33

HH HTH
LMNTS NU
STHTLIL
MINHL FDLILY
LNTH FDH STHTLIL STUUIS NU TND
The TNO and The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies (HCSS)
program Strategy & Change analyzes global trends in a
dynamic world affecting the foundations of our security,
welfare and well-being.
The program attempts to answer the critical question: what
are the policies and strategies that must be developed to
effectively anticipate on these emerging challenges?
Strategy & Change provides both a better understanding
and feeds the agenda for a sustainable future of our society.
STRATEGY
CHANGE
&
2CC Tho Haguo Cntr or Stratgic Stucis (HCSS) anc TNO. /ll rights rsrvc.
No part o this rport may b rprocucc anc/or publishc in any orm by print,
photo print, microilm or any othr mans without prvious writtn prmission
rom th HCSS or TNO.
Graphic: Joris Fislir, Th Hagu
Graphic, Dsign anc Print: D Swart bv, Th Hagu
HCSS, LANGE VOORHOUT 16, 2514 EE THE HAGUE
T: +31 (O)703184840 E: INFO@HCSS. NL
W: STRATEGYANDCHANGE. NL
STRATEGY
CHANGE
&
RARE EARTH ELEMENTS AND STRATEGIC MINERAL POLICY
THE HAGUE CENTRE FOR STRATEGIC STUDIES (HCSS) AND TNO
REPORT N
O

ISBN/EAN: 978-94-91040-20-7
/uthors: Jaakko Kooroshy, Rm Kortwg, Mar|olin c Riccr.

Th authors woulc lik to thank Jlna Ptrovic, Jannk Vouca anc Zinzi Spar
or thir xcllnt rsarch assistanc.
RARE EARTH ELEMENTS
AND STRATEGIC
MINERAL POLICY
THE HAGUE CENTRE FOR STRATEGIC STUDIES AND TNO
STRATEGY CHANGE REPORT 5
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 7
1 CONTEXTUALIZING MINERAL POLICY 9
. Th Static Paracigm C
.2 Th Dynamic-/captiv Paracigm 2
.3 How Scarc ar Minrals on th Plant? 4
.4 How Scarc ar Minrals in th Earth's Crust? 4
.5 How Scarc ar Minrals that can b Minc Proitably? 5
2 COUNTRY MINERAL POLICY 19
2. lntrocuction 9
2.2 Th Unitc Stats 9
2.3 Th Unitc Kingcom 4C
2.4 Japan 54
2.5 Conclusion 72
3 ANNEX DESCRIPTION OF METALS 77
3. lntrocuction 77
3.2 PERYLLlUM 78
3.3 COPPER 8
3.4 G/LLlUM 84
3.5 H/FNlUM 87
3.6 LlTHlUM 89
3.7 M/NG/NESE 92
3.8 MOLYPDENUM 95
3.9 NlCKEL 98
3.C NlOPlUM C
3. PL/TlNUM GROUP MET/LS C4
3.2 R/RE E/RTH ELEMENTS C9
3.3 T/NT/LUM 5
6 R/RE E/RTH ELEMENTS /ND STR/TEGl C Ml NER/L POLl CY
3.4 TlN 8
3.5 TUNGSTEN 2
3.6 ZlNC 24
3.7 ZlRCONlUM 27
4 GLOSSARY 131
REFERENCES 133
INTRODUCTION
Nwspaprs rport almost caily on intrnational tnsions arounc 'stratgic'
or 'critical' minrals such as rar arth lmnts. Th tmporary rz o
rar arths xports rom China to Japan in rtaliation o th captur o a
Chins captain nar th cisputc Snkaku islancs in th East China Sa is
but on xampl o th stratgic us o non-ul minrals in intrnational
rlations tocay. Ensuring anc saguarcing accss to rar arth lmnts
anc othr stratgic minral rsourcs is uickly mrging as a stratgic
policy priority anc a numbr o stats ar csigning anc implmnting nw
policis aimc at incrasing matrial scurity. Py analyzing th stratgic
minral policis o thr countris, th Unitc Stats, th Unitc Kingcom
anc Japan, this rport provics an insight into what crivs policis on
stratgic non-ul minral rsourcs.
Minral policis co not cvlopc in a vacuum. Thror, this rport consists
o thr parts. Por analyzing incivicual countris' minral policis, th irst
chaptr xamins th concptual contxt in which policis on stratgic non-
ul minrals (i.. minral rsourcs othr than hycrocarbons) tak shap anc
mphasizs th important rol o conomic anc policy actors.
Th ollowing chaptr analyzs th cvlopmnt o stratgic minral policy
o thr acvancc conomis locatc in thr cirnt continnts: th US,
th UK anc Japan. Ths chaptrs orm th hart o this rport. Thy ar
th irst o a largr st o cas stucis that th Hagu Cntr or Stratgic
Stucis (HCSS) intncs to cvlop as part o our ongoing rsarch on
stratgic minral rsourcs. Th US, UK anc Japan hav bn slctc
bcaus ths countris ar all (a) acvancc, incustrializc conomis,
which (b) cpnc on th r global low o minrals rsourcs or th
supply o thir conomis anc (c) hav vry cirnt policis towarcs
stratgic non-ul minrals, both in trms o ky stratgic concrns anc th
policy instrumnts thy us.
I NTRODUCTI ON
Thircly, in th /nnx, this rport provics a comprhnsiv ovrviw o 37
mtals that ar consicrc stratgic non-ul minrals by som countris.
Th list inclucs wll-known bas mtals lik coppr or nickl as wll as
lss known minrals lik bryllium or hanium. For ach o ths chmical
lmnts, w provic ky procucing countris anc thir rsrvs, thir main
physical proprtis, ky tchnical applications anc inormation about th
xtnt to which ths minral rsourcs ar currntly bing rcyclc.
Our analysis shows that th stratgic valu o non-ul minral rsourcs
stms rom two actors. First, ths rsourcs possss proprtis that mak
thm ssntial to ky applications anc tchnologis in cns, arospac
anc (grn) nrgy incustris. Sconc, th supply o ths rsourcs is
vulnrabl to cisruptions. This vulnrability may b cu to th absnc o a
transparnt markt anc limitc procuction or to gopolitical tnsions
associatc with th supply or sourcing o ths matrials rom a limitc
numbr o countris with a cisproportionat shar in global procuction.
Concrn ovr accss to stratgic non-ul minral rsourcs is not a nw
phnomnon. Th country analyzs provic historical contxt to th currnt
ciscussion ovr matrial scurity. Thy cal with prvious priocs markc by
hightnc concrns ovr th supply anc accss to spciic minral
rsourcs; anc ciscuss stratgis that hav bn usc in th past to accrss
ths inscuritis. Ths historical xampls also cmonstrat that th policy
cbats that hav takn plac in th past ar uit similar to th ciscussions
w ar witnssing tocay, or xampl with rspct to rar arth lmnts.
Howvr, as th gography o procuction, tchnologis, anc intrnational
rlations chang ovr tim, cirnt minral rsourcs attract th ocus o
policy-makrs. Vhil rar arth lmnts currntly cominat th policy
agnca, othr stratgic non-ul minrals, or xampl platinum group
mtals, wr consicrc to b o 'stratgic' importanc in th past. Stratgic
concrns also vary consicrably rom country to country.
This rport provics valuabl cata anc insights that contribut to a bttr
uncrstancing o th tnsions that aris arounc rar arth lmnts anc
othr stratgic non-ul minrals. Th analysis provicc in th rport may
also or a basis or mor inormc policy-making in thos countris that
ar currntly consicring policy options on stratgic non-ul minrals.
I NTRODUCTI ON
1 CONTEXTUALIZING
MINERAL POLICY
National policis towarcs non-ul minrals ar typically motivatc by a
varity o issus-ranging rom th goal o nsuring a rliabl anc aorcabl
supply o raw matrials to comstics incustris to making th most out o a
country's rsourc ncowmnts. Not surprisingly, ths policis ar shapc
to a consicrabl xtnt by th prvailing conomic anc matrial ralitis
in which thy mrg. For xampl, countris with xtnsiv incustrial
procuction anc high cmanc or raw matrials ar likly to cir in thir
approach to supply scurity rom othr countris with a mainly srvics-
orintc incustry. Similarly, countris with a strong mining sctor will rly
on a cirnt st o policis than thos which ar mainly import cpncnt
or minrals.
Th ustions o 'who has what anc who ncs what?' ar ssntial to
uncrstancing policis. Put thy ar otn much mor ciicult to answr
than it woulc appar rom looking at popular mtrics such as import
cpncnc, annual procuction or rsrvs. Nwspapr accounts on
minrals ar otn illc with imprssiv numbrs stating that th Europan
Union (EU) is CC% import cpncnt or niobium anc platinum, that China
procucs 97% o rar arths, or that Polivia holcs th worlc's largst lithium
rsrvs. Th intricat conomic conigurations ths numbrs cscrib
ar howvr otn much mor complx than th simpl physical ralitis
thy appar to suggst.
Por xamining cirnt minral policis, it thus pays to paus anc
shortly consicr th physical anc conomic contxts in which minral
procuction anc consumption taks plac - a task that is pickc up in th
rmaincr o this chaptr.
CONTEXTUALI ZI NG MI NERAL POLI CY
1. 1 THE STATIC PARADIGM
Th public cbat on minrals, lik similar cbats on ossil uls, is
cominatc by an otn implicit, intuitiv concption o natural rsourcs,
which may b rrrc to as th static paracigm.
Th ky assumptions o
this paracigm ar straightorwarc: thr is a ixc, vn i not ncssarily
xactly known amount o rsourcs on th plant. Ongoing mining anc
consumption o ths minral rsourcs ciminishs ths init rsrvs,
with th spc o xtraction anc consumption ctrmining th rat o
cpltion. Vhn cumulativ human consumption has cpltc rsrvs to
th cgr that xisting cposits ar bing xhaustc anc nw ons ar
vn smallr anc vnmor ciicult to inc, procuction bgins to struggl
to mt cmanc. / Malthusian ncgam-scnario is th ultimat
consunc, as consumrs scrambl to scur th littl that is lt. Prics
skyrockt anc supply shortags rock markts, as irc conlicts nsu ovr
th control o rsicual rsrvs.
Th ky mtric in this static concption is th so-callc static rang, which
is th stimat o tim lt until cpltion o a givn non-rnwabl
rsourc. Uncrtainty in ctrmining th static rang o a givn minral
stms rom two sourcs: uncrtainty about th prcis path o utur
consumption anc uncrtainty about how much xactly is lt in th grounc.
Howvr, taking ths uncrtaintis into account, stimats o static rangs
ar in principl calculabl, vn i margins o rror rmain. Tabl 2 shows a
numbr o stimats o static rangs or svral cirnt lmnts.
2
ln th static paracigm, thr ar only two ways to scap th scarcity trap.
First, tim may b bought by strtching static rangs through lss anc
mor icint consumption (.g. by rcucing, r-using anc rcycling).
Sconc, tchnological progrss may allow substituting minrals that ar
clos to cpltion with othrs that ar mor abuncant.
From this prspctiv, th scop o minral policy is airly limitc.
Exploitation rats might b incrasc or lowrc (.g. by subsicising
mining, taxing consumption, or intnsiying xploration), stockpils may b
cratc or xports may b rcucc, but thr is littl room or policy to
signiicantly altr th contxt in which it taks plac.
FIGURE 1. STATIC RANGES, A MISLEADING MEASURE
1. 2 THE DYNAMIC-ADAPTIVE PARADIGM
Th static paracigm has cominatc much o th public cbat on rsourc
policy bcaus it is intuitiv, logically cohrnt, anc allows or clar-cut
conclusions anc policy-rcommncations. Howvr, it is imprativ to
uncrstanc that th static paracigm surs rom a numbr o uncamntal
concptual laws that co not allow it to acuatly captur th much mor
complx rality o global minral procuction anc consumption.
Th most powrul incication o th static paracigm's shortcomings coms
rom th rsrv cata or cirnt lmnts, which provic th basis or
stimats o static rangs. Figur 2 shows that rsrv igurs hav bn
airly stabl or vn incrasing at tims, cspit ongoing anc constantly
xpancing procuction. This act cannot b xplainc in th static paracigm.
/t most, th lattr might allow or occasional upwarc corrctions o rsrv
cata in cas o nw unxpctc ciscovris, but in btwn such spiks,
th long-trm trncs in rsrv igurs shoulc b ngativ, as procuction
xhausts an ultimatly init amount o rsrvs.
FIGURE 2. GLOBAL RESERVES OF THREE METALS OVER TIME.
SOURCE: USGS MINERAL COMMODITY SUMMARIES, VARIOUS EDITIONS.
Th xplanation or this apparnt contraciction lis in th act that rsrv
cata by national gological survys co not incicat th absolut uantity
o an lmnt that is availabl or xtraction, as th static paracigm woulc
suggst. lnstac, rsrv cata provic an stimat o th small raction o
th vry larg amount o minrals that xist on th plant, which is
profitablo for oxtraction now or in tho noar futuro with oxisting tochnology
ano unoor curront markot conoitions. ln othr worcs, rsrv cata captur
a cynamic uilibrium that continuously acapts to th complx intrplay o
our volving knowlcg o th gological nvironmnt, changing markt
orcs, anc progrssing xtraction tchnologis. Evn whil th cumulativ
amount o minrals xtractc rom th plant kps incrasing, rsrvs
may rmain stabl or vn grow whr tchnological innovation taks plac
or markt concitions chang. Similarly thy may cclin, .g. whr spiks
in nrgy prics mak xtraction at high nrgy intnsitis lss proitabl.
This concptual uncrstancing is important to grasp minral policy. lt cos
not imply that unvn rsrv cistributions ar not an issu. Howvr, it
shows that who has what is a mor complx phnomnon than th
ccptivly straightorwarc ica that is implicit in calculations o static
rangs. From th cynamic acaptiv viwpoint, scarcity is a prmannt
atur o human xistnc: minrals ar scarc bcaus thy ar valuc in
socity anc cost tim anc ort to xtract rom th nvironmnt. Th
crucial ustions ar how much thy ar valuc anc how much tim anc
ort it taks to xtract thm in cirnt countris. Rsrv cata chang
continuously in cirnt countris anc ar sub|ct to a wic rang o
actors, rom changs in prics to acvancs in tchnology.
From this prspctiv, th scop or minral policy is consicrably broacr.
Minral policy succnly also concrns businss anc nvironmntal
rgulations, trac anc invstmnt policis, anc rsarch into issus as
civrs as xploration anc xtraction tchnologis, rcycling mthocs anc
tchnical substitution. Simplistic policy rcips basc on th supposc act
that 'w ar running out' o this mtal or anothr, hav to giv way to a
much mor nuancc analysis o th inlunc o policy on th conomic,
tchnological anc gological constraints that structur global minral
supply.
1. 3 HOW SCARCE ARE MINERALS ON THE PLANET?
Rsrv cata or a givn lmnt co not rprsnt th total uantity prsnt
on th plant. /s a mattr o act, th ustion o how much o a givn
lmnt is physically prsnt on th plant is o limitc rlvanc or th
policy cbat. Evn th scarcst lmnts invariably occur arounc th worlc.
Howvr, most o what xist o any givn lmnt on th plant is inly
cisprsc throughout th nvironmnt, cissolvc in th ocan, th air or in
th clls o plants anc animals. /t prsnt thr ar no tchnologis availabl
to xtract lmnts ounc in ths cisprsc stats on an incustrial scal.
Th only physical stat in which lmnts ar prsntly xtractabl is whr
thy occur as minrals, i.. highly concntratc clustrs o multipl lmnts
that hav ormc through natural gological procsss in th topmost layr
o th plant, th arth's crust. Minrals in th crust can b locatc anc
minc mchanically by humans anc thrby bcom availabl to th global
conomy.
1.4 HOW SCARCE ARE MINERALS IN THE EARTH S CRUST?
l th total amount o an lmnt that is prsnt on th plant is irrlvant
to th policy cbat, thn on may rathr ask how much o it can b ounc
in minral orm in th arth's crust anc thror coulc, at last thortically,
b minc. Th ma|ority o th 4CCC known minrals, basc on th 8
lmnts o th priocic tabl, ar too scattrc to b xtractc. Th
thrsholc that sparats lmnts in thir minral orm rom thir cisprsc
stats, in which thy can no longr b sparatc mchanically, is callc th
minoralogical barrior.
Estimats o how big a raction o a givn lmnt xists in th orm o
thortically minabl minrals ar highly spculativ anc vary rom sourc
to sourc. lt has bn stimatc that, cpncing on th lmnt, btwn
C.C% anc C.CC% o th total amount ounc in th arth's crust occurs in
minral orm. This is a vry small part o th arth's volum, but ths ar
normous numbrs comparc to th uantitis o lmnts that hav bn
xtractc so ar. Evn i annual procuction skyrocktc to th total sum o
procuction in th 2Cth cntury, th arth's crust .g. woulc contain nough
minrals to continu th procuction o aluminium or 57 billion yars anc
that o golc or 5 million yars! Pasc on th amount o minrals containc
in th arth's crust, minral supply woulc thus b a non-issu.
1. 5 HOW SCARCE ARE MINERALS THAT CAN BE MINED
PROFITABLY?
/gain, howvr, ths bnign numbrs ar irrlvant to th policy cbat.
Th ability to accss anc collct th lmnts is o ar gratr rlvanc
than absolut abuncanc. Vhil minrals ar highly concntratc natural
stats o lmnts, mining oprations ar tchnically anc conomically
asibl only at sits whr minrals ar cnsly clustrc in gological
ormations. ln othr worcs, such oro ooposits must hav a suicintly high
oro concontrations (i.. minral contnt), to mak mining practically anc
conomically viabl. Furthrmor, cposits must also b larg nough to
|ustiy th normous ovrhac costs ncssary to st up a nw mining
opration which can vary rom svral huncrc million to svral billion
Euros. Small cposits, vn i thy hav high or gracs might not gnrat
nough output ovr thir li tim to |ustiy xtraction.
Or cposits with suicint concntrations o minrals must also b
accssibl nough to allow or xtraction. Th arth's crust is btwn C
anc 5C km cp, but vn th worlc's cpst min, locatc in
Johannsburg, South /rica, is 'only' 3.9 km cp.
4
/lso, much o th arth's
surac is covrc with ocans which ar ciicult to accss or mining
oprations. Only a tiny raction o all minrals containc in th arth's crust
ar ounc in such larg high-grac, asily accssibl cposits that proitabl
mining bcoms possibl. Th rsrv cata availabl rom national survys
ar rough stimats o th aggrgat lmntal contnt o all th cposits
that ar in principl accssibl with currnt mining tchnology anc hav
th ncssary siz anc or concntration to mak xtraction proitabl at
currnt markt prics (s igur 3).
lt is part o th acaptiv natur o th global conomy that procucrs anc
consumrs as wll as national govrnmnts sk to acapt to changing
availability anc prics. /s prics o procucts basc on particular lmnts
ris, consumrs sk to rcuc thir consumption o ths goocs.
Companis that manuactur such procucts sk to substitut ths
lmnts with mor abuncant ons i possibl anc circt thir R&D
cpartmnts to cvlop altrnativ procucts or inputs that rly on chapr
rsourcs. Rcycling will bcom mor proitabl anc will incras in
volum. Ths orts coulc rcuc cmanc or particularly sought-atr
minral rsourcs ovr tim.
Simultanously, mining companis bgin to min cposits that wr
prviously consicrc unconomical bcaus o thir siz, or grac or
inaccssibility. Thy also invst havily in xploration to inc prviously
unciscovrc cposits o particularly scarc anc thror valuabl
minrals. This will incras rsrvs anc vntually output ovr tim. Takn
togthr, alling cmanc anc incrasing procuction in rspons to high
prics will mitigat rsourc prssur to som cgr. Th systm acapts.
Howvr, somtims such acaptation procsss can tak many yars i not
ccacs. Minral xploration anc th stting up o nw larg-scal mining
oprations hav lac-tims o many yars. Dmanc is similarly inlastic, as
substituts ar otn not racily availabl anc cu to th long tim it may
tak to cvlop altrnativ procucts or procuction procsss that rly on
mor abuncant rsourcs.
FIGURE 3. ELEMENTS ON THE PLANET
RESERVES = accssibl minral cposits that ar
tchnically anc conomically viabl or procuction
uncr currnt concitions
This can lac at tims to volatil, tight markts that ar vulnrabl to
cisruptions. /lracy small rcuctions in output uantitis or incrass in
cmanc can lac to irc pric hiks anc shortags. Nw rstrictions such
as xport uotas or stratgic stockpils cratc by stats that sk to
scur supplis anc protct national incustris, can urthr complicat th
pictur.
Th bottom lin is that whn xamining policy on minrals that ar crucial
to th unctioning o our conomis anc acvancc tchnologis, stimats
o absolut amounts, ithr in trms o uantity o th lmnt that xists
on our plant or vn in trms o th raction o this uantity that is ounc
in minral orm in its crust, ar irrlvant. Vhat mattrs instac ar
rosorvos-i.. th lmntal contnt o th small raction o rlativly larg
cposits that ar known to hav rlativly high or gracs anc li in
rlativly accssibl parts o th arth's crust. Rsrv cata ac|ust
cynamically bcaus what is larg, accssibl anc concntratc nough to
mrit xtraction changs continuously as prics, tchnology anc our
knowlcg o physical cposits volvs.
Howvr, incivicual countris policis anc prrncs mattr too. Racing
th nwspapr on might .g. gt th imprssion that th US cpncs on
China or rar supply bcaus th worlc's rsrvs ar concntratc in th
country by gological accicnt. Howvr, th US was still th largst
procucr on th plant only two ccacs ago anc th US Gological Survy
(USGS) has rcntly stimatc that thr ar roughly 2 million tonns o
rar arths in th US, much o which coulc b minc proitably
5
- nough
to last th worlc or many yars i ncssary. Nonthlss, currnt annual
US procuction o rar arths stancs at zro tonns in 2CC.
Ths ar acts that gologists anc matrial scintists cannot xplain.
lnstac, it taks insight into politics anc policy, conomics anc businss, as
wll as a gooc grip on th complx history o mining orts both in China
anc th US to gain an uncrstancing o what has happnc anc how policy
might b abl to chang ths acts on th grounc. lt is prcisly this kinc
o uncrstancing that w try to contribut to in th ollowing chaptr
through a irst st o cas stucis o national minral policis.
COUNTRY MI NERAL POLI CY
2 COUNTRY MINERAL POLICY
2. 1 INTRODUCTION
ln this chaptr th minral policy o th US, th UK anc o Japan ar
analyzc. Each survy will accrss th historic cvlopmnts, th cinitions
that ar usc in th country or stratgic minrals anc th ky policy actors
concrnc with thm. /lso currntly mrging lgislation anc policy
instrumnts will b ciscussc, atr which a short summary is prsntc.
2. 2 THE UNITED STATES
This sction looks at th volution o US policy rgarcing stratgic anc
critical minrals. Th US approach taks shap in rspons to gopolitical
tnsions anc has a strong national scurity cimnsion. Historically, US
rsponss to supply risks hav bn to mphasiz subsicizc comstic
procuction anc stockpiling. Contmporary policy appars to ollow this
trnc.
/?62356@A<?F
lncrasc concrn ovr stratgic minrals has historically bn associatc
with gopolitical tnsions. Th US has a long history o involvmnt in th
procuction anc intrnational xchang o minrals. Concurrnt with
growing import cpncnc, US policy makrs hav bcom concrnc
with th availability anc supply o stratgic minrals. This has procucc
svral cycls o minral concrn ovr th ccacs.
ln th mic-2C
th
cntury, two ma|or vnts - th Sconc Vorlc Var (VVll)
anc th Koran Var - hightnc concrn ovr stratgic minrals. /s
tnsions in Europ scalatc in th run-up to VV ll, th procuction o
ssntial military uipmnt in th US apparc thratnc by shortags
o raw matrials.
6
/s a rsult, th Stratgic Matrials /ct o 939 stablishc
th National Dns Stockpil anc authorizc th govrnmnt to
ctrmin th uality anc uantity o stratgic matrials to b stockpilc.
Th purpos o th National Dns Stockpil was to rcuc th possibility
o 'a cangrous anc costly cpncnc by th US upon orign sourcs or
supplis o such matrials in tims o national mrgncy.'
7
Ths stockpilc
matrials coulc only b rlasc in tims o national mrgncy, whn
prics woulc b much highr anc supplis constrainc. Th stratgic
rational o th stockpil was that its xistnc woulc ctr aggrssors
who hopc to challng th US by cutting o its supplis anc thrby
incapacitat its cns incustry.
/tr VV ll howvr, concrns aros that i th larg stockpil woulc b
cisbancc, minral prics on worlc markts might b cprssc or a
consicrabl tim. This lc Congrss to pass th 946 Stratgic anc Critical
Matrial Stockpiling /ct, conirming its commitmnt to assur th acuat
supply o matrials in th vnt o a military mrgncy, ctivly giving
th stockpil a prmannt status.
8
Th stockpil cam soon uncr prssur
again, as th Koran Var in 95C cratc anothr prioc o stratgic minral
shortags. ln rspons, th Dns Procuction /ct o 95C authorizc th
govrnmnt to subsiciz th procuction o aluminium, coppr, tungstn,
anc othr mtals through a $2 billion loans program that was usc to shor
up th comstic mining incustry.
9

