BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

Unit I: SURVEYING AND CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS Surveying: Objects types classification principles measurements of distances angles leveling determination of areas illustrative examples. Civil Engineering Materials: Bricks stones sand cement concrete steel sections. Scope of Civil Engineering: Structural Engineering Environmental Engineering Geotechnical Engineering Transportation Engineering Irrigation Engineering Fluid Mechanics Surveying and Remote Sensing

Functions of a Civil Engineer: I. Planning (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) II. Collection of data Surveying Preparation of project report Design and Drawing Preparation of final estimates

Execution (a) (b) (c) (d) Preparation and finalization of Tenders and Contracts Mobilization of men and materials Testing of materials Supervision of construction work.

III.

Maintenance

Surveying: Surveying is defined as the process of measuring horizontal distances, vertical distances and included angles in order to determine the location of points on, above or below the earth surface. Measurement may be direct or indirect. Objectives of the Surveying: To provide data necessary to prepare the map or plan showing the ground features To determine the relative heights of objects / points in a vertical plane To provide control points and thus to establish the boundaries Setting out of any Engineering work like buildings, roads, railways tracks, etc.

Types of surveying: 1. Plane Surveying This is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane and the spherical shape is neglected. 2. Geodetic Surveying.

This is that type of surveying in which the shape of the earth is taken into account. Classifications of Surveying I. Classification based on the nature of the field survey: (1). Land Surveying a) Topographical Survey To find horizontal & vertical location of point, and angular measurements b) Cadastral Survey Fixing of property lines or boundaries. c) City Survey Construction of streets, water supply systems etc (2). Marine (or) Hydrographic Survey. Survey on marine for navigational purpose. (3) Astronomical Survey. - Survey based on celestial body

II.

Classification based on the object of survey: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Engineering Survey to set out engineering works Military Survey for defense purpose Mine Survey to explore the mineral wealth Geological Survey to find composition in earth crust Archeological survey to prepare maps of ancient culture

III.

Classification based on Instruments used: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Chain Survey Theodolite Survey Compass Survey Tacheometric Survey Plane table Survey Photographical Survey Aerial Survey

Principles of Surveying: Fixing a point in relation to point already located. Working from whole to part.

Chain Surveying: Chain Surveying is that type of surveying in which only linear measurement are made in the field. Types of Chain:

1. Metric Chain ( 5, 10,20,30m ) 2. Surveyors Chain (66ft) 3. Engineers Chain (100 ft) 4. Revenue Chain (33 ft) 5. Steel band or band chain Instruments used in chain surveying:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Chain Arrows Pegs Ranging rods Measuring taps Cross staff Plumb bob.

Ranging rods Measuring taps

Cross staff

Plumb bob

Measurement of Distance by Chain Surveying: Survey Stations: A Survey station is a prominent point on the chain line and can be either at the beginning of the chain line or at the end. Survey Lines: The lines joining the main survey are called main survey lines. The biggest of the main survey line is called the base line. Check Line: Check lines or proof lines are the lines which are run in the field to check the accuracy of the work. Ranging a line: Ranging a line means fixing a serious of pegs or other marks such that they all lie on a straight line. Field Work: 1. Reconnaissance 2. Marking and Fixing of survey stations. 3. Running survey lines. Advantages: Simple method for linear measurement Costly equipments are not required. It is adopted for preparing plans of small areas. It can be adopted if the ground is fairly level. Disadvantages: It can not be used for very large area. It can not be used to the area with a number of details It can not use in very bushy areas It can not use in very ups and downs. It is not very accurate. Compass Survey: Whenever a number of base lines are to be run for obtaining the details as in traversing, just linear measurement made by chain surveying will not be sufficient. The angles included between the adjacent lines should also be measured. Compass is one of the instruments used to measure angles.

Types: 1. Prismatic Compass.

2. Surveyors Compass.

Prismatic compass

Surveyors compass

Taking reading using a compass: The compass is centered exactly the station by plumb bob. The compass is leveled by adjusting the ball and socket till the top of the box is horizontal. Suppose the bearing of a line PQ is to be observed. The compass over P. The prism and object vane are kept in the vertical position. Compass turned slowly towards the ranging rod in Q. In this position, the ranging rod, object vane, eye vane all lie on same line. The focusing prism is raise or lowered till the readings are clear.

