PROVING STATEMENTS

Process of proving

METHODS OF PROOF

begins with the formulation of a statement based on the framework of Logic typically makes use of the conditional or biconditional statements

Methods of Proof
Direct proof Proof by Contrapositive Proof by Contradiction Trivial Proof Vacuous Proof

DIRECT PROOF
Based on the statement P Q
assume that P is true show that Q is true by valid inference (using available information and existing theorems) Example 1
Prove that x2 5x + 6 = 0 yields x = 3 or x = 2 Assume P: x2 5x + 6 = 0 Show that Q: x = 3 or x = 2

DIRECT PROOF
Example 2
Prove that every multiple of 6 is a multiple of 3. Proof: Assume: x is a multiple of 6 Show: x is a multiple of 3 x = 6 * k where k is some integer (def of a multiple) x = 3 * 2 * k (factoring) x = 3 * (2k), 2k is some integer (closure property) x = 3 * some integer x is a multiple of 3

DIRECT PROOF
Example 3
Prove that the square of an even number is even. Proof: Assume: x is even (i.e., x is a multiple of 2) Show: x2 is even x = 2*k where k is some integer (def of a multiple) x2 =x*x = 2*k*x (mult prop of equality) x2 = 2k * 2k (substitute 2k for x) x2 = 4k*k = 2(2*k*k), 2k2 is some integer (closure property of mult) x2 = 2 * some integer : even number

PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE
Provide a direct proof of Q P for a statement of the form P Q assume that Q is true show that P by valid inference (using available information and existing theorems)

PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE
Example 1 Prove that if m2 is even, then m is even. Proof: Suppose m is odd, show that m2 is odd m = 2x + 1 m2 = (2x + 1)2 = (4x + 4x + 1) = 2 (2x2 + 2x) + 1 m2 = 2 * some integer + 1 m2 is odd

PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE
Example 2 Prove that if n is the product of 2 positive integers a and b (n = a*b), then either a n1/2 or b n1/2 Proof: Assume not (a n1/2 or b n1/2) and show that n <> a*b
a > n1/2 and b > n1/2 a*b > n1/2 * n1/2 a*b > n1 a*b > n, hence is not the product of a and b

PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITIVE
Example 3 Prove that a perfect number is not a prime number (If x is a perfect number, then x is not prime)
* note: a number n is perfect when the sum of the factors of n that are less than n itself = n (e.g., 6 = sum of its factors 1, 2 and 3)

PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
Proof Process
Assume that P is true and that Q is false (P Q) Derive a contradiction (a statement that is patently false) A simple statement R can also be proven by contradiction by showing that R S S

Proof: Assume that x is prime, show that x is not a perfect number

x is prime the factors of x are 1 and x the sum of the factors that are less than x is 1 1 <> x x is not a perfect number

PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
Example 1 Prove that the square root of 2 is irrational. Proof: Assume that the square root of 2 is rational.
2 = a/b where a and b are relatively prime integers (2)2 = 2 = a2/b2 a2 = 2b2 , hence a2 is even a2 is even implies that a is even a = 2 * k where k is some integer From a2 = 2b2, a2/2= b2, (2k)2/2= b2, b2 = 2k2 b2 is even which means that b is even Since a and b are multiples of 2, they have a common factor which contradicts the statement that a and b are relatively prime. Therefore, 2 cannot be rational.

PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
Example 2 Prove that there is no largest prime Proof: Assume that there is a largest prime number. Let P be that number.
The prime numbers are 2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19, ... , P. The product of the prime numbers m = (2)(3)(5)(7)...(P). The product m is obviously greater than P. Consider m+1. m+1 cannot be divided by 2, 3, 5, ..., or P. m+1 is divisible only by 1 and m+1. Hence, m+1 is a prime number. Since m+1 > P, P is not the largest prime number. Therefore, There is no largest prime number.

PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
Example 3 Prove that if a,b Z and a 2, then a does not divide a or a does not divide b+1 Proof: Assume Suppose there exist a,b Z with a 2 for which a | b and a | (b+1).
There are c,d Z with b = ac and b + 1 = ad. Subtracting equation from the other gives ad ac = 1, so a(d c) = 1. Since a is positive, d - c is also positive Then a = 1/(d c) < 2. This contradicts the fact that a 2.

COMBINING THE METHODS

Prove that every nonzero rational number can be expressed as a product of two irrational numbers. (If r is a nonzero rational number, then r is a product of two irrational numbers.) Proof (direct proof PQ): Assume r is a rational number. Hence r = a/b for integers a and b.
r can be written as a product of two numbers as follows. r = 2 * (r/2) but 2 is irrational, so to complete the proof, show r/2 is also irrational Use contradiction: Assume r/2 is rational: r/2 = c/d for integers c and d, so 2 = r* d/c = a/b* d/c This mean that 2 is rational, a contradiction. Therefore

TRIVIAL PROOF
Proof process
if Q is true, then regardless of the truth value of P, the implication PQ is true show that Q is true Example: Prove that any set S is a subset of U. Axiom (in set theory): any object is an element of the universal set U Definition: A is a subset of B any element of A is an element of B Proof:
axiom implies that x is an element of U by trivial proof, if x is an element of S, then x is an element of U

VACUOUS PROOF
Proof process
if P is false, then regardless of the truth value of Q, the implication PQ is true show that P is false Example: Prove that that the null set is a subset of any set S Definition: null set () a set that has no elements Proof:
by definition, x is an element of the null set is false by vacuous proof, if x is an element of , then x is an element of any set S

PROOF by COUNTEREXAMPLE
An element of the universe of discourse of a statement that does not satisfy the statement is called a counterexample. One counterexample proves that the statement is not true.
Example: The sum of two perfect squares is a perfect square. The statement is false because if we consider 4 and 1, both 4 and 1 are perfect squares. But 4 + 1 = 5, which is not a perfect square.