/tr th Koran Var, th cost o maintaining comstic procuction altrc
th prcption on import cpncnc anc th usulnss o th National
Dns Stockpil anc subsicizc comstic mining oprations. lt was
arguc that many stratgic minrals shoulc b procurc abroac as
comstically thy coulc only b procucc at costs ar abov worlc markt
prics.
C
Th ocus o US minral policy shitc rom a prmium on rliability
anc national control to a concrn or controlling costs. Rlianc on a w
lowr-cost orign sourcs incrasc.

/tr a longr prioc o calm, concrns ovr th rliability o supply
rsuracc again in th 97Cs anc 98Cs. / sns o urgncy was gnratc
by th growing inlunc o th Sovit Union (USSR) on th minral markt.
Changing its stratgy, as on o th largst minral procucrs, th USSR
startc importing rom countris that tracitionally tracc minrals with th
US anc its Colc Var allis. US policy makrs arc that xpancing Sovit
inluncs among nations with larg rsrvs o stratgic minrals woulc
lac to th Sovits cornring roughly 8C% o th minral markt.
2
Ths
mov by its primary comptitor troublc Vashington. Fars wr urthr
xacrbatc curing th nrgy crisis.
3
ln 973, oil procucing stats tric to
rstrict oil xports to th US in rtaliation o its support or lsral. lt lc US
xprts to worry about similar conomic corcion by th USSR through its
control o stratgic non-ul minrals.
/ national cbat took shap ovr concrns o intrruptc minral xports
anc th possibility that orign minral procucrs woulc orm an OPEC
(Organization o th Ptrolum Exporting Countris) -typ cartl to rais
minral prics. /t th sam tim, th crisis urthr incrasc US import
cpncnc sinc rising oil prics mac it mor cost ctiv to rin anc
procss minrals clos to th min, rcucing transportation costs. Vith
limitc procuction capability at hom, this mant incrasc cpncnc on
orign supplis anc urthr incrasc concrn ovr orign political stps.
Th highr nrgy costs also lc to a slump in th US conomy, ccrasing
invstmnts in nw anc mor comptitiv manuacturing plants.
4

ln th wak o this irst prioc o wicsprac commocity shortags atr
th Koran Var, th National Commission on Supplis anc Shortags was
stablishc with th Dns Procuction /ct /mncmnt o 974.
5

Focusing on US cpncncy on a limitc numbr o supplirs, in 976 th
National Commission on Supply Shortags pointc out that supply risks
rsultc rom th vulnrability o mining acilitis anc th politicization o
minrals in southrn /rica.
6

US policy makrs wr particularly concrnc about political unrst in
South /rica anc Zair. Th natur o th aparthic rgim in South /rica,
on o th worlc's cominant platinum-procucrs, conrontc US policy
makrs with th cilmma that th US coulc b compllc to norc an
import mbargo or political rasons, whil bing conomically cpncnt
on South /rican supplis o minrals. ln 978-979, local instability anc a
political insurrction in Zair causc a sharp crop in cobalt procuction
rsulting in shortags. Furthrmor, proposals by cvloping countris to
us minral xports as part o an anti-Vstrn 'Nw lntrnational Economic
Orcr' rinorcc th viw that US policy makrs hac bn in|ucicious in
making th US cpncnt on unrliabl supplirs.
7

ln its rport to Congrss o Dcmbr 976, th National Commission on
Supplis anc Shortags rcommncc that th US stockpil shoulc b
usc to allviat th cangr o commocity shortags. Sinc th us o th
National Dns Stockpil was rstrictc to cns mrgncis, th
National Commission on Supplis anc Shortags suggstc th cration o
an conomic stockpil. Th conomic stockpil coulc b usc in cas o
svr supply cisruptions cu to othr contingncis, such as local wars or
cisturbancs in ma|or supplir stats, mbargos or cartls.
8

Calls or mor ctiv us o th stockpil anc th possibl cration o an
conomic stockpil wr howvr mt with strong opposition rom th
mining anc mtal procucing community. Thy arguc against using th
stratgic stockpil to inlunc markt prics.
9
Making most o thir proit
whn prics pak curing national mrgncis, companis smc to
prr thir chancs on a volatil markt rathr than bing sub|ct to
govrnmnt intrvntion. This cbat rsultc in th Stratgic anc Critical
Matrials Stockpiling Rvision /ct o 979. lts goal was to rvis th Dns
Stockpil Program, spciying that th stockpil was to b managc or
cns purposs only anc not to control commocity prics.
2C

ln 98C th National Matrials anc Minrals Policy, Rsarch anc
Dvlopmnt /ct, mancating th cvlopmnt o a national minral policy,
cclarc that 'that it is th continuing policy o th US to promot an
acuat anc stabl supply o matrials ncssary to maintain national
scurity, conomic wll-bing anc incustrial procuction.' Dbat ovr th
us o th stockpil to campn th businss cycl hac not bn sttlc yt
in 988 whn th Pntagon bcam rsponsibl or managing th National
Dns Stockpil. Th last tim nw matrials wr purchasc or th
National Dns Stockpil cats back to 992, whn th National Dns
Stockpil Cntr bought natural rubbr, tantalum minrals anc tantalum
oxic.
2
/t th nc o th Colc Var, th Dpartmnt o Dns (DOD)
ccicc that thr was an xcss o crtain matrials anc circtc a partial
sal o th National Dns Stockpil.
22
This sals program continus to
th prsnt cay, anc has involvc minrals inclucing rar arth lmnts
(REEs).
B@1236;6A6<;<3@A?.A2460;<;3B29:6;2?.9@
Th US holcs a strong scurity-cntric prspctiv o its minral policy.
/ccorcing to th Congrssional Rsarch Srvic, th currnt goal o US
minral policy is to promot an acuat, stabl, anc rliabl supply o
matrials or US national scurity, conomic wll-bing, anc incustrial
procuction.
23
Th US cos not currntly hav an ovrarching national
stratgic policy cocumnt on non-ul minrals. Por an laboration on
th cirnt lgislativ proposals anc othr policy instrumnts is orc, a
bri laboration on th US cinition o 'stratgic minrals' is provicc.
US policy cocumnts accrssing th issu o stratgic non-ul minrals
mploy cirnt trminology anc cinitions. Th trms 'critical minrals'
anc 'stratgic minrals' ar closly rlatc but usually not clarly
cirntiatc.
24
Th trms ntrc th US policy lxicon with th 3tratogic
ano Critical Matorials 3tock Piling Act in I939.
25
lts most rcnt upcat o
2CC5 cins 'stratgic anc critical matrials' as matrials 'that (a) woulc
b ncc to supply th military, incustrial anc ssntial civilian ncs o
th US curing a national mrgncy, anc (b) ar not ounc or procucc in
th US in suicint uantitis to mt such nc.'
26
This is a broac cinition
in which th stratgic valu o th matrials crivs both rom thir
application anc availability. Poth trms ar also mployc mor narrowly
by th DOD Stratgic Matrials Protction Poarc. ln its 2CC8 rport, a
'matrial critical to national scurity' is cinc as 'a stratgic matrial or
which () th DOD cominats th markt or th matrial, (2) th
Dpartmnt's ull anc activ involvmnt anc support ar ncssary to
sustain anc shap th stratgic cirction o th markt, anc (3) thr is
signiicant anc unaccptabl risk o supply cisruption to vulnrabl US or
ualiic non-US supplirs.'
27
Mor rcntly, th Uncr Scrtary o Dns or /cuisition, cinc
stratgic matrials as 'thos matrials or which th US is largly import
cpncnt, or which no viabl conomic substitut xists, or or which
thr is concrn ovr th sourc (or gopolitical rasons) or th supply
(or markt rasons).'
28
This cinition xplicitly nots th importanc o
substituts anc uncrlins that concrns about supply rstrictions can stm
rom both gopolitical anc conomic turmoil.
/lthough th cinitions hav cirnt mphass anc vary in scop, thy
gnrally icntiy th sam actors that contribut to a minral's criticality
or stratgic valu. First, thy rr to minrals that ar important in us,
ithr at th stat lvl (national scurity or conomy) or at th procuct
lvl (th minral prorms a uniu unction anc is thror an ssntial
input). Sconc, thy alluc to minrals whos availability is rstrainc in
various ways. This can b causc by a lack o comstic rsrvs anc
procuction, high import cpncncy, or cisruptions o supply originating
with th supplir or th markt. Th absnc o a viabl substitut, cu to
high costs or tchnical ciicultis, is a ky ctrminant o both th
importanc o us anc th availability.
29
B@@A?.A2460:6;2?.9@
Th list o stratgic non-ul minrals o th US is cynamic yt shows som
ovrlap ovr tim. Rports rom th 97Cs-98Cs list aluminium, chromium,
cobalt, mangans, nickl, platinum-group mtals (PGMs) anc titanium as
stratgic minrals. Chromium, cobalt, mangans, anc PGMs wr
consicrc most critical as a rsult o th political unrst in southrn /rica
rom which th US importc almost all o its minrals. 3C /ccorcing to th
USGS ths rmain stratgic minrals tocay cu to thir xtnsiv us in
th procuction o military assts anc ky sctors o th US conomy,
inclucing th automotiv, arospac, lctronic, chmical, glass anc nrgy
incustris.
3

lt thror coms as no surpris that ths matrials also appar in a 2CC8
rport on critical minrals by th National Rsarch Council (NRC). Th
NRC cvlopc a mthocology to valuat th criticality o non-ul
minrals. O thos mtals xaminc, th ollowing wr ounc to b critical:
PGMs, REEs,
32
incium, mangans, anc niobium. Criticality was basc on
th importanc o thir application, th ciiculty o incing substituts anc
th high associatc supply risks. Othr non-ul minrals that wr
consicrc ssntial, though short o 'critical' inclucc incustrial anc
construction minrals inclucing coppr, bauxit anc iron or.
33

On yar latr, in Fbruary 2CC9, th cirntiation btwn ssntial,
stratgic anc critical non-ul minrals rapparc in a rport by th Oic
o th Scrtary o Dns anc th Stratgic Matrials Protction Poarc
on th national scurity issus associatc with spcialty mtals. ln this
rport spcialty mtals wr consicrc stratgic or cns purposs,
which mans thy may ruir spcial monitoring anc attntion rom th
DOD. Howvr, thy wr not consicrc matrials critical to national
scurity or which th DOD is ruirc tak action to nsur long trm
comstic availability, such as stockpiling.
ln a rport to Congrss on th rconiguration o th National Dns
Stockpil o /pril 2CC th DOD rcommncc th ollowing 3 matrials
or stockpiling: bryllium mtal, chromium mtal, cobalt, columbium
(niobium), rro-chromium, rro-mangans, grmanium, iricium, platinum,
tantalum, tin, tungstn, anc zinc. Th rport's authors pointc out that th
list o matrials critical to th stratgic cns intrsts o th US woulc
chang accorcing to cns ncs anc markt cvlopmnts such as
supply, pric anc uality.
97Cs-8Cs
Stratgic Minrals
( V.C.J. van
Rnsburg)
2CC8
Critical Minrals
(National Rsarch
Council)
2CC
DOD Rcommncc Matrials
or National Dns Stockpil
(Rport to Congrss)
/luminium Platinum Group Mtals Pryllium Mtal
Chromium Rar Earth Elmnts Chromium Mtal
Cobalt lncium Cobalt
Mangans Mangans Columbium (Niobium)
Nickl Niobium Frro Chromium
Platinum Group Mtals Frro Mangans
Titanium Grmanium
lricium
Platinum
Tantalum
Tin
Tungstn
Zinc
FIGURE 4 STRATEGIC AND CRITICAL MINERALS
Thr ccacs ago th criticality o crtain stratgic non-ul minrals was
raisc cu to concrns about rliability o /rican supplirs. ln a similar
ashion, th currnt import cpncncy on China's nar-monopolistic
supply o REEs has contributc to hightnc concrns about this group
o matrials. REEs anc othr rar mtals ar important to th DOD cu to
thir important unctions in cns applications, such as |t-ightr
ngins, missil guicanc systms, antimissil cns, anc spac-basc
satllits anc communication systms.
34
ln particular, th DOD consicrs
alnico, rrits, samarium-cobalt, nocymium-iron-boron anc high purity
bryllium ssntial bcaus o thir uniu proprtis.
35
Samarium cobalt
anc nocymium-iron-boron ar REE-alloys anc ar usc to procuc th
worlc's strongst prmannt magnts, ssntial or many military
applications. High purity bryllium is usc in snsors, missils, satllits,
avionics anc nuclar wapons.
36
Ths matrials ar not (yt) on th list o
matrials that th DOD rcommncs or rsrvs, howvr lgislation is
uncrway to accrss this issu. ln 2CC Congrss was consicring lgislativ
proposals that woulc ualiy REEs as 'matrials ithr stratgic or critical
to national scurity.'
37
l acoptc, this ualiication woulc allow th DOD to
tak actions to nsur supply anc cvlop a comstic supply chain. lt also
marks th irst stp to incorporat REEs into th National Dns Stockpil.
For th rmaincr o this cas stucy, REEs will incc b consicrc as
stratgic.
Th abov-mntionc lgislation has a broacr ocus than th application
o REEs in cns systms. /lthough th amounts usc ar otn small,
REEs ar applic in many important sctors o th US conomy ranging
rom halth car, construction, utilitis anc transport. Thy also inc many
applications in th rnwabl nrgy incustry. REEs ar usc in prmannt
magnts anc rchargabl battris or hybric anc lctric vhicls,
gnrators or winc turbins. /gainst th backcrop o climat chang anc
calls or a transition to a grnr conomy, REEs ar consicrc ky to
innovation anc 'th growth o grn |obs.'
38
Othr usag o REEs inclucs
automotiv catalytic convrtrs, luic cracking catalysts in ptrolum
rining, anc in consumr curabls such as phosphors in colour tlvision
anc lat panl cisplays such as thos usc in cll phons, portabl DVD
playrs, anc laptops.
39
1<:2@A60=?<1B0A6<;.;10<;02?;?24.?16;4@A?.A2460
:6;2?.9@
Tracitionally, th US has hac a strong comstic mining incustry. Up until
973 it was th worlc's lacing procucr anc xportr o minrals.
4C
Figur
2 shows US minral procuction in rlation to global procuction in 2CC.
Ovr th past cntury, th US has bcom mor import-cpncnt or its
minral supply. Vhras th US hac an xport-import balanc btwn
9CC anc 929, this slowly shitc anc by th 97C's import was thr tims
largr than minral xports.
4
lmport has continuc to grow, particularly or
stratgic minrals. /lthough th US also procucs som alnico, rrits anc
samarium cobalt comstically, it cos not procuc othr stratgic minrals
such as nocymium-iron-boron.
42
Minral procuction o svral stratgic minrals is highlightc abov. Th
US was onc sl-rliant on comstically procucc REEs rom th Mountain
Pass min in Caliornia. /tr th ciscovry o REEs cposits in 949, th US
prormc all stags o REE procssing btwn 965 anc 985.
43
From th
99Cs onwarc US REE manuacturing bgan to cclin lacing to th
closur o Mountain Pass by Molycorp in 2CC2.
44
/s a rsult, rom that
momnt th US hac no comstic mining or procuction capability or REEs,
anc th US has bcom almost CC% rliant on REE imports rom China.
45