Magnetic Bearing: Magnetic bearing of a line is the angle between the magnetic meridian and the line. The angle is measured in the clock wise direction. The magnetic meridian is the direction shown by a freely suspended magnetic needle. The magnetic bearing is also called as just bearings. True Bearing: True bearing of a line is the angle between the true of geographical north and the line. The angle is always measured in the clock wise direction. The true meridian is the line joining the geographical north and south poles. Whole Circle Bearing: The bearing of the line measured from the North is called whole circle bearing. The angle is measured in the clock wise direction from 0 coinciding with the North. Quadrant (or) Reduced Bearing: Here the whole circle is divided in to four quadrants. The bearing is expressed with N or S as prefix and E or W as suffix. Ex. N 15 E, S 45 W Fore Bearing and Back Bearing: Every line has two bearings namely fore bearing and back bearing. Fore bearing is the bearing taken in the direction of the survey and back bearing is the one taken in the reverse direction. The difference between fore bearing and back bearing is 180. Local Attraction: If the difference between fore bearing and back bearing is not 180 it means that one or both the stations of the line are subjected to local attractions like railway track, power lines, etc. Problem.1: Find the quadrant bearing of the following whole circle bearings. (i) PA = 35 15 (ii) PB = 130 00 (iii) PC = 210 15 (iv) PD = 290 45 (Answers: (i) PA = N 35 15E, (ii) PB = S 50 E, (iii) PC = S 30 15W, (iv) PD = N 69 15 W)

Problem.2 Find the whole circle bearing of the following quadrant bearings. (i) PA = N 15 E, (ii) PB = S 25 45 E, (iii) PC = S 45 30 W (iv) PD = N 10 W (Answers: (i) PA = 15 (ii) PB = 154 15 (iii) PC = 225 30 (iv) PD = 350 00) Problem.3 Find the included angles between the lines PA and PB, PB and PC given their bearings. PA = 22 45, PB = 100 00, PC = 162 30 (Answers: The angle between PA and PB = 77 15, The angle between PB and PC = 6230) Problem.4 Find the back bearing and fore bearing of the following lines. Fore bearing of PA = 38 15 , Back bearing of RS = 210 30. (Answers: Back Bearing of PA = 218 15, Fore Bearing of RS = 30 30) Levelling: Levelling is a surveying method used to determine the level of points / objects with the reference to selected datum. It is also used to set out engineering works. Uses of leveling: To determine the difference in levels of points / objects. To establish points or erect machinery or construct a building component at a predetermined level. This process is called setting out of engineering works. To obtain contour map of an area. (Contour : An imaginary line joining the points of equal elevation) To obtain the cross section of roads, canals etc., To obtain the longitudinal section of roads, canals, lake bunds etc., To determine depths of cutting and filling in engineering works.

Important terms: Bench mark: (BM) Bench mark is a surveyors mark cut on a stone / rock or any reference point used to indicate a level in levelling survey. How are bench mark established. Identification marks like the top level of abutment of a bridge and basement level of a monument have been established all over our country. These marks are known as bench marks. The levels of these bench marks have been fixed with reference to the mean sea level. These bench marks invariably serve as reference datum point. Height of the other points may be determined with reference to the assumed level of the object selected. Reduced Level: (RL) Reduced level of a point is the level of a point with respect to the level of a permanent feature or bench mark. It indicates whether the point is above or below the reference point. Station: In levelling, the term station always refers to the point where the levelling staff is held and not the instrument station.

