terms such as library science or political science. In modern use, "science" more often refers to a way of pursuing knowledge, not only the knowledge itself. It is "often treated as synonymous with natural and physical science, and thus restricted to those branches of study that relate to the phenomena of the material universe and their laws, sometimes with implied exclusion

of pure mathematics. This is now the dominant sense in ordinary use."[4] This narrower sense of "science" developed as scientists such as Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton began formulating laws of nature such as Newton's laws of motion. In this period it became more common to refer to natural philosophy as "natural science". Over the course of the 19th century, the word "science" became increasingly associated with scientific method, a disciplined way to study the natural world, including physics, chemistry, geology and biology. It is in the 19th century also that the term scientist was created by the naturalist-theologian William Whewell to distinguish those who sought knowledge on nature from those who sought knowledge on other disciplines. The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834. This sometimes left the study of human thought and society in a linguistic limbo, which was resolved by classifying these areas of academic study as social science. Similarly, several other major areas of disciplined study and knowledge exist today under the general rubric of "science", such as formal science and applied science.
What is the purpose of science? Perhaps the most general description is that the purpose of science is to produce useful models of reality. Most scientific investigations use some form of the scientific method. You can find out more about the scientific method here. Science as defined above is sometimes called pure science to differentiate it from applied science, which is the application of research to human needs. Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines: - Natural sciences, the study of the natural world, and - Social sciences, the systematic study of human behavior and society.

Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species' ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. The word technology comes from Greek (technologa); from (tchn), meaning "art, skill, craft", and - (-loga), meaning "study of-".[1] The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include construction technology, medical technology, and information technology. The human species' use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability to control fire increased the available sources of food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in and controlling their environment. Recent technological developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons. Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number of ways. In many societies, technology has helped develop more advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and deplete natural resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its environment. Various implementations of technology influence the values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to machines, and the challenge of traditional norms. Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use of technology in society, with disagreements over whether technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticise the pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, opining that it harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-

progressivism view continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the development of technology was restricted only to human beings, but recent scientific studies indicate that other primates and certain dolphin communities have developed simple tools and learned to pass their knowledge to other generations.

Definition and usage

The use of the term technology has changed significantly over the last 200 years. Before the 20th century, the term was uncommon in English, and usually referred to the description or study of the useful arts.[2] The term was often connected to technical education, as in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (chartered in 1861).[3] "Technology" rose to prominence in the 20th century in connection with the second industrial revolution. The meanings of technology changed in the early 20th century when American social scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen, translated ideas from the German concept of Technik into "technology." In German and other European languages, a distinction exists between Technik and Technologie that is absent in English, as both terms are usually translated as "technology." By the 1930s, "technology" referred not to the study of the industrial arts, but to the industrial arts themselves.[4] In 1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that "technology includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments, housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the skills by which we produce and use them."[5] Bain's definition remains common among scholars today, especially social scientists. But equally prominent is the definition of technology as applied science, especially among scientists and engineers, although most social scientists who study technology reject this definition.[6] More recently, scholars have borrowed from European philosophers of "technique" to extend the meaning of technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in Foucault's work on technologies of the self ("techniques de soi"). Dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. The Merriam-Webster dictionary offers a definition of the term: "the practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area" and "a capability given by the practical application of knowledge".[1] Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 "Real World of Technology" lecture, gave another definition of the concept; it is "practice, the way we do things around here".[7] The term is often used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as a whole.[8] Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time, 1, defines technology in two ways: as "the pursuit of life by means other than life", and as "organized inorganic matter."[9] Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and physical effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage, technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve real-world problems. It is a far-reaching term that may include simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as computer software and business methods, fall under this definition of technology.[10] The word "technology" can also be used to refer to a collection of techniques. In this context, it is the current state of humanity's knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired products, to solve problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants; it includes technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and raw materials. When combined with another term, such as "medical technology" or "space technology", it refers to the state of the respective field's knowledge and tools. "State-of-the-art technology" refers to the high technology available to humanity in any field. Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes culture.[11] Additionally, technology is the application of math, science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known. A modern example is the rise of communication technology, which has lessened barriers to human interaction and, as a result, has helped spawn new subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has, at its basis, the development of the Internet and the

computer.[12] Not all technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology can also help facilitate political oppression and war via tools such as guns. As a cultural activity, technology predates both science and engineering, each of which formalize some aspects of technological endeavor. SOCIETY A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification and/or dominance patterns in subgroups. Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap. A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology. More broadly, a society may be described as an economic, social, or industrial infrastructure, made up of a varied collection of individuals. Members of a society may be from different ethnic groups. A society can be a particular ethnic group, such as the Saxons; a nation state, such as Bhutan; or a broader cultural group, such as a Western society. The word society may also refer to an organized voluntary association of people for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes. A "society" may even, though more by means of metaphor, refer to a social organism such as an ant colony or any cooperative aggregate such as, for example, in some formulations of artificial intelligence. The term "society" came from the Latin word societas, which in turn was derived from the noun socius ("comrade, friend, ally"; adjectival form socialis) used to describe a bond or interaction among parties that are friendly, or at least civil. Without an article, the term can refer to the entirety of humanity (also: "society in general", "society at large", etc.), although those who are unfriendly or uncivil to the remainder of society in this sense may be deemed to be "antisocial". Adam Smith wrote that a society "may subsist among different men, as among different merchants, from a sense of its utility without any mutual love or affection, if only they refrain from doing
injury to each other."[1] Used in the sense of an association, a society is a body of individuals outlined by the bounds of functional interdependence, possibly comprising characteristics such as national or cultural identity, social solidarity, language, or hierarchical organization. society