Pryllium tlls a cirnt story. ln 2CCC, th only US procucr o bryllium,
Prush Vllman, lnc. (PVl) closc its mining oprations cu to conomic,
halth anc saty issus.
46
PVl continuc procssing th minral on th
basis o supply rom th national stockpil, but in orcr to avoic cpltion
th US hac to look or orign sourcs. Th US startc importing bryllium
mainly rom Kazakhstan. Howvr, sinc Kazakh bryllium has insuicint
purity to b usc in critical cns applications, this turnc out to b
problmatic. Furthrmor, transrring tchnology to Kazakhstan in orcr
to incras purity lvls was consicrc a non-proliration risk.
47

Production MineraI U.S. WorId U.S percent
of WorId
(mtric Tonns)
Pryllium 2C 4C 86%
Coppr .9C.CCC 5.8CC.CCC 8%
Diamoncs n/a n/a C%
Golc 2C 235C 9%
Lac 4CC.CCC 3.9CC.CCC C%
Magnsium (Compouncs) 255.CCC 4.99C.CCC 5%
Molybcnum 5C.CCC 2CC.CCC 25%
Nickl n/a n/a C%
Pallacium 3 95 7%
Platinum 4 2CC 2%
Silvr 23C 2.4CC 6%
Titanium ( minral concntrats) 2CC.CCC 5.72C.CCC 3%
Zinc 69C.CCC .CC.CCC 6%
Total slctc Commocitis 2.786.577 4.734.285 7%
FIGURE 5 US MINERAL PRODUCTION
SOURCE: USGS MINERAL COMMODITY SUMMARIES 2010
/war o th supply risks that com with high import cpncnc, th US
govrnmnt took action to rstart comstic procuction o bryllium. Du
to its importanc or US cns systms anc its nuclar postur, th DOD
has stppc into th markt or high purity bryllium.
48
Using th authority
grantc by Titl lll o th Dns Procuction /ct (5C U.S.C. /pp. 2C6 t
s.), which allows xpancing or rstoring spciic incustrial capabilitis
or national cns, it provicc loans to PVl in orcr to builc anc oprat
a nw high purity bryllium procuction plant. /s a rsult, th US is at th
tim o writing on o th most important procucrs o bryllium. Vith an
annual procuction o 4C mtric tonns, it procucs 86% o th global
stock (s Figur 5).
US procuction o REEs has also pickc up sinc 2CC7, whn Molycorp
Minrals rsumc oprations at Mountain Pass with th sparation o
bastnasit concntrats rom stockpil procucc bor shutcown.
49

Molycorp Minrals it is pro|ctc to ully rstart procuction again in 2C2.
Th company argus or support: 'Vith appropriat cral assistanc or
rsarch, cvlopmnt anc capital costs, Molycorp Minrals is prparc to
mov orwarc to r-stablish comstic manuacturing capacity on an
xpcitc basis.'
5C
Th company urthr plans to xpanc oprations to th
procuction o mtal, alloys anc nocymium-iron-boron magnts. Th
xpctc procuction capacity upon rstart is approximatly 8.43 mtric
tonns o rar arth oxic pr yar.
5
/ccorcing to th USGS, th cmanc
or REEs is xpctc to ris. This is partly cu to pro|ctc growth o
C%-6% pr yar in th cmanc or prmannt magnts anc auto catalysts
anc an incras o 6%-8% pr yar o ptrolum cracking catalysts.
52

Th cclin o comstic procuction o stratgic non-ul minrals anc
growing import cpncnc wr causc by incrasc consumption anc
ccrasc comptitivnss o US minrals on th intrnational markt.
53

Various actors contributc to th ccrasc comptitivnss o th US
mining incustry ovr th yars, inclucing limitations to accss public lancs,
highr nrgy prics, anc nvironmntal, halth anc saty rgulations.
54

Svral stratgic minrals ithr wr not ounc in th US or coulc only b
procucc at costs ar abov xisting markt prics, promoting rlianc on
lowr-cost orign supplirs sinc 95.
55
Rathr than xpanc comstic
procuction, th US incrasc its cpncnc on a w supplirs, notably
thos in cvloping countris.
56
/s a consunc, US procucrs anc
manuacturs ar now acing svr comptition rom th mrging
conomis, lik China anc lncia.
57
Du to strong comptition rom low cost
procucrs, it similarly bcam ciicult to cvlop viabl comstic
procuction capabilitis without govrnmnt support.
Vith growing import cpncnc, th issu o stratgic non-ul minrals
has gainc incrasc attntion rom US policy makrs. ln 2CC US Congrss
xprssc concrn about accss to stratgic minrals, particularly in th
vnt whn th US cns incustry ncs to rsponc to a national or
intrnational mrgncy.
58
ln th prccing ccac, howvr, no ma|or nw
lgislation has bn acoptc rgarcing stratgic non-ul minrals.
ln 2CC howvr, in light o rcnt cvlopmnts on th minral markt, th
urgncy among lgislators to accrss /mrica's minral vulnrability has
grown. This was th rsult o th possibility o conomic cisruptions anc
political tnsions with primary supplirs.
Particularly, Chins hancling o its REEs monopoly has contributc to
ars about th Chins using xports o REEs as wapon o trac
incrasing anti-Chins sntimnt among US policy makrs anc
congrssional lacrs.
59
/s a rsult o ths cvlopmnts, th cbat in
Congrss on stratgic non-ul minrals has bn rvivc anc both th
Snat anc th Hous o Rprsntativs hav bn consicring nw
lgislation on th mattr. / cscription o ths policy initiativs ollows
blow, subsunt to an xamination who th main actors ar inluncing
US policy making on stratgic non-ul minrals.
:.6;.0A<?@
Psics Congrss, th main govrnmntal actors involvc in th policy
making procss ar th DOD, th Dpartmnt o Enrgy (DOE) anc to a
lssr xtnt th Dpartmnt o th lntrior (DOl). /t th tim o writing,
th Pntagon has not yt systmatically assssc national scurity risks
rlatc to stratgic non-ul minrals. Howvr, stps wr takn to
invstigat th issu. Rports publishc by th Pntagon hint at th notion
that stratgic non-ul minrals will continu to b ssntial to cns
systms cu to thir li cycls anc lack o substituts, yt no cpartmnt
wic masurs hav bn takn to allviat th cpncncy on REEs. Th
DOD is in th arly stags o assssing what stps can b takn to rcuc
its cpncncy on REEs anc to xpanc sourcs o supply.
6C
Th DOE
similarly blivs that sourc o supply shoulc b civrsiic anc that
invstmnts shoulc b mac in comstic manuacturing anc procssing.
/lthough grn tchnologis rly havily on REEs, th DOE cos not
consicr supply rstrictions o REE to b static, cu to xisting stratgis
to accrss th shortags. Davic Sancalow, /ssistant Scrtary or Policy
anc lntrnational /airs o th DOE, statc that accrssing th availability
o REEs anc othr stratgic matrials ruirs a thr-part approach,
namly to globaliz supply chains or stratgic matrials, to cvlop
substituts anc to promot rcycling, r-us anc mor icint us o
stratgic matrials.
6
Sancalow accc thr is no nc to panic i ths
stratgis ar nactc wisly.
/s th only ma|or US REEs mining company, Molycorp plays a prominnt
rol in promoting a comstic REE supply chain. Molycorp's statc long
trm ob|ctiv is to r-stablish a manuacturing capacity or intrmciat
magnt matrials anc inishc no magnts.
62
lt argus that th rsponsibl
xploitation o comstic REEs rsrvs is th bst way to nsur th
magnt supply or cns purposs. US mtal tracrs, by contrast, ar lss
kn on currnt lgislativ proposals or th rstablishmnt o a comstic
supply chain. Thy co not s China's import rstrictions as a circt thrat.
lnstac, thy ar that a comstic supply chain will put thm out o businss
or ccras thir proits.
63
Think tanks in th ilc o intrnational anc national scurity hav also
pickc up on th issu o stratgic non-ul minrals. Think tanks play an
important rol in shaping th cbat by provicing analysis anc conncting
US minral procucrs, manuacturrs, mmbrs o Congrss anc thir sta,
various branchs o th US govrnmnt, anc othr stakholcrs. Th most
prominnt contributions rom think tanks to th cbat incluc th Cntr
or Stratgic anc lntrnational Stucis (CSlS), th Cntr or a Nw
/mrican Cntury (CN/S), anc th lnstitut or th /nalysis o Global
Scurity (l/GS). ln May 2CC CSlS publishc a rport ntitlc Paro Farth
Flomonts: A Wronch in tho 3upply Chain? ln this issu CSlS xamins th
supply anc procuction, cns rlatc issus anc policy options rlatc to
REEs.
64
lt conclucc that '[i]nsuicint attntion has bn paic to a broac
rang o important minrals that ar scarc sourcs o rnwabl nrgy
anc whos continuing anc incrasing provision ar ssntial or th
unctioning o incustry anc commrc throughout th cvlopc worlc.'
65

On 8 May 2CC, CSlS hostc a rounctabl sssion to ciscuss th challngs
anc opportunitis th US anc th broacr transatlantic community ar
acing in nsuring rliabl supply o stratgic minrals. Participants inclucc
xprts rom th USGS anc on US national scurity. Thy agrc that
supply rstriction o stratgic non-ul minrals woulc ngativly act US
conomic cvlopmnt anc national scurity anc that coopration with
th EU in this ilc was csirabl. CN/S incs thr is not nough awarnss
o US vulnrability to supply cisruptions o stratgic minrals.
66
Thror,
it has cvotc on o its 'Natural Scurity Plogs' to minrals. ln Jun 2CC9
CN/S publishc a working papr on th importanc o stratgic minrals
anc othr natural rsourcs or national scurity.
67
l/GS has gon a stp
urthr anc st up a cntr ccicatc to th stucy o REEs. lt ouncc th
Tchnology anc Rar Earth Mtals (TREM) Cntr, whos mission is to
'crat a orum whr policymakrs anc companis rom th minrals,
cns tchnology, clantch, automotiv anc inanc sctors can acvanc
policis that nsur scur anc civrs supply chains or tchnology
mtals.'
68

Th mcia has actc as a platorm or Congrssmn to rais public support
or thir lgislativ initiativs. Rprsntativ Mik Coman (R-Coloraco),
or xampl, rgularly appars in CNN intrviws to commnt on
cvlopmnts concrning REEs. Sinc th Sino-Japans maritim incicnt
in Sptmbr 2CC, mcia attntion or stratgic non-ul minrals has
incrasc cramatically. Th rporting, bor th G-2C summit in Soul,
South Kora, gnrally mphasizc th ngativ cts anc potntial
scurity thrat o a Chins monopoly on REEs anc complainc about
short sightcnss o US policy makrs who lt this happn. lt cs into a
gnral anti-Chins slant in US public opinion. Lacing Nw York Tims
columnist Paul Krugman is illustrativ o this stranc. ln an op-c in Octobr
2CC on rar arth mtals h statc: 'l inc this story [rrring to th
Chins hancling o th maritim incicnt] cply cisturbing, both or what
it says about China anc what it says about th US. On th on sic, th
aair highlights th cklssnss o US policy makrs, who cic nothing
whil an unrliabl rgim acuirc a stranglholc on ky matrials. On th
othr sic, th incicnt shows a Chins govrnmnt that is cangrously
triggr-happy, willing to wag conomic warar on th slightst
provocation.'
69
Krugman anc othr |ournalists support th cvlopmnt o
a comstic supply chain or REEs anc th civrsiication o supply with
non-Chins sourcs.
0<;A2:=<?.?F9246@9.A6<;
Stratgic non-ul minrals ar accrssc in svral cirnt policy
cocumnts, inclucing th Dns Procuction /ct, th National Dns
Stock Piling /ct, th Puy /mrican /ct, th 94 Prry /mncmnt which
ruirs th Pntagon to only procur comstically sourcc spcialty
mtals such as bryllium anc titanium, anc th Spcialty Mtal Provision.
7C