Height of the Instrument: (HI) Height of the instrument is the elevation of the line of sight with reference to the assumed datum. Back Sight: (BS) Back sight is the reading taken on the staff held at a point, the elevation of which is known already, the back sight is required to know the new height of instrument. Fore Sight: (FS) Fore sight is the reading taken on the staff held at a point of unknown elevation. From fore sight the height of the line of instrument above the point can be obtained. This is required to find the elevation of the point. Change Point (CP) or Turning Point (TP): Change point is a point at which fore sight is taken from one instrument station and back sight is taken from the next instrument station. Intermediate Station: A point between two change points is called intermediate station. Only one reading is taken on the intermediate station. Instrument Used: Levelling Instrument Levelling staff

Levelling Instrument (Dumpy Level)

Levelling staff

Temporary adjustments of a levelling instrument. 1. Setting up the instrument: The levelling instrument is fixed to the tripod stand. The tripod stand is kept on the ground at a convenient working height. Legs of the tripod is adjusted the telescope is roughly horizontal. Legs of the tripod should rest firmly on ground.

2. Bringing bubble to the center: Bubbles in the level tube and cross bubble tube are bringing to the center position using the foot screws. 3. Eye-piece adjustment: The eye-piece is then focused using the focusing knob till the cross hairs are seen clearly. Keep white sheet in front and adjust the eye-piece.

Fly Levelling: Any numbers of change points are established as required during levelling. This method of levelling is known as fly levelling or differential levelling. Methods of Levelling: I. Height of Instrument Method (or) Height of Collimation Method II. Rise and Fall Method. I. Height of Instrument Method (or) Height of Collimation Method: Elevation or level of any point can be determined using the height of the instrument. Problem.1: Find the elevation of the point Q using the following details. Station B.S (m) I.S (m) F.S (m) H.I (m) R.L (m) Remarks P 2.1 100.00 B.M Q 1.8

Solution: Station B.S (m) P 2.1 Q

I.S (m)

F.S (m) 1.8

H.I (m) 102.1

R.L (m) 100.00 100.3

Remarks B.M R.L of Q

Height of the Instrument = B.M + B.S at B.M = 100.00 + 2.1 = 102.1 m The elevation of Q (or) R.L of Q = H.I F.S at Q = 102.1 1.8 = 100.3 m Problem.2: Find the elevation of the point Q using the following details. Station B.S (m) I.S (m) F.S (m) H.I (m) R.L (m) Remarks P 1.6 100.00 B.M C.P 1.25 1.1 Q 1.81 Solution: Station B.S (m) I.S (m) F.S (m) H.I (m) R.L (m) Remarks 101.6 P 1.6 100.00 B.M 101.75 100.5 C.P 1.25 1.1 R.L of C.P 99.94 Q 1.81 R.L of Q Height of the Instrument at Ist instrument position = B.M + B.S at B.M = 100 + 1.6 = 101.6m Elevation of the C.P = H.I F.S at C.P = 101.6 1.1 = 100.5 m Height of the Instrument at IInd instrument position = R.L of C.P + B.S at C.P = 100.5 + 1.25 = 101.75 m Elevation of Q = H.I at C.P F.S at Q = 101.75 1.81 = 99.94 m Problem.3: Calculate the R.L of B, C, and D using the following details. Station B.S (m) I.S (m) F.S (m) H.I (m) R.L (m) Remarks A 1.326 100.00 B.M B 1.513 C 1.642 1.219 D 1.431 Solution: Station B.S (m) I.S (m) F.S (m) H.I (m) R.L (m) Remarks 101.326 A 1.326 100.00 B.M 99.813 B 1.513 R.L of B 101.749 100.107 C 1.642 1.219 R.L of C 100.318 D 1.431 R.L of D Height of the Instrument at Ist instrument position = B.M + B.S at B.M (A) = 100 + 1.326 = 101.326 m Elevation of the B = H.I I.S at B = 101.326 1.513 = 99.813 m Elevation of the C = H.I F.S at C = 101.326 1.219 = 100.107 m Height of the Instrument at IInd instrument position = R.L of C + B.S at C = 100.107 + 1.642 = 101.749 m Elevation of the D = H.I F.S at D = 101.749 1.431 = 100.318 m Arithmetic Check: B.S -F.S = Final R.L First R.L