Definitions of SOCIETY
: companionship or association with one's fellows : friendly or intimate intercourse : company : a voluntary association of individuals for common ends; especially : an organized group working together or periodically meeting because of common interests, beliefs, or profession a : an enduring and cooperating social group whose members have developed organized patterns of relationships through interaction with one another b : a community, nation, or broad grouping of people having common traditions, institutions, and collective activities and interests a : a part of a community that is a unit distinguishable by particular aims or standards of living or conduct : a social circle or a group of social circles having a clearly marked identity <literary society> b : a part of the community that sets itself apart as a leisure class and that regards itself as the arbiter of fashion and manners.

What is the difference between science and technology?

Science can broadly be defined as the study of "things" such as: Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Genetics, Geology, Psychology, Sociology, and other fields of study that analyze interactions, behaviors, physical properties, effects, causes, etc. in order to rationalize or establish given properties, behaviors and interactions about such "things". The basis of Science is the conducting of experiments. Basically, a theory is made (stated), analysis and testing are performed with the use of various controls, and when a specific, measurable result occurs, and can be reproduced or proven time and time again, the theory then becomes Scientific law, or a truism of sorts. Technology, refers generally to items of use, created from "Applied Science". A good example of this is the production of Solar panels. Solar Panels are used in a variety of different technologies, but the simplest example is a Solar Powered Calculator. It was proposed long ago that the Sun emits 2 types of energy, heat energy and light energy. The Sun's heat energy is what warms the Earth's atmosphere so that life as we know it can exist, by warming the atmosphere to a tolerable temperature that the Human Body can function in. (Space is somewhere around -230 degrees Fahrenheit, and at those temperatures, plants could not grow, and the Human body would not be able to carry on normal functions such as breathing in that cold of temperature.) The sun's light energy is absorbed by Solar Panels (and Solar Cells), and converts that energy to electricity so that the calculator can perform mathematical functions. To test this, put a piece of electrical tape over your calculator for 15 minutes, and then see if you can turn it on. If you can't then you know the light energy is being converted to electricity. In brief: Science is the study of forces and interactions between different "things", both animate and inanimate. Technology can be referred to as things which we make, but were developed by applying Scientific law, knowing what such "things" are capable of doing.

Definition of science and technology

Science from the Latin scientia (knowledge) is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as the organized body of knowledge gained through such research. Science as defined here is sometimes termed pure science to differentiate it from applied science, which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a species' usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt to its environment. In human society, it is a consequence of science and engineering, although several technological advances predate the two concepts. Science refers to a system of acquiring knowledge. This system uses observation and experimentation to describe and explain natural phenomena. The term science also refers to the organized body of knowledge people have gained using that system. Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines: 1. Natural sciences, which study natural phenomena (including biological life), 2. Social sciences, which study human behavior and societies. These groupings are empirical sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.

Differences in Etymology
The word science comes through the Old French, and is derived from the Latin word scientia for knowledge, which in turn comes from scio - 'I know'. From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment, science or scientia meant any systematic recorded knowledge. Science therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that philosophy had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word

corresponding to science also carries this meaning. Today, the primary meaning of "science" is generally limited to empirical study involving use of the scientific method. Technology is a term with origins in the Greek "technologia", "" "techne", "" ("craft") and "logia", "" ("saying"). However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. The term can either be applied generally or to specific areas: examples include "construction technology", "medical technology", or "state-of-the-art technology".
Science Technology Motto: Reductionism, involving the isolation and definition of distinct concepts Holism, involving the integration of many competing demands, theories, data and ideas Comparison between Science and Mission: The search for and theorizing about cause. Result Relevance: Making virtually value-free statements . technology The search for and theorizing about new processes. Activities always value-laden

Evaluation Methods: Analysis, generalization and creation of theories . Analysis and synthesis of design Goals achieved through: Corresponding Scientific Processes. Key Technological Processes Development Methods: Discovery (controlled by experimentation). Design, invention, production Focus: Focuses on understanding natural phenomena. Focuses on understanding the made environment

Most observed quality: Drawing correct conclusions based on good theories and accurate data. Taking good decisions based on incomplete data and approximate models Skills needed to excel: Experimental and logical skills needed. Design, construction, testing, planning, quality assurance, problem solving, decision making, interpersonal and communication skills Goal: Pursuit of knowledge and understanding for its own sake (New knowledge). The creation of artifacts and systems to meet peoples needs (New products) Basic definition: accrual of knowledge about natural phenomena through experiment, discovery, and piecing information together to reach logical conclusions. None for technology Broad essence: Science is reducing life to understandable, teachable facts. Science is making an inherently mysterious life make sense with tangible knowledge. None for technology