Furthrmor, lgislation on othr topics - such as national cns - may
incluc masurs rlatc to stratgic matrials. Such was or instanc th
cas with th National Dns /uthorization acts 2CC anc 2C. Ths
cocumnts co not provic a comprhnsiv ramwork or US minral
policy, ciring in th cinition anc assssmnt o what stratgic or critical
non-ul minrals ar, howvr togthr thy constitut a volum o policy
rsourcs. Th most rcnt proposals rgarcing stratgic minrals ar
incpncnt bills.
H.R. 48SS RESTART Act
On 7 March 2CC Rprsntativ Coman introcucc th Rar Earths
Supply-Chain Tchnology anc Rsourcs Transormation /ct o 2CC
(REST/RT /ct) intnt on stablishing a comstic supply cycl or REEs.
/ccorcing to th txt, th goal o th REST/RT /ct is to 'r-stablish a
comptitiv comstic rar arths minrals procuction incustry, a comstic
rar arth mtal procssing, rining, puriication anc mtals procuction
incustry anc a comstic rar arth mtal basc magnt procuction incustry
anc supply chain in th Unitc Stats.'
7
Th bill proposs two instrumnts.
On th on hanc stockpiling REEs anc on th othr, provicing govrnmnt
loans to r-stablishing comstic mining anc procssing o REEs. Th bill
stablishs mchanisms to rport on anc rviw intrnational trac
practics anc to ctrmin which o th REEs ar critical to national anc
conomic scurity. lt tasks th DOD to start th procurmnt anc
stockpiling o REE, xplicating that to this nc REEs can b purchasc rom
China to mt US national scurity anc conomic ncs. Th bill urthrmor
promots th rstablishmnt o comstic mining plants anc mchanisms
or obtaining govrnmnt loans to this nc.
S.3521 RESTART Act
On 22 Jun 2CC th Rar Earths Supply Tchnology anc Rsourcs
Transormation /ct o 2CC was introcucc by Snator Lisa Murkowski
(R-/laska). Th goal o this bill is to 'stablish a Rar Earth Policy Task
Forc to monitor anc assist cral agncis in xpciting th rviw anc
approval o prmits to acclrat th compltion o pro|cts that will
incras invstmnt in, xploration or, anc cvlopmnt o comstic rar
arths.'
72
Th bill acknowlcgs th urgnt nc to r-stablish a comstic
rar arth lmnt supply chain sinc 'REEs orm th backbon o both th
cns anc nrgy supply chain.' Thror, this bill circts th Rar Earth
Policy Task Forc to rport to Congrss on th cvlopmnt o a comstic
supply chain, on th REEs that ar critical to clan nrgy tchnologis anc
national scurity, anc on whthr critical REEs shoulc b stockpilc. ln
accition, th Task Forc shoulc guic th rnwabl nrgy incustry in
obtaining govrnmnt loans. Th bill urthrmor circts th govrnmnt
to provic uncs to acacmic institutions, cral laboratoris, anc privat
ntitis or innovation, training, anc workorc cvlopmnt in th comstic
REE supply chain. Th bill has bn rrrc to th committ o th Snat
on Enrgy anc Natural Rsourcs.
H.R. S1S0 Rare Earths and CriticaI MateriaIs RevitaIization Act of 2010
On 22 Sptmbr 2CC, immciatly ollowing th Chins ccision to
rstrict all REE xports to Japan as part o a Chins-Japans ciplomatic
incicnt involving a maritim collision, this lgislativ proposal was
introcucc by Rprsntativ Kathy Dahlkmpr (D-Pnnsylvania). Th
main goal o th /ct is to 'cvlop a rar arth matrials program, to amnc
th National Matrials anc Minrals Policy, Rsarch anc Dvlopmnt /ct
o 98C.'
73
This act woulc rpal th National Critical Matrials /ct o 984
anc ocuss on th rol o th Dpartmnt o Enrgy. lt calls or th
stablishmnt o a Rsarch anc Dvlopmnt lnormation Cntr within
th DOE to collct inormation anc rport to Congrss on REEs. This
rsarch program is also mant to support th cvlopmnt o nw
tchnologis with loan guarants or commrcial applications, anc to
ncourag multicisciplinary collaboration btwn univrsitis anc with
th Europan Commission.
P.L. 111-84, the FiscaI Year 2010 NationaI Defense Authorization Act
/s part o th annual cns authorization, this act ruirs th Pntagon
to ctrmin th xtnt o US minral vulnrability. lt calls or masurs to
ctrmin which spciic military wapons systms currntly cpnc on
REEs, how high th risks o rstrictc supply rom orign sourcs ar, anc
what stps th DOD has takn to allviat potntial thrats to national
scurity.
74
H.R. 513S FiscaI Year 2011 NationaI Defense Authorization Act
/s part o th ovrall annual cns bucgt, this act ruirs th Scrtary
o Dns to mak an assssmnt o th REE supply chain anc ctrmin
which matrials ar stratgic or critical to national scurity. Th /ct calls
or a plan to nsur th long trm availability o ths matrials by th nc
o 2C5. Th /ct also xplicitly circts th stablishmnt o a comstic
sourc o sintrc nocymium-iron-boron magnts or cns systms.
=<960F6;@A?B:2;A@
Th US is also consicring transorming th national cns stockpil into
a Stratgic Matrials Scurity Program (SMSP). This transormation aims to
improv US ability to acapt to cvlopmnts on th stratgic matrial
markt anc to nsur availability o stratgic non-ul minrals or cns
anc conomic purposs.
75
Th proposal was put orwarc in th
Rconiguration o th National Dns Stockpil Rport to Congrss o
/pril 2CC9 in rspons to congrssional rusts about th icntiication
anc availability o matrials that ar stratgic or critical to cns intrsts.
Th rport conclucc that th DOD's currnt policy to cispos o stockpilc
matrial ruirs rvision. lt rcommncs that th national cns
stockpil b rconigurc to icntiy currnt anc utur US stratgic
matrial ncs anc thrats, th ability to accss ths matrials anc
appropriat mitigating stratgis to nsur supply.
76
To this nc, SMSP
woulc monitor markts anc nabl plannrs to tak acvantag o global
markt concitions. Furthrmor, it woulc stablish supply chain
commitmnts with procucrs anc supplirs, monitor timly clivry o
matrials anc stor only a limitc amount anc typs o matrials. Comparc
to th national cns stockpil program, th SMSP woulc hav a broacr
intrnal DOD proil anc closr coopration with othr cral agncis.
/ggrgating matrial ruirmnts o th DOD anc othr agncis woulc
lvrag th SMSP buying powr anc crat gratr opportunitis to ntr
anc xit markts anc contribut to programmatic lxibility to icintly
anc ctivly acuir ncc matrials.
77
ln sum, th SMSP has a broacr
ocus than mr tracitional stockpiling.
ln /ugust 2CC th Dns Logistics /gncy o th Dns National
Stockpil Cntr publishc th SMSP lmplmntation Plan. This rport to
Congrss givs an ovrviw o th actors, rsponsibilitis, lgislation anc
uncing ruirc or th rconiguration o th national cns stockpil as
st out in th rport o /pril 2CC. For instanc, th SMSP ruirs lgislativ
changs to th Stratgic anc Critical Matrials Stock Piling /ct.
78
Furthrmor, th US ilc a claim with th Vorlc Trac Organization (VTO)
on 23 Jun 2CC9. ln it th US cits masurs that China allgcly uss to
rstrict xports o stratgic non-ul minrals anc nots that thr may b
othr rstraints. Th US has rustc consultations with China on this
issu, which was sconcc by th EU, Canaca, Mxico anc Turky.
79
ln a
haring in th Hous o Rprsntativs on 6 March 2CC on 'Rar Earth
Minrals anc 2st Cntury lncustry' intrnational trac law xprt Trnc
Stwart arguc that th US shoulc consicr to il a sconc claim bor
th VTO against China bcaus China is violating agrmnts rgarcing
xport taxs.
8C
0<;09B@6<;
US stratgic minral policy appars to volv in rspons to gopolitical
tnsions. This is historically consistnt. Th US holcs a scurity-cntric
prspctiv o its minral policy. Vhat th US consicrs stratgic matrials
varis accorcing to cns ncs anc markt cvlopmnts such as
supply, pric anc uality.
ln short, th ollowing lmnts ar consicrc th criving actors o
currnt US minral policy on stratgic anc critical non-ul minrals:
lmport cpncncy;
(Lack o) Domstic procuction;
Gopolitical tnsions that impact rliability o orign supplirs;
Growing consumption, both comstic anc global;
lmportanc to th national conomy o stratgic non-ul minrals
using incustris;
lmportanc o stratgic non-ul minrals or cns systms;
/nti-Chins sntimnt among opinion lacrs anc policy makrs.
Th US cos not hav an ovrarching stratgic policy cocumnt on non-
ul minrals. Stratgic non-ul minrals ar accrssc in svral cirnt
policy cocumnts. Thy propos builcing comstic supply chains anc
stockpiling. Currnt lgislativ proposals concrning REEs ar uncrway.
This is th rsult o a hightnc awarnss on stratgic non-ul minrals.
Th main contributors to this cbat ar th DOD, th DOE, th DOl, REE
mining company Molycorp, rsarch instituts anc th mcia.
ln rspons to rcnt cvlopmnts on minral markts, cirnt risk
mitigating stratgis ar bing usc or uncr consicration, inclucing:
Lgislativ proposals to boost comstic procuction anc stockpiling;
Rcucing cpncncy by civrsiication o supply anc th cvlopmnt
o nw tchnologis;
Transormation o th national cns stockpil into a broacr
stratgic matrials scurity program;
Lgal claims bor th VTO about allgc Chins xport rstrictions.
Events in History Year US MineraI PoIicy ReIated
Events
VV l cisrupts minral US-Europan
minral trac
94
97
Domstic supplis o ky
commocitis bcom insuicint:
concpt o stratgic minral
rsourcs is born
Start rcovry rom Grat Dprssion 933
Puy /mrican /ct: ruirs US
govrnmnt to buy comstically
procucc procucts, inclucing raw
matrials
938
Stratgic minral invstigations bgin
with uncs rom th Public Vorks
/cministration
Start o VV ll 939
Raw matrial shortags thratn
procuction o military uipmnt
Stratgic Matrials /ct is passc
anc stablishs National Dns
Stockpil
946
Congrss amncs Stratgic Matrials
/ct, crating th Stratgic anc
Critical Matrial Stockpiling /ct,
conirming Congrss' commitmnt
to supply scurity anc giving th
stockpil smi-prmannt status
949
Discovry o REEs cposits in
Mountain Pass, C/
Start Koran Var 95C
Dns Procuction /ct, authorizing
th govrnmnt to subsiciz minral
procuction
965-985
US prorms all stags o REEs
procssing anc is sl-rliant on
comstically procucc REEs
Political unrsts in southrn /rica
97Cs-
98Cs
US policy makrs concrnc with
supply risks cu to political unrst
in southrn /rica anc communist
xpansion
/luminium, chrom, cobalt,
mangans, nickl, PGMs an titanium
ar consicrc critical
US minral imports ar thr tims as
high as xports
97C
Mining anc Minrals Policy /ct,
ormally rcognizing th importanc
o mining anc comstic minrals
procuction as US policy
Oil crisis 973
US position as worlc lacing
procucr anc xportr o minrals
starts to cclin
976
National Commission on Supply
Shortags warns about supply
intrruption risks rlatc to unrsts in
/rican supplir stats
Political insurrction in Zair 978
Tmporary intrruption o cobalt
supply
979
Stratgic anc Critical Matrial
Stockpiling Rvision /ct, upcating
th cns stockpil program anc
spciying th stockpil cannot b
usc to inlunc commocity prics
98C
National Matrials anc Minral
Policy, Rsarch anc Dvlopmnt
/ct, concrning th improvmnt o
matrials inormation, analysis anc
policy coorcination
984
Stratgic anc Critical Matrials /ct,
stablishs th National Critical
Matrials Council to promot
Rsarch anc Dvlopmnt on critical
matrials
988
DOD bcoms rsponsibl or
National Dns Stockpil
99Cs US REE procuction starts to cclin
992
Last purchass o raw matrials or
National Dns Stockpil: rubbr,
tantalum
Enc o th Colc Var 993
DOD starts partial sal o National
Dns Stockpil
2CCC
Prush Vllman, lnc. closs only US
bryllium procuction acility
2CC2
Molycorp closs Mountain Pass REE
min
2CC6
Stratgic Matrials Protction Poarc
is cratc (SMPP)
2CC7
Som US REE procuction rsums:
Molycorp starts sparation o
bastnasit concntrats rom
stockpil minc bor shutcown
2CC8
National Rsarch Council cvlops
mthocology to valuat th
criticality o non-ul minrals
PGMs, REEs, incium, mangans,
niobium ar ounc critical
2CC9
23 Fbruary: SMPP: spcialty mtals
ar stratgic but not critical to
national scurity
23 Jun: US ils claim bor VTO
about Chins xport rstrictions
28 Octobr: P.L. -84 Fiscal Yar
2CC National Dns /uthorization
/ct bcoms public law, ruiring
th DOD to rport on masurs to
allviat national scurity thrats
rom REE supply cisruptions
Proposal to rconigur National
Dns Stockpil into Stratgic
Matrials Scurity Program
Sptmbr 2CC: China rstricts REE
xports ollowing Sino-Japans
maritim incicnt
2CC
7 March: introcuction o H.R. 4866
Rar Earths Supply-Chain Tchnology
anc Rsourcs Transormation
(REST/RT) /ct proposs to r-
stablish a comstic REE supply
cycl
26 /pril: introcuction o H.R. 536
Fiscal Yar 2C National Dns
/uthorization /ct, calling or
masurs to nsur long trm
availability o stratgic anc critical
matrials by 2C5
22 Jun: introcuction o S.352
Rar Earths Supply Tchnology
anc Rsourcs Transormation
(REST/RT) /ct
22 Sptmbr: introcuction o
H.R. 66C Rar Earths anc Critical
Matrials Rvitalization /ct, calling
or th cration o a rsarch
program on REE within th DOE
2C2
Plannc rstart o REE procuction
rom Mountain Pass
2. 3 THE UNITED KINGDOM
UK minral policy primarily accrsss stratgic minrals rom an conomic
point o viw. lt ocuss its attntion on thos minrals that ar consicrc
ssntial to th most important sctors o th UK conomy, inclucing, th
cns anc scurity sctors. lts policis ar basc on th concpt o
'matrial scurity' which accrsss both supply anc matrial risks, anc
lacs th UK to promot comstic procuction capabilitis as wll as
intrnational r trac.
/?62356@A<?F
Concrns ovr stratgic minrals in th UK go way back but gainc policy
prominnc whn th UK's position as a ky procucr o minrals startc
to cclin. Vith ccrasc sl-suicincy, supply vulnrability has bcom
a ky issu at a tim o conomic or political turmoil. lt has also stimulatc
comstic instancs. For instanc, curing VVl anc VVll shortags o
supply rsultc in th rcycling o mtals rom non-critical applications to
rcuc import cpncncy, anc to promot comstic procuction.
8
Currnt
policy appars to ollow this trnc.
Th concpt o stratgic minrals was introcucc curing th Colc Var.
Stratgic minrals wr cinc by th Pritish Gological Survy (PGS) as
'minrals anc mtals that wr both critical to th manuacturing sctor
anc vulnrabl to intrruptions in supply.'
82
This cinition contains two
important componnts. First, 'criticality', which cscribs minrals ssntial
to th manuacturing sctor anc mor broacly, th UK conomy, also
inclucing minrals ssntial to cns systms. Th sconc is 'vulnrability'
anc rrs to minrals bing incrasingly importc rom limitc sourcs,
making thm vulnrabl to supply cisruptions.
83

During th Colc Var, th UK govrnmnt proposc svral masurs to
rcuc this vulnrability, inclucing civrsiying sourcs o supply anc
maintaining stockpils.
84
Stockpils wr particularly stablishc or
matrials that wr cmc ssntial or national cns, such as tungstn,
usc at that tim in intrcontinntal ballistic missils.
85
ln th arly 98Cs,
chromium, mangans anc vanacium wr consicrc 'stratgic' bcaus
o thir us in th stl incustry anc thir rstrictc supply sourcs. Th UK
maintainc stockpils o ths stratgic minrals btwn 983 anc 996.
86

Psics stockpiling, anothr masur that was takn was to boost comstic
procuction. ln 975 th UK stablishc th Minrals Rconnaissanc
Program (MRP) to promot minral xploration anc cvlopmnt in th UK
by way o attracting mining companis to th UK. Th MRP also provicc
th govrnmnt with inormation on minrals whos supplis coulc b
thratnc by political unrst.
87

/tr th nc o th Colc Var, howvr, th concpt o stratgic minrals
bcam unashionabl among UK policy makrs. lt was assumc that
through globalization scurity o supply woulc no longr b an issu anc
th global markt woulc allocat minrals to customrs without signiicant
risk or intrruption causc by political actors.
88

This optimism provc to b somwhat prmatur. Nw challngs such as
climat chang anc th rapic conomic growth o mrging conomis lik
China anc lncia raisc th prospct o incrasc cmanc anc comptition
or minral rsourcs. ln contrast to th tmporary spiks in cmanc
surrouncing historic vnts in th past, conomic growth in /sia is sn as
a long trm structural chang in th natur o th worlc conomy. lncrasing
cmanc rom, anc minral xtraction in ths mrging conomis will
continu.
89
ln th UK it has lc to a rassssmnt o its minral policy.
B81236;6A6<;<3@A?.A2460;<;3B29:6;2?.9@
PGS cins stratgic minrals as matrials 'that ar critical to crtain
incustris; to parts o th national conomy or to national cns
capabilitis, which woulc b sriously actc i thy wr not obtainabl
anc at th sam tim ar prcivc to b vulnrabl to intrruptions o
supply.'
9C
Ths cisruptions can b causc by political intrrnc in th
markt, acts o sabotag, war, accicnts, or incustrial action. Ky aturs
o stratgic minrals ar a lack o acuat substituts anc a cpncnc
on a limitc numbr o procucrs with limitc capacity to incras
procuction uickly.
/lthough this cinition acknowlcgs th importanc o stratgic minrals
or cns capabilitis, UK policy cocumnts anc rsarch on minrals
ocus mainly on thos minrals that ar ssntial to th Pritish conomy.
This mans that or th UK, stratgic non-ul minrals not only compris
matrials that ar primarily usc in high-tchnology anc cns
applications, such as REEs, but also incustrial anc construction minrals.
Policy cocumnts ocus on th ky conomic sctors, inclucing cns,
that hav lgitimat concrns ovr long trm matrial (anc minral)
availability.
9

Long trm availability is associatc with 'matrial scurity', a rcurrnt trm
in UK minral policy cocumnts. Dspit th lack o an oicial cinition,
matrial scurity is uncrstooc to man a situation in which 'thr is no
signiicant cisacvantag to th national conomy or national cns
causc by rstrictc accss to spciic matrials.'
92
Matrial scurity is
ctrminc by both matrial anc supply risks. Rstrictc accss, such as
imposc xport taris, uotas, or rstrictions, can mak a minral
prohibitivly xpnsiv or ngat accss to th matrial altogthr. Such
policy can b inormc by political anc conomic motivations o th minral
supplir. Th situation bcoms critical whn a spciic matrial is also
ciicult to substitut, incrasing matrial inscurity. ln March 2CC8, th
Rsourc Eicincy Knowlcg Transr Ntwork procucc a stratgic
rport with support rom th Dpartmnt o Pusinss, Entrpris anc
Rgulatory Rorm (PERR). Figur 6 shows th rport's systmatic
invntory o actors inluncing both typs o risks.
MateriaI Risk SuppIy Risk
Primary
lmportance
Secondary
lmportance
Lack o Substitutability
/pplication Critical to Enabling
Scurity or Economic Growth
/ssociatc Environmntal lmpact
Global Consumption Lvls
Global Varming Potntial rom
Extraction anc Procuction
Procss
Total Matrial Ruirmnt
or Extraction anc Procuction
Procss
Supply Monopoly
Political lnstability in Ma|or
Supplying Rgion/Country
Ma|or Supplying Rgion/Country
Vulnrabl to th Ects o
Climat Chang
Gopolitical - Privilgc Supply
to Own or Othr Countris
Dpncnc on Virgin Rsourcs
(lack o rcycling)
Potntial to Displac Virgin
Matrial by Rsourc Eicincy
Stratgis
Pric Scarcity, Rsrvs or Rsrv
Pas
FIGURE 6 DETERMINANTS OF MATERIAL SECURITY
93
Stratgic minrals ar thos minrals that ar ssntial to th most
important sctors o th UK conomy. Thy incluc nrgy minrals,
construction minrals, anc minrals that support incustris with a high
accc valu componnt, such as chmical c stocks, anc inally, matrials
that run a matrial risk as cinc abov.
94
For an ovrviw s igur 7.
lndustriaI MineraIs Construction MineraIs MateriaI Risk MateriaIs
Kaolin
Pall clay
Limston
Silica sanc
Potash
Salt
Fluorspar barits
Sulphur
Pntonit
Magnsia
/ggrgats
Prick clay
Cmnt making matrials
Gypsum
Sanc
Gravl
Slat
Zirconium
lncium
Lithium
Potash
Molybcnum
Porat
lron
Flcspar
FIGURE 7 UK STRATEGIC MINERALS
95
,
96
Th UK was a lacing worlc procucr o svral minrals until th mic 9th
cntury, inclucing iron, tin, coppr anc lac.
97
Du to high xtraction costs
anc comptition rom growth in lowr-cost procuction ovrsas, comstic
procuction has cclinc. Nonthlss, th UK rmains an important
procucr o a wic rang o minrals. lt procucs most o th abov-
mntionc construction minrals comstically, anc a air shar o th
incustrial minrals. ln 2CC8, th UK procucc 28.5 million mtric tonns o
construction minrals anc 23.3 million mtric tonns o incustrial minrals,
accounting or 83.7% anc 8.8% o total national minral procuction
rspctivly.
98
This is howvr not suicint to mt cmanc. Dspit
important procuction capacity, th UK is not sl-suicint. For most
incustrial anc construction minrals, xcpt or lac anc aluminium, which
is covrc by rcycling rom olc scrap, th UK is incrasingly import-
cpncnt.
99
O th matrial risk matrials, th UK only procucs potash
comstically. ln 2CC8 th UK importc minrals with a total valu o
5498.4 million. lt also importc som 25CC mtric tonns o rar arth
lmnts.
B8=<960F:.82?@.;1@A?.A2460;<;3B29:6;2?.9@
/ccss to stratgic non-ul minrals cos not appar to b consicrc a
ma|or challng. Supply rstrictions o ths matrials ar or instanc
consicrc a lssr thrat to national scurity than climat chang or
nrgy inscurity.
CC
This can b xplainc by th larg comstic sourc o
supply or th ma|ority o incustrial anc construction minrals anc Pritish
support or global markt mchanisms.
Th UK has an intrst in a halthy comstic mining sctor. /tr all, th
mining incustry is an important contributor to th ovrall conomy,
provicing ncssary matrials in cownstram incustris anc provicing |obs.
Vith about 2CCC mins in th UK anc CCC companis oprating thm,
som 55.CCC popl ar mployc circtly in th xtractiv mining
incustris anc arounc .9 million popl ar mployc incirctly.
C
Th UK
also xports minrals, in which it has ocusc primarily on protcting its
comstic procuction capacity. Nonthlss, concrns ar rising that this
may not suicint. National incustris hav bn burcnc by rising global
minral prics anc with limitc room or improving comstic procuction
icincy anc w opportunitis or substitution o th most xpnsiv
matrials, conomic prssur is xpctc to ris.
C2
/s a consunc, UK
policy makrs ar opnly ustioning whthr nsuring matrial scurity
may nc a mor stratgic approach than 'th invisibl hanc o th
markt.'
C3
/n incication o th highr awarnss o th issu among UK policy makrs
is that cirnt govrnmnt institutions hav commissionc rports on
currnt cvlopmnts in th minral markt anc on UK imports o REEs in
particular. For xampl, in May 2CC th Dpartmnt or Transport anc th
Dpartmnt or Pusinss, Entrpris anc Rgulatory Rorm (PERR) taskc
th think tank Oakcn Hollins to invstigat rar arth rsourcs, thir
supply constraints anc in which important incustris thy ar usc.
C4
Th
Govrnmnt Oic o Scinc also publishc a rport that sam month
ntitlc Scinc anc Enginring /ssuranc Rviw o th Dpartmnt or
Transport, in which rar arth mtals ar mntionc as an important
contributor to th rcuction o carbon cioxic missions.
C5
Hightnc attntion or th issu o non-ul stratgic minrals crivs
rom various conomic anc political actors. Primarily, cvlopmnts in th
global minral markt hav a circt impact on th UK comstic mining
sctor. Th UK incrasingly acs comptition rom mrging conomis,
such as China. Ths mrging conomis compt with th UK both with
rspct to cmanc anc supply. For thir conomic cvlopmnt mrging
conomis incrasingly nc minrals. This incrass strain on xisting
supplis, particularly whn it coms to lss common mtals. Concurrnt
with thir conomic cvlopmnt, mrging conomis ar otn rsourc-
rich. lncrasing thir minral procuction capability placs thm in circt
comptition with th UK's minrals incustry. Ths stats otn procuc at
lowr costs anc with limitc rgarc or nvironmntal rgulation.
B8:6;2?.9=<960F1<0B:2;A@
/ccorcing to th UK Minrals Forum, a lacing incustry-sponsorc agncy
(on which mor blow), th UK cos not hav a comprhnsiv stratgy on
minrals.
C6
lnstac, th UK govrnmnt anc its suborcinat acministrations
(in Vals, Scotlanc anc Northrn lrlanc) all hav thir own spciic minral
policis. Ths policis vary in scop anc ocus: som ocus on minrals in
gnral; othrs on spciic ons. Thy incluc policis on minral xtraction,
wast managmnt, prvntion o lanc anc nvironmntal cgracation,
anc sustainabl cvlopmnt o th mining incustry.
C7
Takn togthr,
ths cocumnts constitut th bocy o UK minral policy whos ovrall
ob|ctiv is 'to scur acuat anc stacy supplis o minrals ncc by
socity anc th conomy within th limits st by th nvironmnt, assssc
through sustainability appraisal, without irrvrsibl camag.'
C8
Th UK
ss th continuation anc saguarcing o comstic procuction as an
important way to mt comstic cmanc anc to scur its long trm
supply o stratgic non-ul minrals. To hlp nsur supply or th utur,
th policis ocus on th icntiication o incignous minral rsourcs.
C9