Rise and Fall method: The elevation of the point above the proceeding point is called Rise. The elevation of the point below the proceeding point is called Fall. Problem: 1 Find the elevation of the point Q using the following details. B.S Rise Station I.S (m) F.S (m) Fall R.L (m) (m) P 2.1 100.00 Q 1.8 Solution: B.S Rise Station I.S (m) F.S (m) Fall R.L (m) (m) P 2.1 100.00 0.3 100.3 Q 1.8 B.S F.S = 2.1 1.8 = 0.3 (Rise) R.L of Q = R.L of P + Rise = 100.00+0.3 = 100.3 m Calculation of Areas: Trapezoidal Method: This is able at any number of ordinates. Assumed that the boundary of the plot is in the shape of a straight line. Area = x [((O1 + On) / 2) + (O2 + O3++ On-1)] Simpsons Method: This is able only when the number of ordinates is odd. Assumed that the boundary of the plot is in the shape of a parabola. Area = x/3 [O1+ On +2 (O3+ O5+.+ On-2) +4(O2+ O4+.+ On-1)] x - Interval between the ordinates. Comparison between Trapezoidal Method and Simpsons Method: S.No Trapezoidal Method Simpsons Method 1. Assumed that the boundary of the plot is Assumed that the boundary of the plot is in in the shape of a straight line the shape of a parabola 2. Simple to apply Difficult 3. This is able at any number of ordinates This is able only when the number of ordinates is odd 4. Interval between the ordinates is uniform Interval between the ordinates is uniform 5. Estimated area will be less if plot is Can estimate accurate area if plot is concave concave upward boundaries. up ward boundaries 6. More accurate only in lined boundaries More accurate in curved boundaries

Remarks B.M

Remarks B.M

Problem: 1 Offset measured in meters perpendicular to a base line of length 40 m to an irregular boundary at regular intervals of 5 m are the following: 4.20, 2.15, 5.11, 6.70, 3.81, 4.59, 8.10, 6.50 and 3.86. Calculate the area by (i) Trapezoidal method and (ii) Simpsons method. Solution: (i) Trapezoidal Method Area = x [((O1 + On) / 2) + (O2 + O3++ On-1)] = 5 [((4.20 + 3.86) / 2) + (2.15 + 5.11+6.70+ 3.81+4.59+8.10+6.50)] = 204.95 m2 (ii) Simpsons Method Area = x/3 [O1+ On +2 (O3+ O5+.+ On-2) +4(O2+ O4+.+ On-1)] = 203.1 m2 Various Building Materials used in Civil Engineering STONES: Stones are broken or crushed pieces of naturally occurring rocks. Different types of rocks: (i) Igneous Rocks: Igneous rocks have crystalline or granular structure and are not stratified. Because of high silica (sand minerals) content, igneous rocks are said to be siliceous. Example: Granite, Trap and basalt. (ii) Sedimentary rocks: They are stratified and can be easily split. They may be argillaceous or calcareous chemically. Argillaceous rocks contain mainly argil (clay or alumina). Calcareous rocks have calcium carbonate as their prime component. Example: lime stone, sandstone and laterite. (iii) Metamorphic rocks: Metamorphic rocks are foliated in structure. They can be split a definite directions only. Slate and Marble belong to this category. Preparation of stones: Quarrying of stones - Hand tools - Blasting - Channeling machine Dressing of stones - Crushed to pieces Segregation by sieving Types of stones, their properties and uses:

Types of Stones Obtained from Properties Granite Igneous rock Hard-durable-mirror like polish-resistance weatheringavailable in different colors Trap and Basalt Igneous rock

Sand stone

Sedimentary rock Sedimentary rock Sedimentary rock Metamorphic rock Metamorphic rock Metamorphic rock

Laterite Lime stone

Gneiss Slate

Marble

Uses Available places Walls-columns- TN, KA, RJ, UP, bridge piers-steps- MP facing worksroad metal Hard-durable-available in Paving worksBH, GJ, AP,MH different colors road metaldecorative works Strength is low- available in Facing worksAP, KA, MP, different colors-easily steps-wallsUP,OR, TN workable columns Contain large percentage of Wall- road metal KA, OR, BH, KL Iron oxide Contain large percentage of Manufacture of TN, RJ, AS, HP Calcium carbonate-available lime and cement AP in different colors Can be split easily Used as thin slabs AP, BH, KA, KL for flooring Can be split easily- available Roofing tilesAP, MH, GJ,HP in different colors damp proof course Highly crystalline-can give Interior and RJ, GJ, MP high polish-easily cut with ornamental saw-available in different works- flooringcolors column-wall