Thy also aim to kp th comstic incustry comptitiv on a global
markt. On th othr hanc, thy attmpt to prvnt lanc cgracation,
nvironmntal cgracation anc minimiz wast rsulting rom intnsiv
mining.
C
B84<C2?;:2;A=<960F
Th national minral policy or th UK is st out in two main cocumnts:
Minrals anc Planning Statmnts : Planning anc Minral (MPS) anc
Minrals Policy Statmnt 2: Controlling anc Mitigating th Environmntal
Ects o Minrals Extraction in Englanc (MPS2). lt is mac xplicit that
ths cocumnts 'complmnt, but co not rplac or ovrrul, othr
national planning policis, anc shoulc b rac in con|unction with othr
rlvant statmnts o national policis.'

Th main sub|ct o MPS anc MPS2 ar minrals. Th cocumnts ar not
part o a broacr stratgy, such as th Stratgic Dns Rviw (s blow).
This is likly a consunc o th UK's broac cinition o stratgic minrals
which ncompasss a larg numbr o incustrial anc construction minrals.
MPS contains th govrnmnt's ovrarching planning policis anc
principls.
2
lts ob|ctiv is to maximiz th bnits anc minimiz th
ngativ cts o comstic minral activity. lt aims to nsur that suicint
lanc is availabl or th xtraction o thos minrals that ar important to th
conomy, whil satisying a rang o othr concrns rgarcing nvironmntal
protction anc sustainabl cvlopmnt.
3
To sourc minral supplis
comstically, MPS proposs mans to icntiy minrals that ar o national
anc rgional importanc, to uncrtak rgular assssmnts o th rsrvs,
anc to cin minral saguarcing aras in orcr to prvnt rsourcs rom
bing nclssly strilizc by non-minral cvlopmnt. MPS2 itrats that
th xploitation o th UK's minral rsourcs contributs to national
prosprity anc wll bing anc that th 'supply o ssntial matrials or th
construction, nrgy supply, manuacturing anc othr incustris nabls
social anc conomic progrss.'
4
Th main ocus o MPS2 is on th
minimization o th nvironmntal cts o comstic minral xtraction.
Stratgic minrals ar also ciscussc in othr policy cocumnts. ln '/
Strong Pritain in an /g o Uncrtainty: Th National Scurity Stratgy'
REEs ar consicrc a ky componnt o low-carbon anc military
tchnologis. lt acknowlcgs that xport rstrictions on REEs may wakn
stratgic incustrial sctors o th UK anc incras global comptition anc
th prospct o conlicts ovr accss.
5
Th UK Ministry o Dns's
stratgy rviw is th most rcnt cocumnt that mntions REEs. 'Scuring
Pritain in an /g o lnscurity: Th Stratgic Dns anc Scurity Rviw'
was prsntc to th UK parliamnt on C Octobr 2CC. lt builcs on th
prioritis icntiic in th National Scurity Stratgy anc ctails th
transormation o th armc orcs in light o mrging thrats. REEs ar
mntionc in rlation to th ob|ctiv o nsuring sur that th UK has a
cohrnt cns capability in 2C2C. lt ritrats th point xprssc in th
National Scurity Stratgy that REEs ar ky minrals or stratgic UK
incustris anc crucial or low-carbon tchnologis aimc at mitigating
climat chang. /ccss to REEs anc othr rsourcs is consicrc at risk
cu to comptition or rsourcs among othr countris. Such comptition,
which may rsult in conlict or incrasc migratory prssurs, is consicrc
to b ctrimntal to th UK's national scurity.
6
Put constraints in accssing
spciic matrials will also ngativly act 'th scurity impacts o climat
chang, which may xacrbat xisting scurity thrats.'
7
REEs ar
thror important both in th military sns anc in th broacr (conomic,
nvironmntal) sns o UK national scurity. Ovrall, howvr, no policy
options ar prsntc, byonc signalling th importanc o REEs.
Main Actors
Th currnt cbat in th UK on stratgic non-ul minrals is shapc by
various govrnmntal actors, th mining incustry anc th mcia.
Government
Th main govrnmntal actors ar th UK govrnmnt, which ormulats
ovrarching policis, anc local authoritis, who implmnt national policis
anc acvis th UK anc cvolving govrnmnts on cirnt local anc
tchnical aspcts o minral xtraction in thir rgion.
8
Th Dpartmnt o
Communitis anc Local Govrnmnt (DCLG) is chargc with planning
minral policy. /lso involvc ar th Dpartmnt or Environmnt, Fooc
anc Rural /airs (DEFR/), which sts out th nvironmntal policy, th
Dpartmnt or Vork anc Pnsions (DVP), which acministrs statutory
control ovr min anc monitors saty, anc th Dpartmnt o Trac anc
lncustry (DTl), which acts as a sponsor or all minral sctors.
MineraIs lndustry
Th UK has a larg numbr o companis oprating in its minral incustry.
For instanc Tarmac Ltc. is th biggst UK procucr o aggrgats Silblco
UK. / lacing UK procucr o ball clay anc baryts output is cominatc by
M-l Drilling Fluics UK.
9
Othr companis incluc Pritish /lcan /luminium
Ltc. (aluminium), Glb Mins Ltc. (luorspar), Johnson Matthy plc
(platinum group mtals) Clvlanc Potash Ltc (potash), anc Corus Group
(stl). /nglsy /luminium is on o th mining companis that oprat
uncr Rio Tinto, a lacing intrnational mining group hacuartrc in th
UK. PHP Pilliton, anothr worlc lacing minral rsourcs procucr, also
has svral oics in th UK. Psics numrous mining anc uarrying
companis, a signiicant sgmnt o th UK minral incustry is ormc by a
w manuacturing incustris inclucing companis that procuc automotiv
anc aviation procucts, anc machin tools.
2C
Th UK's minral incustry has
voicc concrns about rcnt cvlopmnts on th minral markt anc th
way th govrnmnt has rsponcc to ths.

/ signiicant proportion o minrals, asic rom matrial risk mtals, still
com rom UK mins. Howvr, Lss Common Mtals, a small-scal Pritish
manuacturr o rar arth mtals, stats that REE manuacturrs ar
currntly cpncnt on |ust on sourc, China, anc non-Chins sourcs
ar ncc to mt incrasing cmanc.
2
To scur supply o non-Chins
sourcs, th incustry argus that th govrnmnt shoulc maximiz th us
o th UK's comstic rsourcs.
22

Th incustry simultanously points out, howvr, that it is ciicult to
cvlop ths comstic sourcs. Firstly, th incustry is acing incrasc
ciicultis in xploiting nw xtraction sits, cu to nvironmntal
lgislation. Sconcly, it blivs that th UK lacks a cohrnt ovrarching
anc orwarc looking national policy that ctivly ovrviws ncs o th
UK minral incustry. Th Concration o Pritish lncustry's (CPl, on which
mor blow) Minrals Group, or instanc, insists that a stratgic viw o
th utur cvlopmnt o all UK minral rsourcs is ncc togthr with
a bttr inormc cbat.
23
Thircly, th incustry complains about a growing
volum o minral lgislation, particularly 'ruls that ar not proprly
thought through anc ar otn cvisc anc applic without propr '|oinc-
up thinking' on th part o civrs rgulators.'
24

Otn, ths ruls manat rom Europan Union (EU) institutions in Prussls
anc ar incorporatc in national lgislation. Th incustry blivs this accs
to ovrall cost incrass, complxity, anc buraucracy o UK minral policy.
/s a irst stp, th incustry blivs th UK shoulc improv its knowlcg
bas on stratgic (matrial risk) minrals anc valu its comstic sourcs as
national assts. ln orcr to co so, th UK's cmanc rom comstic anc
orign sourcs shoulc b kpt uncr rgular rviw anc th location, supply,
anc othr charactristics o stratgic minrals shoulc b monitorc.
Th incustry also argus or an improvc intrac with th govrnmnt.
Currntly, CPl, a lacing UK businss lobbying organization, is rprsnting
th intrsts o ovr 5CC companis involvc in th minral incustry. lt aims
to b th voic or th sctor as a whol. CPl ncavors to inlunc UK anc
EU lgislation anc rgulation that act th minral incustry. CPl is also a
sponsor mmbr o th /ssociat Parliamntary Minrals Group, whos
purpos is 'to promot parliamntary awarnss o th importanc o
minrals, provic inormation on cvlopmnts in minral usag, policy anc
rgulation, anc act as an inormation xchang btwn parliamntarians
anc th incustry.'
25
Th group ormulats policy bris anc parliamntary
bris in which it ors insights anc rcommncations on important minral
policy aras.
ln 2CC6, CPl st up th UK Minral Forum, which plays an important rol in
bringing togthr stakholcrs rom th govrnmnt, incustry, anc socity.
Th Forum ocuss on minral supply scurity, th cvlopmnt o, anc
cmanc or incignous minrals anc sustainabl cvlopmnt. lt also
asssss th cts o national anc intrnational lgislativ proposals or
minral supply. Py hosting rgular mtings anc working groups anc by
publishing rports, th Minral Forum contributs to inormation xchang
anc hightnc awarnss o stratgic minrals.
26

Think Tanks
/t th tim o writing, th UK's most inluntial think tanks hav not
contributc much to th cbat on stratgic minrals. On xcption is th
publication 'Sustainabl Enrgy Scurity: Stratgic Risks anc Opportunitis
or Pusinss 2CC' by Chatham Hous. Th rport mntions REEs in light o
its ciscussion o grn nrgy as a mans o nrgy scurity. lt stats that
REEs ar ssntial to winc turbins anc that supply rstraints may pos a
thrat to nrgy scurity. lt rcommncs to r-us anc rcycl minrals or
to cvlop substituts.
27

Media
Sinc a w yars, th UK mcia havs occasionally rportc on th issu
o stratgic minrals. Th mcia rports that minrals will bcom an
incrasingly important commocity. ln January 2CC, 'Th lncpncnt'
labllc minrals as 'th commocity that has bcom th nw oil' anc th
nwspapr 'Th Tims' statc that minrals will b th sourc o political
powr in th 2th cntury.
28
Rporting is linkc to th hightnc attntion
paic to climat chang. ln this contxt, th lncpncnt callc REEs th
'prcious mtals that coulc sav th plant' anc th criving orc bhinc a
rvolution in low-carbon tchnology.
29
Supply cisruptions ar consicrc a
thrat to th transition to a grnr conomy. Th Tims /sia Pusinss
Corrsponcnt Lo Lwis ritrats that scuring th supply o minrals is
ssntial or high-tchnology anc grn nrgy incustris, but that it cos
not nc thr. H illustrats that also th supply o potash or crop rtilizr
'may bcom incrasingly tormntc by trac rstrictions anc politicizc
rsourc control.'
3C
This is particularly rlvant or th UK, which is a larg
procucr o potash anc potash procucts.
Th mcia rporting on minrals, ocus on th rol o China. Particularly
atr th Sino-Japans maritim incicnt in Sptmbr 2CC, rporting on
China's monopoly on REEs spikc.
Tims |ournalist Davic Robrtson alracy rportc about upcoming
rsourc nationalism, in an articl in Fbruary 2CC8 on Chins businss
cals with orign minral supplirs to scur supply or its rapicly growing
comstic consumption.
3
ln /ugust 2CC9, 'Tims |ournalist' Lo Lwis
rportc on Japans concrns about a Chins mbargo on rar arth
mtals. No rrnc was mac to possibl implications or th UK.
32

Vhn citc, manuacturrs us ciplomatic anc cautious languag to
xprss thir unas with China's cominant markt position anc its ability
to caus a supply cisruption. ln orcr to avoic minral businss cals with
th Chins rom gtting actc, suggstions rom th incustry that China
uss to control its position anc to xrcis political inlunc ar avoicc.
Th minral incustry is not so much concrnc about th Chins using
trac as a tool o muscular orign policy. lnstac, thy ar that a w yars
cown th roac, th Chins will not nc or want to xplor Vstrn
businss opportunitis any mor.
33
Psics ocusing on China's rol, th mcia also provics a platorm or
xprts to voic thir concrns about prcivc complacncy o th Vst.
For xampl, Th Tims uotc Jack Liton, an authority on rar arth
minrals, as saying that '[w] ar at conomic war' anc that 'th Vst has
bn sounc aslp on this. Th lvl o ignoranc about th upstram o
minral supply... is |ust out o this worlc.'
34
Py using such languag th
Pritish mcia contributs to builcing a sns o urgncy among th gnral
public to accrss th issu.
0<;09B@6<;
Th UK mphasizs th conomic anc incustrial cimnsion in its cbat on
matrial scurity. Stratgic minrals or th UK ar thos minrals that ar
ssntial to its conomy, anc thror incluc nrgy minrals, construction
minrals anc minrals that support incustris with a high accc-valu
componnt. Matrial risk minrals ar but on subgroup o this. /ccss to
high-tchnology mtals, inclucing REEs, prsnt a cns intrst anc hav
bn labllc as such in th latst national scurity stratgy, absnt policy
initiativs. Evn though th UK has a sizabl cns incustry, th cns
componnt is consicrc o sconcary importanc. REEs ar also consicrc
ky or low-carbon nrgy tchnologis important in mitigating climat
chang anc improving nrgy scurity. Enrgy scurity is consicrc a mor
important challng than scuring supply o stratgic matrials.
Th UK cos not hav a comprhnsiv stratgy on minrals. Th UK
govrnmnt anc th cvolvc acministrations hav thir own minral
policis, which ocus mainly on planning anc on mitigating nvironmntal
cts o minral activitis. Ovrall th ob|ctiv o th cirnt policis is:
to continu anc saguarc minral supplis ncc by socity anc th
conomy;
to valu comstic sourcs as national assts;
to cvlop comstic sourcing;
to maintain a comptitiv comstic minral incustry;
to xploit comstic minrals in a sustainabl mannr, rspcting th
nvironmnt anc socity.
Scuring incignous supply is a historically consistnt policy instrumnt o th
UK in rspons to matrial scarcity. Maintaining a comptitiv comstic mining
incustry is important to th UK or conomic anc political rasons. Not
surprising, th minral incustry is an important actor in th policy cbat.
ln gnral, minrals rciv a lot o attntion rom UK policy makrs. /s th
bli that th markt will allocat th ruirc rsourcs is still cominant,
concrns about accss to matrials ncc or high tchnologis ar not
signiicantly high. Rcnt policy cocumnts, howvr, incicat that th UK
is moving towarcs a rassssmnt o this thinking. /s a consunc, UK
minral policy may gain a mor stratgic anc national scurity outlook in
th coming yars.
Events in History Year UK MineraI PoIicy ReIated
Events
VV l 94-98
Supply shortags rsult in rcycling
o mtals to rcuc import
cpncncy
VVll 94C-945
Supply shortags rsult in rcycling
o mtals to rcuc import
cpncncy
97Cs
UK govrnmnt introcucs systm
o supply anc cmanc planning
guiclins: promots long trm
planning, rcucs uncrtainty anc
ncourags invstmnts
975
MRP: promotc minral xploration
anc cvlopmnt by attracting
minral companis to th UK
Unrsts in southrn /rica 98Cs
Hightnc supply risks or
chromium, mangans anc vanacium
983
Colc Var lacs to cration o
stratgic mtal stockpils, or
xampl o tungstn, chromium,
mangans anc vanacium
Enc o th Colc Var 99Cs
Concpt o stratgic minrals
bcoms unashionabl cu to
optimism ovr globalization anc
bli in th markt as optimum
allocation mchanism or minrals
996
/bolishmnt o stratgic minral
stockpil
2CC5
23 May: MPS 2: Controlling anc
Mitigating th Environmntal Ects
o Minral Extraction in Englanc
2CC6
3 Novmbr: MPS : Planning anc
Minrals, aimc at maximizing
bnits anc minimizing ngativ
cts o comstic minral activity
Establishmnt o UK Minral Forum
by CPl, with th purpos o crawing
togthr all ky stakholcrs to
promot sustainabl managmnt
anc supply o UK minrals
2CC8
Rar mtals start to gain mcia
attntion
2CC9
CPl publishs rport 'Shaping UK
Minrals Policy'
maritim incicnt
2CC
May: Dpartmnt or Transport anc
PERR orcr rport on REE supply
risks anc impact
8 Jun: Chatham Hous publishs
rport on Sustainabl Enrgy
Scurity mntioning REEs
Sptmbr - Octobr: hightnc
mcia attntion or REE atr
Chins xport rstrictions
8 Octobr: National Scurity
Stratgy: / Strong Pritain in an /g
o Uncrtainty, which consicrs REE
as ky componnt o low-carbon anc
military tchnologis
9 Octobr: Scuring Pritain in an
/g o lnscurity: Th Stratgic
Dns anc Scurity Rviw,
ritrats importanc o REE or
UK cns capabilitis anc nrgy
tchnologis aimc at improving
nrgy scurity anc mitigating
climat chang
2.4 JAPAN
Japan's minral policy is clibrat anc purpos-crivn. lt is basc on our
cntral pillars with th ob|ctiv o sustaining its conomic scurity:
civrsiying supply by cvloping altrnativ sourcs o minrals in
rsourc-rich rgions or in th Japans sabc whil maintaining gooc
rlations with its nighbours; rcycling comstic minrals in an approach
known as 'urban mining'; cvloping altrnativ matrials through R&D
orts in innovation; anc stockpiling stratgic matrials.
/?62356@A<?F
/ historically prsistnt issu o concrn or Japans policymakrs is th
nc to scur minral supplis or its high-tch manuacturing incustris.
ln th 2Cth cntury curing th run-up to VVll Japan acc a massiv
intrruption in its supplis o stl, oil anc rubbr. This thratnc Japan's
military procuction capability anc it motivatc th Japans govrnmnt
to cvlop an approach to minral scarcity basc on thr instrumnts that
xist to this cay. lt lc to th cration o a stockpil o critical matrials or
civilian anc military applications, to ncourag comstic incustris, to
cvlop altrnativ sourcs anc to rcycl stratgic non-ul minrals.
35
/s
th situation bcam mor prssing, this minral inscurity contributc to
Empror Hirohito anc Prim Ministr Hicki To|o's ccision to us military
orc against th Unitc Stats in 94.
ln 963 th Ministry o Economy, Trac anc lncustry (METl) stablishc th
Mtal Mining /gncy o Japan (MM/J) anc taskc it to nsur a stabl
supply o non-rrous mtal anc minral rsourcs. Th MM/J is th main
organization that xcuts th govrnmnt's minral policis.
36
ln th 97Cs
th oil criss hightnc awarnss o Japan's vulnrability as an importr
o nrgy rsourcs anc non-ul minrals. lt uncrscorc th ngativ
impact o supply cisruptions on th Japans conomy.
37

Stratgic non-ul minrals hav consistntly bn an issu o concrn
bcaus o th continuous risk o supply constraints anc thir ctrimntal
impact on Japan's incustris.
38
Ths concrns stm rom its import
cpncncy, making it vulnrabl to supply cisruptions. For instanc,
Japan is CC% rliabl on imports or rar arth lmnts.
39
Complicating
th minral issu urthr, Japan's importc minrals com rom w orign
sourcs. ln 2CC5, 44% o Japan's nickl import cam rom lnconsia anc
49 % o chromium import rom South /rica.
4C
Howvr 9C% o Japan's
REEs com rom China. ln 2CC8 th cntrality o th challng to scur
minral supplis rsuracc, triggrc by th global conomic rcssion, as
wll as in 2CC again, as a ciplomatic incicnt btwn Japan anc China
triggrc a tmporary stop in rar arth lmnt xports to Japan.
7.=.;@1236;6A6<;<3@A?.A2460;<;3B29:6;2?.9@
Thr is no singl cinition o stratgic non-ul minrals in Japans
policy. Most policy cocumnts rr to 'rar mtals', howvr instac o
rlcting th group o 7 rar arth lmnts, this appars as th Japans
variant o 'stratgic non-ul minrals.' From an valuation o th policy
cocumnts it can b conclucc that - comparabl to th othr cas stucis
- th concpt o 'rar mtals' has two ualiirs. Th irst is that ths
minrals ar usc in incustris or procucts ssntial to th Japans
conomy. Th sconc is thir criticality givn th risk o, anc/or ngativ
cts associatc with supply cisruption. Rar mtals ar consicrc mtal
rsourcs that ar vital to Japan's conomic anc incustrial activitis anc
whos supply cisruption woulc hav a grat ct on its conomy.
4

METl stats that: 'Rar mtals ar incispnsabl or th manuacturing o
automobils anc lT procucts, tc. Thror, it is xtrmly important to
nsur stabl supplis o such mtals rom th stancpoint o maintaining
anc strngthning th comptitivnss o Japan's manuacturing
incustry.'
42
/nothr govrnmnt agncy, th Japan Oil, Gas anc Mtal
National Corporation (JOGMEC), cscribs rar mtals as 'a rsourc
critical to th mocrn conomy' anc 'ssntial to mocrn li anc incustry.'
JOGMEC compars rar mtals with nrgy rsourcs by saying that thy
ar 'as crucial to th mocrn conomy as ptrolum anc LPG (Liuic
Ptrolum Gas).'
43
ln th rmaincr o this cas stucy 'rar mtals' anc
stratgic non-ul minrals will b usc intrchangably.
7.=.;@@A?.A2460:6;2?.9@
Japan consicrs various mtal rsourcs, inclucing REE, as stratgic. Japan
is th largst importr o REEs rom China srving critical incustris such
as Japan's high-tch sctor anc th hybric-lctricity automobil incustry.
44

Svn typs o non-ul minrals ar stockpilc by JOGMEC: nickl,
chromium, tungstn, cobalt, molybcnum, mangans anc vanacium.
/ccss to th ollowing minrals is closly monitorc by JOGMEC, though
thy ar not stockpilc. Ths ar incium, REEs, platinum, gallium, niobium,
tantalum anc strontium.
45
On Octobr 2, 2CC Japan announcc a stucy to
consicr accing REEs to th national stockpil.
46
Ths two lists or th
clarst incication o Japan's stratgic non-ul minrals.
Japan is a rsourc-poor country with an xpansiv high-tch incustry,
laving it cpncnt on orign supplirs. lts mining incustry is cominatc
by mtals anc mtal procucts. This also mans that coppr anc iron rmain
important bas mtals or Japan's incustris.
47
ln accition, Japan has an
xtnsiv minral procssing incustry. lts main comstic procuction
capacity consists o bas mtals rom or concntrats, such as coppr,
lac, zinc anc nickl. Procuction o two o ths currntly xccs comstic
cmanc. ln 2CC9 Japan procucc an xcss o 55C,CCC tonns o coppr
anc C6CCC tonns o zinc, most o which was xportc to China.
48
Vhil
it was ormrly a worlc lacing procucr o incium, as o 2CC Japan has
nxt to no rmaining comstic procuction capacity.
Du to its high-tch manuacturing incustris, Japan is a worlc lacing
consumr o stratgic non-ul minrals. Japan is a top 5 global consumr
o ight o ths minrals, iguring alongsic China anc th US.
49
Ths
ight mtals ar: nickl, tungstn, cobalt, molybcnum, mangans,
vanacium, incium anc REEs. ln accition, th main stratgic non-ul
minrals that Japan consums ar nickl, chromium, tungstn, cobalt,
molybcnum, mangans, vanacium, cysprosium anc incium. Rgarcing
th lattr, Japan consums 6C% o worlc supply o incium. lt is usc or th
manuacturing o lctronic cvics inclucing transparnt lctrocs usc
in Liuic Crystal Displays (LCD) anc solar battris.
5C
Th cmanc or
incium is xpctc to incras cu to th growing cmanc or plasma
scrn tlvision. Japan is also th biggst global consumr o cysprosium,
which is usc in th procuction o inormation communication tchnologis,
mobil phons anc hybric cars.
5

0<;02?;@<C2?@A?.A2460:6;2?.9?2@<B?02@
Hightnc attntion to stratgic non-ul minrals crivs rom th
importanc o ths matrials or Japans businss anc concrns ovr
supply cisruption. /ccounting or approximatly 2C% o Gross Domstic
Procuct (GDP) anc 9C% o R&D invstmnt o th privat sctor,
manuacturing is th main criving orc o Japan's conomic growth.
52

Japan is also a worlc lacing xportr o such procucts to th US, Europ
anc othr /sian countris, making xport anothr important pillar o th
Japans conomy.
53
Japan uss rar mtals to manuactur consumr
procucts inclucing whit goocs, cars, computrs anc cll phons.
Particularly th automobil incustry has invstc havily in cvloping
hybric anc lctric cars anc is among th largst consumrs o rar arth
lmnts.
54

/ urthr complicating lmnt is that th Japans govrnmnt is sking
to strngthn th country's position in nw incustris that similarly ruir
rar mtals such as th robotics incustry anc arospac. Ths incustris ar
also xpctc to bcom a lacing sctor o Japans manuacturing.
55

Thircly, awar o th impact o its manuacturing activitis on th
nvironmnt, Japan is promoting th us o grn tchnology, or xampl in
ul-icint, low-mission, nvironmntally-rincly compact automobils
anc aircrats.
ln gnral, supply risks hav incrasc cu to growing cmanc rom
mrging conomis. Concurrntly, Japan's inlunc as a lacing consumr
is ccrasing sinc th rar mtals markt is bcoming a sllr's markt.
56

On th othr hanc, minral procucing stats ar incrasingly showing signs
o rsourc nationalism, using thir minral procuction primarily to mt
thir own comstic cmancs anc rstricting orign accss to thir
rsourcs. Tokyo nots with concrn a changing businss climat whrby
'Japans companis trying to acuir mining aras or xploration or
cvlopmnt in such countris ar acing th growing nc to ngotiat
with th govrnmnt or stat-run companis.'
57

Du to its high import cpncncy on China, Japan is particularly worric
about Chins protctionist policis. Japans companis bcam
concrnc about supply shortags in rar arth lmnts rom China in
July 2CC, whn Pi|ing cut its xport uota to bolstr prics anc mt
comstic cmanc. ln Sptmbr 2CC, Japans companis rportc that
China hac haltc xports o REEs to Japan. Th rstrictions ollowc th
arrst o a Chins ishing boat captain involvc in a collision with th
Japans Coast Guarc nar th Snkaku lslancs.
Th supply rstrictions cic not circtly act Japans companis to th
xtnt that thy hac to shut cown or suspnc procuction bcaus o
rmaining stocks o REEs.
58
Howvr, it was stimatc that i th
intrruption o Chins REE xports hac continuc, Japan coulc hav acc
a shortag o about C,CCC tonns in spit o accitional shipmnts rom
othr sourcs byonc China.
59
This causc cisuit among th Japans
businss community, which xprssc its concrns to th Japans
govrnmnt. ln rspons, METl Ministr /kihiro Ohata statc h woulc try
to allocat th 'ncssary uncs' to hlp businsss actc by th
situation.
6C
ln gnral, th Japans govrnmnt tric to convinc th
Chins govrnmnt through ciplomatic channls to rsum xports to
Japan, in orcr to prvnt camag to its conomy. Th rspons rom th
Japans govrnmnt incicatc that scuring rliabl supply hac bcom
both a political anc conomic priority to Japans policy makrs. Forign
Ministr Sa|i Mahara orshacowc that h blivc it to b 'uit a
halthy cvlopmnt or ach country to start rsourc ciplomacy atr
cvloping a sns o crisis bcaus o th latst incicnt.'
6

7.=.;2@2=<960F1<0B:2;A@
Du to its concrns about supply shortags o stratgic non-ul minrals
Japan has cvlopc a comprhnsiv stratgy st out in two main policy
cocumnts: th 'Stratgy or Ensuring Stabl Supplis o Rar Mtals' o
July 2CC9 anc th CC /ctions to Launch Japan's Nw Growth lncustry o
/ugust 2CC. Ths ar ctailc blow.
Strategy for Ensuring StabIe SuppIies of Rare MetaIs
ln 2CC8 th Japans govrnmnt xprssc its intnt to cvlop 'a
comprhnsiv stratgy to scur stabl supplis o rar mtals inclucing
rcycling o scraps as wll as nsuring rsourcs.'
62
ln July 2CC9 this
rsultc in th 'Stratgy or Ensuring Stabl Supplis o Rar Mtals'.
/lthough this stratgy complmnts prvious xisting stratgis on
conomic growth, it can b consicrc a stanc-alon policy cocumnt
sinc it ocuss xclusivly on rar mtals. Th ovrall ob|ctiv o th
stratgy is to nsur stabl supplis o rar mtals anc to ctrmin th
criticality o cirnt rar mtals. Th stratgy cclars that th 'valuation
o th supply situation is th most important actor in th ctrmination o
th rlativ priority' o stratgic non-ul minral rsourcs.
63
lt urgs th
govrnmnt to acopt a ocusc, stratgic approach to raliz a stabl
supply o rar mtals. Th stratgy has our lmnts:
scuring ovrsas rsourcs;
rcycling;
cvloping altrnativ matrials;
anc stockpiling.

Th irst Japans policy ob|ctiv is to avoic cpncnc on monopolistic
procucrs. To scur ovrsas rsourcs th stratgy calls or 'incrasc
Japans support or mining cvlopmnt in orign countris anc
inrastructur cvlopmnt in th surrouncing aras by xtncing oicial
cvlopmnt assistanc (OD/).'
64
To this nc, th govrnmnt shoulc
activly us th unctions o JOGMEC anc sk coopration in ilcs o
tchnology transr anc nvironmntal consrvation. Japan has bn
ngagc in cvlopmnt coopration with stats in Cntral /sia, South
/mrica anc /rica in orcr to cvlop nw sourcs. ln Octobr 2CC, th
Japans govrnmnt signc a Mmorancum o Uncrstancing (MOU)
with th Mongolian govrnmnt to cvlop a rar arths pro|ct as wll as
lithium anc gallium vnturs. Similar MOUs rlatc to minral rsourcs
hav bn signc with Kazakhstan, Uzbkistan, Mozambiu, Polivia anc
Namibia.
Ths cvlopmnt coopration agrmnts ar ssntially basc on
supporting th country's mining activitis anc ar part o Japan's ovrall
rsourc ciplomacy. Japans policy calls or a 'samlss systm or
contributing to cvloping countris', provicing tchnical xprtis anc
inancial assistanc at all stags o minral rsourc xploration,
cvlopmnt anc opration. This inclucs strngthning ciplomatic tis,
provicing tchnical assistanc, acilitating inrastructur cvlopmnt,
stimulating incustrial coopration anc oring inancial support anc loans
through agncis such as th Japan Pank or lntrnational Coopration
(JPlC, on which mor blow), th Japan lntrnational Coopration /gncy
(JlC/) anc th Nippon Export anc lnvstmnt lnsuranc (NEXl).
Th stratgy also calls or th stablishmnt o a rcycling systm o scrap
rom procucts that contain high contnt o rar mtals (such as cll phons
anc cigital camras). Th stratgy promots a bttr us o th xisting
rcycling systm anc th cration o a rcycling-orintc Japans socity.
Rcycling has bn a cor lmnt o Japans minral policy sinc 998
whn th Law or Rcycling o Spciic Kincs o Hom /ppliancs was
passc. Policis o rcycling startc in rspons to concrn ovr climat
chang anc th pncing Kyoto Protocol in th lat 99C's, mphasizing air-
concitionings anc othr hom appliancs. Th approach has slowly bn
nlargc to incluc automobils, cll-phons anc cigital camras. ln
accition, rcycling is also mor anc mor consicrc an lmnt o orign
policy as othr /sian countris ar bing ngagc in cvloping rgional
rcycling initiativs.
To promot rsarch anc cvlopmnt o altrnativ matrials, th stratgy
calls or partnrships btwn upstram anc cownstram incustris, cross-
incustry actors anc btwn govrnmnt incustry anc acacmia.
Finally, in orcr to campn th cts o supply risks, Japan holcs a
national stockpil uivalnt to 42 cays o stancarc consumption in
Japan.
65
Th matrials inclucc in th stockpil hav bn mntionc
abov. Th stratgy calls or bttr us o th rar mtals stockpil through
a continuous valuation o supply anc cmanc trncs in th markt anc on
th ncs o th incustry.
100 Actions to Launch Japan's New Growth lndustry
Th CC /ctions Plan o /ugust 2CC prsnts th ky policis o METl or
th iscal yar 2C. lt contains CC spciic actions that METl will implmnt
to raliz th various ob|ctivs mntionc in th lncustrial Structur Vision
2CC anc th Nw Growth Stratgy.
ln th Plan, thr actions ar ormulatc rgarcing th stabl supply o
rsourcs anc nrgy:
promotion o stratgic comprhnsiv rsourc ciplomacy (action 4);
strngthning comstic rsourc cvlopmnt (action 42) anc,
scuring stabl supply o rar mtals anc othr mtallic rsourcs
(action 43).
/ction 4 stats that Japan will 'ngag in stratgic, comprhnsiv
rsourcs ciplomacy, intnsivly applying policy rsourcs, with countris
in which Japans companis ar xpctc to obtain nw rsourc intrst.'
/ction 42 mntions th cvlopmnt o sabc rsourcs, on which mor
blow.
/ction 43 stats that '[t]o accrss supply stoppag risk on minral
rsourcs o rar mtals inclucing 'stratgic rar mtals' (rar arth, lithium,
tungstn, tc.), w will work to scur ovrsas rsourcs, promot
rcycling, cvlop substitut matrials, anc push ahac with stockpiling
ths matrials.'
66

To achiv th csirc policy rsults, METl has rustc th ollowing
bucgt or iscal yar 2C to implmnt th ollowing pro|cts:
Support or th acuisition o mining rights, YC.35 billion;
Establish a platorm or promoting cvlopmnt o rar mtal
rsourcs, Y C.82 billion;
Dvlop substitut matrials or rar mtals, Y .3C billion;
lnvst in or lnc mony to mtallic minral rsourcs prospcting, (or
all natural rsourcs) Y2.C billion.
67
<A52?1<0B:2;A@
Psics ths initiativs ocusc xclusivly on th minral sctor, rar
mtals ar also mntionc in th Nw Growth Stratgy Towarc a Raciant
Japan o Dcmbr 2CC9 anc th Pasic Ocan Law o 2CC7.
New Growth Strategy Towards a Radiant Japan
Th Nw Growth Stratgy o Dcmbr 2CC9 is not a stanc-alon minral
policy, but rathr a comprhnsiv approach to bolstr th Japans
conomy in light o th inancial crisis. Spciically, th stratgy mntions
rar mtals anc REEs in its ciscussion to us grn innovation to spur
conomic growth. Th stratgy aims to 'raliz complt cyclical us o
comstic rsourcs [o rar mtals anc REEs] by promoting rcycling,
promoting tchnological cvlopmnt o rar mtals anc rar arth
lmnts that can rplac xisting nrgy rsourcs, anc acvancing a
comprhnsiv stratgy to scur rsourcs anc nrgy.'
68
Basic Ocean Law
Th sabc within Japan's Exclusiv Economic Zon (EEZ) ors a
potntial sourc o supply o rar mtals anc othr minral rsourcs.
Howvr, givn th cpth o ths rsourcs anc th tchnological
challngs involvc, much o this cp-sa mining is prohibitivly xpnsiv.
ln th past a w small scal mins wr cvlopc, but whn minral
cmanc was low thy bcam conomically unviabl anc wr shut. Vith
rising cmanc anc th cclarc stratgy to cvlop altrnativ sourcs or
rar mtals, Japan is r-xamining th cvlopmnt o its sabc in th
Sa o Japan. ln July 2CC7, Japan acoptc th Pasic Ocan Law to this
nc. /rticl 7 o th Law accrsss th positiv us o ocans or marin
rlatc scintiic knowlcg anc th cvlopmnt o minral rsourcs,
inclucing mangans anc cobalt or.
69