Qualities of good building stones: It should be tough, hard and durable Good crushing strength ( more than 100 N/mm2) Uniform in colour ( Light colour high resistant to weathering action) Temperature and fire resistant ( lime stone withstand 800C) Low water absorption ( not more than 0.6% by weight) Easy dressing and working Should have specific gravity more than 2.7 Free from soluble matter Should have uniform structure

Different tests conducted on building stone: Important test: 1. Compressive strength test Size of the test piece not less than 50mm ratio of height and lateral dimension not less than 1:1 Rate of loading 14 N/ mm2/min till failure. 2. Transverse strength test (bending strength ) Specimen size:200 x 50 x 50mm test piece should be immersed in water for 72 hrs before testing Rate of loading 2000 N/min - TS = (3WL)/(2bd2)

3. Tensile strength test Test piece at least 50mm dia sandwiched between steel plates TS = (2W)/(3.14dL) 4. Shear strength test Test piece 50 x 50mm and length 180 mm SS = W/(2A) Other test: Water absorption test Porosity test Durability test Specific gravity test Abrasion test SAND: Important properties: River sand is preferable for construction activities Sand is also called fine aggregate Size rang 0.15mm to 4.75mm Free from chemical salts and organic impurities Impurities should not exceed 5% Should be angular hard and durable BRICK: Types: * Building Bricks * Paving Bricks * Fire Bricks

Classification based on the quality: First class brick Uniform colour sharp edges evens surfaces hard and well burnt Second class brick Hard and well burnt not so regular Third class brick Irregular and not so hard not have uniform colour Over burnt brick Melted during burning - large irregular mass Under burnt brick Soft and light colour crumble even on light load Constituents of good brick clay: Silica 50 to 75%, Alumina 25 to 30%, Lime, Iron oxide and Magnesia 20%. Standard size of brick: 190 x 90 x 90mm

Manufacturing of brick: Preparation of Clay Moulding Drying and Burning

Test on Bricks: 1. Compressive strength test 2. Flexural strength test (resistance to bending) 3. Water absorption test 4. Test for soluble salts 5. Resistance to weathering test 6. Thermal conductivity and sound insulation test 7. Fire resistance test 8. Expansion test Characteristics of good brick: Shape and size: Truly rectangular sharp edges standard size Physical properties Hard and well burnt metallic sound uniform colour dropped from 1m height to another brick it should not break free from cracks. Compressive strength (5 to 40 N/mm2) Flexural strength ( 7 to 20 N/mm2) Water absorption ( not more than 20% of its weight) Presence of soluble salts (allowable 0.5 to 2.5%) Thermal conductivity and sound insulation ( Low thermal conductivity- high sound insulation) Fire resistance ( High fire resistance ) Expansion of bricks ( Should not undergo large change in volume) Uses:

Construction of walls Bridges and dams Flooring Heat insulation purposes Decorative works Lining the interiors of furnaces

CEMENT Cement is the one of the binding materials used in engineering constructions for the purpose of binding together the various units of inert matter such as stones, bricks, tiles etc., Types of cement: (a) Portland cement 1. Normal setting or Ordinary Portland Cement 2. High early strength cement. 3. Low heat cement (b) Special cement 4. Quick setting cement 5. High alumina cement 6. Blast furnace cement 7. Sulphate resisting cement 8. Expanding cement 9. White cement 10. Colored cement General properties of cement: Good binding property Offers strength to the masonry Cement sets (or hardens ) when water is added Offers resistance to water movement Easily workable Resistance to weathering effects Raw materials used in manufacturing of cement: * Lime stone and marls * Clay and shale * Gypsum Constitutions of cement: Lime 62 to 65% Silica 19 to 22% Alumina 4 to 7% Iron oxide 2 to 4% Calcium sulphate (Gypsum) about 3% Magnesia 1 to 4% Sulphur trioxide 1.5 to 2% Alkalies less than 1% Manufacturing of Cement: * Mixing * Burning * Grinding Tests on Cement: - Chemical composition test - Fineness test - Consistency test (Quantity of water required to make paste)