Th CC /ctions Plan also accrsss th cvlopmnt o sabc rsourcs
uncr action 42 (strngthning o comstic rsourcs cvlopmnt). Th
plan stats that Japan will 'concuct a survy or xploration o cobalt-rich
crust anc know amounts o rsourcs in samounts.'
7C
For iscal yar 2C,
th Japans govrnmnt rsrvs YC.66 billion or a basic survy o cp
sa-loor rsourcs.
:.6;.0A<?@
Th national cbat on stratgic non-ul minrals is charactrizc by a
unanimously sharc prspctiv. Poth govrnmntal actors anc incustry
bliv that scuring a stabl supply o rsourcs is ky or th halth o
Japans businss anc conomic growth. Ths actors also shar a
common prspctiv on th instrumnts to achiv this nc. lt involvs
on, or a combination, o th ollowing: civrsiication o rsourc supply
through nw sourcs; th cvlopmnt o substituts anc tchnologis
that rcucs th us o stratgic rsourcs, stockpiling anc rcycling.
Government
Th Japans govrnmnt's stratgy to scur stratgic mtals has two
main cimnsions, xtrnal anc intrnal. First, Japan aims to scur ovrsas
rsourcs by bolstring rlations with rsourc-rich stats anc by acopting
'aggrssiv rsourcs ciplomacy.
7
[mphasis accc]' ln its Guiclins or
Scuring Natural Rsourcs, th govrnmnt strsss its support or 'ky
rsourc acuisition pro|cts by promoting activ ciplomacy anc hlping
ths pro|cts to b stratgically connctc to conomic coopration
masurs, such as [OD/], policy inanc anc trac insuranc.'
72
Ky
rsourc acuisition pro|cts ar cinc as pro|cts that involv Japans
companis anc that hlp scuring supply o rsourcs, inclucing rar mtals
anc othr minrals. Japan promots stratgic collaboration btwn
govrnmntal bocis, agncis anc incpncnt acministrativ institutions
in implmnting this policy, inclucing METl, JOGMEC, JlC/, JPlC, Nw
Enrgy anc lncustrial Tchnology Dvlopmnt Organization (NEDO),
Japan Extrnal Trac Organization (JETO), anc NEXl.
73

Sconc, Japan aims to nsur intrnal availability by promoting th
cvlopmnt o substituts, nw tchnology, stockpiling, altrnativ sourcs
(or xampl rom sabcs), anc through rcycling. /sic rom th stratgis
mntionc abov, in 2CC7 two rsarch pro|cts on rar mtals wr
launchc within th ramwork o th national rsarch program lnnovativ
Tchnologis on Rar Rsourcs anc Scar Rsourc Substitut Matrial or
Dtrmining Solutions to Rsourc lssus.
74
On o th pro|cts, th Elmnts
Stratgy Pro|ct o th Ministry o Ecucation, Cultur, Sports, Scinc anc
Tchnology (MEXT) aims to cvlop high-unctionality substancs anc
matrial without using stratgic non-ul minrals anc to cvlop substituts
rom abuncantly availabl matrial. Many actors ar involvc in this pro|ct
inclucing univrsitis, instituts or scinc anc tchnology anc companis,
mining companis, stl anc chmical procucts corporations, anc
manuacturrs o cars anc high-tchnology consumr goocs.
/nothr pro|ct, th Dvlopmnt Pro|ct on Rar Mtals Substitution,
sponsorc by METl, is a rsarch program whos ob|ctiv is to cvlop
tchnologis that rcuc th us o thr typs o stratgic matrials. lt
ocuss on achiving a 5C% rcuction in th us o incium or transparnt
lctrocs, anc a 3C% rcuction in th us o cysprosium in rar arth
mtal magnts anc in tungstn or carbic tools.
75
JOGMEC
JOGMEC, a ky playr in th policy cbat on stratgic minrals, is Japan's
acministrativ agncy in charg o scuring a stabl supply o oil, natural
gas anc nonrrous mtal anc minral rsourcs. lt is also chargc with
implmnting min pollution control masurs anc manags Japan's
national stockpils o rar mtals.
76
Ths stockpils ar usc to control
prics as wll as to stabiliz supply in th vnt o an mrgncy.
77

JOGMEC supports th govrnmnt's rsourc ciplomacy towarcs rsourc-
rich countris.
78
ln Potswana, or xampl, JOGMEC stablishc a gological
rmot snsing cntr, which srvs as Japan's xploration bas in southrn
/rica. JOGMEC's annual rport o 2CC9 urthrmor mntions activitis in
Prazil, Zambia, /rgntina, Polivia, th US, Chil anc /ustralia. JOGMEC
itsl also concucts rsourc ciplomacy itsl, or instanc by organizing
'Mtal Saloons', a sris o orums whr th Japans anc rprsntativs
rom rsourc-xporting countris mt. lt also supports th privat sctor
with inancial assistanc, initial xploration anc rsarch anc cvlopmnt
xprtis.
79
For xampl, JOGMEC startc a rsarch program in 2CC7 on
rcycling rar mtals anc in 2CC9 a program cvloping bactria abl to
rcovr rar mtals rom usc procucts.
Finally, JOGMEC has an inormation-sharing unction. lt contributs to th
Japans knowlcg bas on minrals by collcting, analyzing anc provicing
inormation to th govrnmnt, th privat sctor anc th gnral public.
8C
lt
maintains, or instanc, th Minral Rsourcs lnormation Cntr - a
spcialist library on minral rsourcs opn to th public. JOGMEC publishs
priocical issus anc books with basic inormation on minral rsourcs anc
it brings togthr prossionals rom th privat sctor anc acacmia.
JOGMEC inorms th cbat at th govrnmntal lvl.
Japanese Bank for lnternationaI Cooperation {JBlC)
8
JPlC's mission is to 'contribut to th sounc cvlopmnt o th Japans
anc intrnational conomy.'
82
Rgarcing stratgic mtals, JPlC supports
th govrnmnt's policy ob|ctivs by 'promoting ovrsas cvlopmnt
anc acuisition o stratgically important natural rsourcs to Japan' anc
'maintaining anc improving th intrnational comptitivnss o Japans
incustris.'
83
ln lin with th govrnmnt's 'aggrssiv rsourcs ciplomacy',
JPlC provics loans anc guarants to cvlop mins anc mining
inrastructur in rsourc-rich /rican countris. ln 2CC7, or xampl, JPlC
inancc th cvlopmnt o mins anc nickl procuction in Macagascar
'to nsur long-trm stabl supply o nickl anc cobalt rsourcs to
Japan.'
84
lndustry
Japan has a rlativly small mining sctor. During th 97C's, thr wr
246 small anc mcium-scal mtal mins mploying som 34,CCC popl.
85

Du to ovrsas comptition, rising procuction costs anc incrass in th
yn xchang rat, many mins wr closc cown. ln 2CC7 only mins
rmainc oprational, o which th Hishikari min was th most signiicant.
/t th tim o writing in 2CC only a w mins ar oprational anc th
mining sctor is cominatc by ight ma|or mining houss: Dowa Mtals &
Mining, Furukawa Mtals anc Rsourcs, Mitsubishi Matrials, Mitsui Mining
anc Smlting, Nippon Mining & Mtals, Nitttsu Mining, Sumitomo Mtal
Mining, anc Toho Zinc.
86

Japan has many car manuacturrs, inclucing wll-known brancs Toyota,
Mitsubishi anc Honca. /gainst th backgrounc o supply risks, anc in
particular atr th Chins xport rstrictions o Sptmbr 2CC,
Japans car companis wr orcc to rthink thir risk managmnt
stratgis. Many o thm startc to rsarch builcing hybric cars without
rar arth mtals or to civrsiy thir sourcs o supply irrspctiv o
govrnmnt action. ln 2CC8 Toyota Tsusho Corp. - a tracing company
closly linkc to Toyota Motor Corp. - stablishc a rar arth mining |oint
vntur in Vitnam. Rrring to China, Toyota company spoksman
Morimasa Konishi saic 'thr ar many risks in cpncing on on nation.'
87

Early 2CC th company st up a rar arth mtal task orc to xplor
substituts anc nw ways to us rcyclc matrials.
88
Honca Motor
Company has bn concucting similar rsarch anc cvlopmnt to inc
substituts or rar arths.
89

Th sam holcs tru or many Japans procucrs o high tch appliancs,
such as Toshiba anc Samsung. ln orcr to scur thir supply o rar
minrals, ths companis hav startc to cvlop altrnativs or to
civrsiy thir sourcs o supply. Toshiba, or xampl, in 2CC9 mac a cal
with Kazatomprom, a stat-ownc company rom Kazakhstan, to scur
mtals ncc or Toshiba procucts. Th partnrship was ocusc on th
rcovry anc mining o by-procucts rom oprational uranium mins,
inclucing cysprosium, nocymium anc rhnium.
9C
Givn th cmanc or rar mtals anc th orts o th Japans
govrnmnt to scur thir supply, th rcycling o rar mtals rom
ciscarcc lctronic cvics has bcom a lucrativ incustry in Japan.
Dowa Holcings anc Kosaka Smlting anc Rining ar lacing Japans
companis in this ilc o 'urban mining.' Th Japans govrnmnt rrs
to olc computrs anc cll phons as 'urban mins' cu to th high amount
o rar mtals thy contain.
ln /pril 2CC9 th Ministry o lntrnal /airs anc Communications callc
upon cll phon manuacturrs to incras th rcovry rat rom 2C% in
2CC8 to 3C% in 2CC9.
9
ln July 2CC9 a pilot on rcycling organizc by METl
with 57C,CCC cll phons turnc up 22 kg o golc, 79 kg o silvr, 5,69Ckg o
coppr anc 2 kg o pallacium.
92
/ccorcing to th National lnstitut or
Matrials Scinc, th 'urban mining bas', in othr worcs, th amounts o
stratgic mtals prsnt in lctronic cvics usc in Japan, is th ollowing:
,7CC mtric tonns o lncium (annual global consumption is 45C
mtric tonns);
56C mtric tonns o lac (annual global consumption is 33C mtric
tonns);
5C,CCC mtric tonns o lithium (annual global consumption is 2,CCC
mtric tonns);
2,5CC mtric tonns o platinum (annual global consumption is 445
mtric tonns).
93

This cata shows that Japan's urban mins ar a sourc o supply that can
mor than mt Japan's nc or crtain rar mtals.
Th Japans incustry shaps th policy cbat in multipl ways. lt is, or
xampl, activly involvc in rsarch anc cvlopmnt programs. Thir
intrsts ar rprsntc at th govrnmntal lvl by Nippon Kicanrn,
Japan's powrul businss lobby. Nippon Kicanrn was stablishc in
2CC2 as a rsult o a mrgr btwn Kicanrn (th Japan Fcration o
Economic Organizations) anc Nikkirn (th Japan Fcration o
Employr's /ssociations). /mong its mmbrs ar ,28 companis anc 29
incustrial organizations.
94

Media
Stratgic non-ul minrals rgularly mak haclins in th Japans mcia.
Th main nws channls rporting on stratgic mtals ar Th Japan Tims
Onlin, Nikki Pusinss Onlin anc Th Mainichi Daily Nws. Ths opinion
makrs ar concrnc about th impact o supply shortags on th
Japans conomy. Th rporting is otn targtc towarcs businsss anc
ocuss on thos companis potntially actc by supply cisruptions,
mainly th car incustry. Particularly ollowing th xport rstrictions rom
China in Sptmbr anc Octobr 2CC thr was hightnc attntion or
th issu.
95
Th mcia also assss th masurs takn by incustry anc
govrnmnt to allviat supply risks anc to nsur stabl supply. Much
attntion is givn to orts sking altrnativ mthocs o supply, inclucing
rcycling anc civrsiication. Dals by th govrnmnt, tracing companis
anc car manuacturrs with othr countris ar rcurrntly covrc.
Research lnstitutes
Japans rsarch institutions shar th vision that Japan ncs to allviat
its minral vulnrability anc hightn its rar mtal scurity. Th masurs
that rsarch institutions hav rcommncc incluc th civrsiication o
rsourc supply through nw sourcs, th cvlopmnt o substituts anc
tchnologis that rcuc th us o stratgic rsourcs, anc rcycling. Th
instituts concuct rsarch on tchnologis that can strngthn Japans
incustry or crat nw opportunitis or Japans businsss.
NationaI lnstitute of Advanced lndustriaI Science and TechnoIogy
Th National lnstitut o /cvancc lncustrial Scinc anc Tchnology
(/lST) is Japan's lacing public rsarch organization. lt was ormc on
/pril 2CC through a mrgr o 5 rsarch instituts oprating uncr th
Ministry o lntrnational Trac anc lncustry (MlTl, rorganizc as METl in
2CC) anc th Vights anc Masurs Training lnstitut.
96
ln lat 2CC /lST
statc that thr is wicsprac concrn about nrgy scurity anc that 'w
must also rcogniz th sriousnss o th problms acing th supply o
rar mtals cu to th act that most o rar mtal cposits ar locatc in
xtrmly limitc countris anc that cvlopmnt o thir substitution is
mor ciicult than in th cas o nrgy, which has svral altrnativs.'
97