* Coal

Uses:

Soundness test (expansion) Compressive strength test Tensile strength test

Preparation of cement mortar, cement concrete and RCC Construction material and covering agent in columns, beams and slabs Binding materials Flooring All decorative works Manufacturing of pipe, post and asbestos sheets Manufacturing of hallow and concrete blocks

Engineering properties of cement: Fineness should not less than 225 m3/kg Soundness not more than 10mm (Le chatlier) Setting time initial setting time not less than 30 min & final not more than 600 min Compressive strength 7 days curing 22 N/mm2 & 28 days curing 33 N/mm2 Cement Mortar Cement + fine aggregate (sand) + water = Cement mortar Types: Based on bulk density 1. Heavy mortar ( bulk density more than 15 KN / m3 ) 2. Light weight mortar ( bulk density less than 15 KN / m3 ) Based on types of binding materials used 1. Lime mortar 2. Surkhi mortar 3. Cement mortar Based on nature of application 1. Brick laying mortar 2. Finishing mortar Special mortar 1. Fire resistant mortar 2. Packing mortar or water resistant mortar 3. Sound absorbing mortar 4. X-ray shielding mortar CONCRETE Concrete is a mixture in definite proportions of cement or lime, sand (fine aggregate), crushed stone (Coarse aggregate) and water. If cement is used the concrete is called cement concrete. If lime is used the concrete is known as lime concrete. Types: * Plain concrete

* Reinforced cement concrete

Grades of concrete

Grade of concrete

Approximate proportion of ingredients 1:3:6

Compressive strength N/mm2 10

Uses Mass concreting like rear portion of dams and retaining walls Slabs, beams, lintels, bridges and staircases etc., Column, water tank, front facing of dams Pile and heavy loaded columns

M10

M15 M20 M25

1:2:4 1:1.5:3 1:1:2

15 20 25

Operations involved in concreting: * Form work * Mixing * Placing and compacting

* Curing

Properties of concrete: High compressive strength and low tensile strength (ex. M15 compressive strength 15 N/mm2 and Tensile strength 2 N/mm2) Shear strength is marginally grater than tensile strength Rich mix increase the strength Attain full strength in 28 days curing Water cement ratio for good workable concrete is 0.5 to 0.6 Good hardened concrete density is 2410 kg/m3 Density of Reinforced cement concrete is 2500 kg/m3 Test on concrete: - Compressive strength test - Flexural strength test - Tensile strength test - Rate of expansion and contraction - Slump test (Workability test) Slump recommended for different works S.No Type of work 1 Ordinary RCC works (beams, slabs etc) 2 Columns and retaining walls 3 Concrete for road making 4 Mass concreting like dams and bridges

Slump value (mm) 50 -100 75 150 20 30 25 50

Classification of concrete: 1. Light weight concrete (density 2200 to 2600 kg/m3) (a) Light weight aggregate concrete (b) Aerated concrete (c) No fine concrete 2. High density concrete ( density 3360 to 3840 kg/m3) 3. Polymer concrete (impregnation of monomer and polymers) 4. Fiber reinforced concrete ( Uniformly dispersed fibers are used)

STEEL SECTIONS: Bars (round bars of diameter 6 to 32mm) Torsteel rods (or) High yield strength deformed bars (diameter 8 to 32mm) Steel sections - Angle sections - Channel sections - I sections - T sections Based on carbon content the steel is classified in to 1. Low carbon steel (or) mild steel (less than 0.25% carbon) 2. Medium carbon (or) medium hard steel (0.25 to 0.70% carbon) 3. High carbon (or) hard steel (0.7 to 1.5% carbon) Properties of steel: It develops good bond with concrete It has high tensile strength Coefficient of expansion and contraction is same as concrete Cheap and readily available High modulus of elasticity