ln 2CC6 /lST stablishc a Rar Mtal Task Forc to activly tackl th rar
mtal problm in Japan.
98
Th ob|ctiv o th Task Forc was to strngthn
Japan's conomic scurity by cvloping rsourc xploration tchnologis,
tchnologis to rcuc rar-mtal consumption, substituts anc rcycling
tchnologis. /ccorcing to Mamoru Nakamura, Dirctor o th Matrials
Rsarch lnstitut or Sustainabl Dvlopmnt, /lST is th only institution
in Japan that is carrying out this rsarch in such a ilc-intgrating way.
99
MetaI Economics Research lnstitute
Th Mtal Economics Rsarch lnstitut (MERl/J) is a non-proit rsarch
institut that is supportc by Japans non-rrous mtal incustris. MERl/J
was stablishc in 989 to promot conomic rsarch on a varity o
topics rlatc to non-rrous mtals markts.
2CC
ln 2CC MERl/J hac 9 Full
Mmbrs anc 6 /ssociat Mmbrs, among which wr JOGMEC, JPlC,
tracing companis such as Sumitomo Corp. anc Mitsui & Co. anc othr
mmbrs rom th incustry, inclucing companis in th ilc o non-rrous
mtal smlting, wir anc cabl, brass mill, anc lctric utilitis.
2C
MERl/J
concucts rgional stucis on /sian anc othr mtal markts, rsarch on
th tchnologis usc in th global mtal incustry, on nvironmntal
aspcts o th mtal incustry anc on scrap markt anc rcycling. MERl/J
consicrs th continuc accss to ths mtals ssntial or Japan's
mocrn incustrializc socity.
0<;09B@6<;
For Japan, stratgic non-ul minrals ar an issu o high concrn cu to
continuous risks o supply constraints. Japan has only a small mining incustry
anc is virtually compltly import cpncnt or its stratgic minrals. Du
to th importanc o high-tchnology incustris to th ovrall Japans
conomy, scuring accss to stratgic matrials is crucial. /ll actors involvc
in th minral policy cbat, o which METl, JOGMEC anc th incustry ar
among th most important, ar ully awar o Japan's minral policy anc
shar th viw that scuring a stabl supply o rsourcs is ssntial or th
Japans conomy anc way o li. ln orcr to accrss this issu, th
Japans govrnmnt has cvlopc comprhnsiv policis on scuring
stratgic minrals. Th our lmnts o th stratgy ar th ollowing:
scuring ovrsas rsourcs anc stimulating comstic procuction;
rcycling;
cvloping altrnativ matrials;
anc stockpiling.
Scuring stratgic minrals is mbccc in a broacr policy o scuring
natural rsourcs. Vith rspct to this ob|ctiv, th Japans govrnmnt
has statc it will ngag in aggrssiv rsourc ciplomacy abroac. JOGMEC
plays an important rol in acilitating accss or Japans companis to
ovrsas rsourcs, particularly in /rica.
Domstically, Japan also aims to ccras its cpncncy on orign
stratgic minrals. Larg uncs hav bn mac availabl to rsarch th
cvlopmnt o substituts anc to xplor nw sourcs o supply, or
instanc in sabcs. Urban mining, th rcycling o stratgic mtals rom
ciscarcc cvics is also upcoming anc incrasingly bcoming a part o
Japans cultur.'
Events in History Year Japan MineraI PoIicy ReIated
Events
Start o VV ll 94
Japan acs supply cisruption o
stl, oil anc rubbr cu to US
conomic sanctions anc boycott.
Establishmnt o stockpil o critical
matrials or military anc civilian us
Govrnmnt ncourags comstic
incustris to cvlop altrnativ
sourcs anc rcycling
7 Dcmbr: Japan attacks th
Unitc Stats
963
MM/J is stablishc to nsur a
stabl supply o non-rrous mtals
anc othr minral rsourcs
Enrgy criss 97Cs
Enrgy criss uncrscor Japan's
minral vulnrability anc import
cpncncy anc hightn ar o
supply cisruptions among policy
makrs
989
Establishmnt o MERl/J to promot
rsarch on non-rrous mtals
markts
2CC2
Establishmnt o Nippon Kicanrn,
Japan's powrul businss lobby
2CC4
Establishmnt o JOGMEC to nsur
a stabl supply o oil, gas anc
minrals
2CC5
Dcmbr: Rsourcs Stratgy
Committ is stablishc by th
/gncy or Natural Rsourcs
anc Enrgy to xamin rar mtal
procuction, supply risks anc
mitigation policy
2CC6 /lST sts up Rar Mtal Task Forc
2CC7
July: Pasic Ocan Law is norcc
calling or positiv us o sabc
rsourcs, inclucing mangans anc
cobalt or
METl anc MEXT launch rar mtal
rsarch pro|cts as part o
'lnnovativ Tchnologis on Rar
Rsourcs anc Scar Rsourc
Substitut Matrial or Dtrmining
Solutions to Rsourc lssu'
JOGMEC starts rsarch program on
rcycling o rar mtals
JPlC uncs nickl procuction pro|ct
in Macagascar
2CC8
Sptmbr: conomic rcssion
anc Lhman Prothrs, bankruptcy
hightns concrns about Japan's
conomy anc minral vulnrability
Sptmbr: govrnmnt xprsss
intnt to ormulat stratgy to scur
stabl supplis o rar mtals
METl starts ciscussions in th
Minral Rsourcs Subcommitt
anc /cvisory Committ on Natural
Rsourcs anc Enrgy
Toyota Tusho Group announcs REE
mining |oint vntur in Vitnam
2CC9
July: 'Stratgy or Ensuring Stabl
Supplis o Rar Mtals' publishc
Dcmbr: 'Nw Growth Stratgy
Towarc a Raciant Japan' publishc
JOGMEC rports on Japan's ovrsas
rsourc activitis in Prazil, Zambia,
/rgntina, Polivia, th US, Chil anc
/ustralia
JOGMEC starts rsarch program
on tchnology that uss bactria to
rcovr rar mtals rom ciscarcc
procucts
JOGMEC publishs Rar Mtal
Hancbook
Toshiba starts rar mtal mining |oint
vntur in Kazakhstan
July: China cuts xport uota to
bolstr prics anc mt comstic
cmancs
maritim incicnt
2CC
Toyota Motor Corp. sts up rar arth
mtals task orc
July: Japans companis xprss
concrn ovr China's protctionist
policis
/ugust: 'CC /ctions to Launch
Japan's Nw Growth lncustry' rport
publishc
Sptmbr: Japans companis
rport China halts rar mtal xports
to Japan
Sptmbr -Octobr: hightnc
mcia attntion or Japans minral
vulnrability
Nippon Kicanrn urgs govrnmnt
to tak rar mtals issu sriously
2. 5 CONCLUSION
Th analysis o national policis on stratgic non-ul minral rsourcs
ruirs a basic uncrstancing o th tchnical anc gological aturs o
non-ul minrals, an apprciation o th conomic anc political cynamics
o minral inscurity, as wll as a grasp o th historical contxt that shaps
incivicual countris prcptions anc rsponss to this inscurity.
Gological anc tchnical acts alon co not xplain pric cvlopmnts in
non-ul minral markts, import cpncnc or rsrv statistics. /
common misprcption is to think o minral rsrvs in trms o static,
absolut gological variabls instac o apprciating thir cynamic, rlativ
anc conomic natur. Political, tchnological anc conomic actors
ctrmin th mutual cpncncis o stats with rgarcs to non-ul
minrals, thir stratgic concrns, anc th policis stats csign anc
implmnt.
Th cas stucis prsntc hr analyz th non-ul minral policis o
th US, UK anc Japan, thr acvancc incustrializc countris. Our incings
show that thr is no common list o stratgic minrals. Vhat is consicrc
'stratgic' cirs rom stat to stat anc changs ovr tim. Th analysis
incicats that stratgic minrals ar thos that (a) ar ssntial or th
continuc opration o critical sctions o th national conomy or to
national scurity anc (b) whos supply to th stat may b intrruptc
through rstrictions in th supply chain or at th point o sourcing. From a
gopolitical prspctiv, ths two actors may b intrrlatc, as procucr
stats us ownrship o particular minral rsourcs or political lvrag.
Howvr, this may also b th rsult o supply rstrictions cu to limitc
points o sourcing, procucing critical points o potntial ailur.
Looking at th cvlopmnt o stratgic minral policy in our thr cas
stucis, it is clar that th cbat ovr stratgic minrals is cyclical in
natur, anc coincics with particular vnts in th intrnational systm as
wll as th cvlopmnt o spciic tchnologis. Combinc, ths may
procuc incrasc lvls o non-ul minral inscurity. Historically, stats
hav rsponcc with a rang o cirnt policis to accrss such inscurity,
which ar inormc by uniu national prisms that shapc thir
uncrstancing o th stratgic rol o non-ul minrals anc acuat
policy rsponss. Ths prisms ar shapc by a country's orign policy
outlook, th composition o its conomy, th intrnational institutional
stting in which it oprats, its own minral ncowmnts anc its gopolitical
position.
Th US has a strong national scurity-ocusc approach to stratgic
minrals. Japan, by virtu o its cpncnc on its high-tch conomy anc
innovation-crivn socity, has a comprhnsiv prspctiv basc on
conomic scurity intrsts. Th UK, by contrast, givs prccnc to
viwing th problm as an conomic trac issu anc, at last until now, has
bn an activ promotr o th virtus o r trac.
Each stat has a cistinct national approach to th issu o stratgic minrals
anc whil it is impossibl to gnraliz across th boarc on th basis o
thr cas stucis, thr ar svral striking commonalitis. /ll ar
cpncnt on import or thir stratgic minrals, thy all hav xprssc
concrn (though som mor than othrs) ovr rcnt trac rstrictions in
rar arth lmnts (REEs) anc thir minral policis hav historically bn
impactc by similar cycls o gopolitical tnsions. Ths gopolitical
tnsions, whthr it was th Sconc Vorlc Var, th Colc Var, stat ragility
in /rica, or th global conomic crisis, ar th cominant actor shaping
shits in stratgic minral policy.
Pyonc ths commonalitis thr ar ma|or cirncs. Th US has
historically prrrc national rsponss to incivicual instancs o non-ul
minral inscurity. Th US has avourc builcing comstic supply chains or
stockpiling th minral in orcr to avoic cpncnc on th intrnational
markt. ln contrast to this, Japan pursus a comprhnsiv policy approach
to a host o stratgic minrals basc on our pillars: stockpiling, cvloping
altrnativs abroac anc at hom, rcycling anc innovation. Th UK
concntrats on nsuring its mining companis ar abl to rly sourc
ncssary minrals abroac.
Givn rcnt concrns ovr REEs, it now appars that countris hav
movc into a nw cycl o stratgic minral policymaking. Th impact o
th worlc conomic crisis has rinorcc this trnc, as Vstrn mining
companis struggl to rais th ncssary capital to rapicly cvlop
altrnativ sourcs o supply, which coulc mak Vstrn stats lss
cpncnt on th supplis o th mbolcnc monopolist China. Thir
crucial rol in cvloping altrnativ nrgy sourcs to ossil uls, as wll
as snsitiv cns applications, also to th prcption o REEs as
incispnsabl stratgic rsourc.
This trnc can clarly b obsrvc in prsnt US anc Japans policy
initiativs. Vhil th US is likly to cvlop a comstic REE supply chain
(comparabl to its orts to builc a bryllium supply chain a ccac ago)
anc is boosting its stockpils, Japan has cvlopc a comprhnsiv
minral policy basc on assrtivly using cvlopmnt coopration or th
purpos o cvloping nw mins abroac, but also stimulating rsarch
into substituts, making acvancmnts in rcycling anc rconsicring th
composition o its stockpils. Th UK appars to lag bhinc in its policy
rspons. Th country mphasizs comstic procuction, but as o yt cos
not xprss a similar sns o urgncy to cvlop a stratgic minral policy
towarcs REEs as th othr two stats co. Howvr, th UK's rcnt Stratgic
Dns Rviw calls or an apprciation o th stratgic importanc o
REEs. This may incicat th mrgnc o a Pritish stratgic minrals policy
with rgarcs to ths mtals.
Our analysis shows that stats plac a clar mphasis on instrumnts
circtc at rcucing thir cpncnc on intrnational markts or th
supply o stratgic minrals. Vhthr this is through subsicizing comstic
rsourc procuction, boosting stockpils or invsting in rcycling orts,
th ocus lis on rcucing trac cpncncis. ln Japan this has bn
xprssc most vocally by pursuing 'aggrssiv rsourcs ciplomacy'
basc on cvloping nw mining vnturs in Cntral /sia, /rica anc South
/mrica.
Vhil curing prvious cycls o stratgic minral policymaking-such as
curing th 98C's with platinum group mtals-intrnational tnsions anc
scurity concrns ultimatly cic not scalat anc supply risks associatc
with import cpncncis wr rsolvc, this is no guarant or an ually
bnign utur. Our analysis shows that comstically-ocusc initiativs
concrning stratgic non-ul minrals ar cvloping tocay in rspons to
growing rsourc nationalism in procucr stats. This crats th risk o a
ragmntation o intrnational markts or stratgic minrals, which coulc
urthr ul scurity concrns, incras th potntial or gopolitical
tnsions, anc inhibit th rapic anc icint xpansion o global supplis.
Thror, cooprativ orts aimc at an icint xpansion anc
civrsiication o th global supply chain shoulc b prrrc ovr narrow
policy instrumnts to stablish comstic sourcs o supply; anc shoulc b
connctc to |oint invstmnts in R&D or mor rugal rsourc us,
nhancc rcycling anc th cvlopmnt o ctiv substituts. Stratgic
minral inscurity tocay cos not prsnt a problm that cannot b
ovrcom, but it cos csrv our attntion.
ANNEX - DESCRI PTI ON OF METALS
3 ANNEX DESCRIPTION OF
METALS
3. 1 INTRODUCTION
This annx ors an ovrviw o ky mtals anc lists thir most important
charactristics, sourcs, ky applications anc provics inormation on thir
rcycling. For many o th mtals that ar procucc as by-procucts or in
vry small uantitis, cata ar otn not availabl or ar withhlc.
Nonthlss, w hav mac an ort to provic as comprhnsiv anc
consistnt inormation as possibl.
ln orcr to prsnt th availabl inormation on a total o 37 mtallic
lmnts-som o which ar part o two groups o mtals, namly platinum
group mtals (PGMs) anc rar arth lmnts (REEs)-systmatically, w
hav compilc inormation rom a varity o sourcs. Gological survys,
prcominantly th USGS anc PGS, mac up th ma|ority o rrncs.
lnormation rom ths survys was supplmntc atr cross-rsarch
with sourcs ranging rom scinc wbsits oring basic covrag o
lmnts in th Mnclyv systm anc acacmic assssmnts all th way
to businss wbsits, catabass anc nwspapr articls covring th
mattr.
Givn th limits on th availabl inormation, a prct systmatization anc
stancarcization o cata was not possibl rom xisting opn sourcs. Th
ovrviw w or hr cpicts th most important aturs o ky mtals
in a way that w hop will corrsponc to th ncs o racrs sarching or
an insight or to rrsh thir knowlcg on stratgically important mtals.
3. 2 BERYLLIUM
Key
Characteristics
1
BeryIIium
Formula P
Color Stl-gray
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Prittl
Crystal Hxagonal
1
120
20
Reserves
1
Production
1
NA
1
in metric tons
Pryllium is an alkalin arth mtal minc mainly rom th minrals bryl
anc brtrancit. lt is six tims strongr than stl anc has a vry high
mlting point at ,278 C, but it is nonthlss lightr than aluminium.
2C2

Furthr unusual proprtis incluc xcllnt thrmal concuctivity, high
rsistanc to acics anc vry high prmability to X-rays.
2C3

WorId production and reserves
BERYLLlUM
2C4
{in metric tonnes)
Country: Mine Production Reserves Reserve
base
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2008J09 2008
US/ C 55 CC 76 2C N/ N/
Mozambiu 6 6 6 N/ N/
China 2C 2C 2C 2C 2C N/ N/
Vorlc total: 38 8C 3C 2CC 4C N/ N/
Pryllium procuction in th US is havily subsicizc anc mainly coms rom
a brtrancit min in Utah. Smallr uantitis ar currntly bing minc in
China anc Mozambiu. Vry signiicant uantitis o bryllium concntrats
xist as stockpils in Kazakhstan, allowing or svral ccacs o
procuction.
2C5

KEY USE
206
Pryllium is usc in a wic rang o incustris, tchnologis anc
applications, such as arospac, high prormanc lctronics, nuclar
tchnologis, anc high-nc cns tchnologis, inclucing high-spc
aircrat, hlicoptrs, (nuclar) missils, spaccrat anc satllits. lt is mainly
connctc to lightwight matrials with suprior thrmal concuctivity anc
xcllnt rsistanc against hat anc corrosion.
RECYCLING
Pryllium is mostly rcyclc rom nw scrap anc to a lssr xtnt rom olc
scrap. ln 2CCC approximatly 35 tonns o bryllium whr rcyclc in th
US, with 4% o th matrial bing harvstc rom olc scrap.
2C7

3. 3 COPPER
Key
Characteristics
2C8
COPPER
209
Formula Cu
Color Pal ros to
coppr-rc,
somtims brown
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Ductil anc
mallabl
Crystal Cubic
655
440
410
960
950
900
750
5,320
250
1,260
1,090
520
0-10,000
Reserves
1
Production
1
10,000-30,000
30,000-60,000
60,000-100,000
over 100,000
1
in thousands of metric tons
/ non-rrous transitional mtal lmnt, coppr is usually orming
compouncs. Thror, it is rarly ounc in nativ stat anc mainly appars
in thr groups o minrals
2C
: hypogn (chalcopyrit, bornit, nargit),
coppr oxics (cuprit, malachit, chrysocolla anc covllit) anc sconcary
sulphics (chalcocit anc covllit). Cuprit is th minral with th highst
prcntag o coppr (88.8). Howvr, th most xploitc or is th on
with th lowst prcntag o coppr - chalcopyrit (34.6)
2
- sinc it is th
most common to b ounc.
Coppr or appars in various cposit typs. Th most important ons
ar
22
: porphyry (5C-6C% o worlc procuction), scimnt-hostc (2C% o
worlc procuction) anc th rc-bc cposits.
213
COPPER
{in thousand of metric tonnes)
Country: Mine Production Reserves
214
Reserve
base
215

2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2009 2009
ChiIe 5.32C 5.36C 5.56C 5.33C 5.32C 6C.CCC 36C.CCC
Peru .CC .C49 .9C .27C .26C 63.CCC 6C.CCC
United States .4C .2CC .7C .3C .C9C 35.CCC 7C.CCC
China 755 89C 946 95C 96C 3C.CCC 63.CCC
lndonesia .C7C 86 797 65 95C 3.CCC 38.CCC
AustraIia 927 859 87C 886 9CC 24.CCC 43.CCC
Russia 7CC 725 74C 75C 75C 2C.CCC 3C.CCC
Zambia 436 476 52C 546 655 9.CCC 35.CCC
Canada 567 6C7 589 6C7 52C 8.CCC 2C.CCC
PoIand 523 52 452 43C 44C 26.CCC 48.CCC
Kazakhstan 4C2 457 4C7 42C 4C 8.CCC 2C.CCC
Mexico 429 338 347 247 25C 38.CCC 4C.CCC
WorId totaI: 5.CCC 5.CC 5.4CC 5.4CC 5.8CC 54C.CCC 94C.CCC
Global coppr procuction cclinc in 2CC8 anc accorcing to USGS
stimations managc to rcovr in 2CC9. Th lacing position o Chil as
th worlc's gratst procucr o coppr (35% o ovrall min procuction)
rmainc intact anc is likly to continu. Pru bypassc th US as th
worlc's sconc biggst coppr procucr in 2CC7 anc thn again in 2CC9.
Poth countris contribut approximatly 8% to th global min procuction
o coppr.
KEY USE
216
Du to its concuctivity, mallability anc rsistanc, coppr ranks thirc
among th most usc mtals in th worlc. Pcaus o its high cuctility it is
runtly usc or wirs. Combinc with its ability to concuct both
lctricity anc hath, this maks coppr a matrial that is mainly usc in
th procuction o lctrical appliancs, such as lctromagnts, gnrators,
motors anc communication cvics.
Coppr alloys (such as brass anc bronz) anc thir rsistanc to corrosion
hav provc usul in th procuction o plumbing pips, rooing as wll as
in comstic appliancs procuction.
27

RECYCLING
/ccorcing to th UK Gological Survy, sconcary procuction basc on
rcycling o coppr scrap was two thircs o th total worlc procuction o
coppr. Poth coppr anc its alloys can b rcyclc multipl tims as thy
co not loos thir proprtis in th procss. Th sconcary procuction o
rinc coppr was constantly incrasing in th last iv yars. Vhil it was
2,C69 thousancs o mtric tonns in 2CC4 (worlc total), mor than 2,9CC
thousanc mtric tonns o sconcary rinc coppr was procucc in th
worlc in 2CC9.
28

3.4 GALLIUM
Key
Characteristics
1
GALLlUM
219
Formula Ga
Color Silvry whit
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Ductil anc
mallabl
Crystal Orthorhombic
50
20
40
19
20
3
35
20
8
8
Production
capacity
1
1
in metric tons
Gallium is a chmical lmnt that is nvr ounc pur but in a compouncc
stat. lt is xtractc as a by-procuct rom ciaspor, grmanit, bauxit anc
zinc-basc ors. lt is a poor mtal with a low mlting point (3CC) anc with
on o th longst liuic rangs among mtals.
22C
lts unusual charactristics
incluc that it xpancs whn rzing (up to 3.%) anc that is not as gooc
an lctric concuctor as som othr poor mtals.
22
Gallium-cominatc
minrals ar: gallit, gallobucantit, sohngit anc tsumgallit
222
yt non
o thm ar o incustrial importanc.
GALLlUM
223
Country Primary production
{metric tonnes)
2004 2005 200S 2007 2008
CPE
225
25 28 3C 3C 3C
OECD C C C C
EU 6 5 5 5 5
ln percentages
CPE 7.43 73.68 73.7 75.CC 75.CC
OECD 28.57 26.32 26.83 25.CC 25.CC
EU 7.4 3.6 2.2C 2.5C 2.5C
WorId production capacity of crude gaIIium {tonnes)
22S
:
/ustralia 5C
Japan 2C
China 4C
Russia 9
Grmany 35
Hungary 8
Kazakhstan 2C
Slovakia 8
Franc 2C
Ukrain 3
/ccorcing to th USGS, th worlc min procuction o gallium in 2CC9 was
78 mtric tonns, which rprsnts a cclin by on thirc rom mtric
tonns procuction in 2CC8. Th biggst procucrs o rinc gallium ar
th US/, China anc Japan, whil th primary procuction is consicrc to
b th highst in /ustralia, China anc Grmany.
227

KEY USE
228
Du to its alracy mntionc low mlting-point anc wic liuic rang,
gallium is usc in high-tmpratur thrmomtrs
229
. Gallium arsnic
(Ga/s) anc gallium nitric (GaN) ar usc in acvancc smiconcuctors or
microwav transcivrs, DVD's, lasr ciocs in compact ciscs anc othr
lctronic applications.
23C
lt is also mployc as a smiconcuctors, coping
matrial anc in th manuactur o solic-stat itms such as transistors.
23

Gallium is usc or wtting glasss to mak brilliant mirrors, anc in
commrcial ultraviolt activatc phosphors whn combinc with
magnsium (magnsium gallat).
232
RECYCLING
Grmany anc Japan, along with th UK anc th US/, ar th lacrs in
gallium scrap rcycling oprations.
233
Global rcycling capacity or gallium
was stimatc to 78 tonns in 2CC7
234
, whil th Mining Journal stimats
rcycling gallium capacitis to b hal o th worlc's total procuction o
this mtal.
235
Nw Ga/s (gallium arsnic) scrap is rcyclc in th US/
(mostly by Rcaptur Mtals at its Plancings, Utah plant), Grmany (by
Rcylx Group), Japan anc th U.K. (by MCP).
236
3. 5 HAFNIUM
Key
Characteristics
1
HAFNlUM
237
Formula H
Color Silvry gray
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Ductil
Crystal Hxagonal
1
NA
NA
NA
NA
5
25
40
0-50
Reserves
1
Production
1
50-100
100-200
200-250
over 250
NA
1
Th transitional, cuctil mtal hanium is charactrizc by an impntrabl
oxic ilm that orms on its surac, making it highly rsistant to corrosion.
This rsistanc is its most important atur as it also cis attacks by alkalis
anc acics (all but hycroluoric acic). Hanium cannot b ounc in pur orm
but only in compouncs with zirconium which it shars similar chmical anc
physical charactristics, making thir sparation ciicult. Hanon is th only
minral rgistrc by th lntrnational Minral /ssociation (lM/)
238
containing
high prcntags o hanium (58.45%)
239
. Howvr, incustrial xtraction
happns mainly rom zircon (minral containing hanium anc zirconium -
(4.69% anc 43.4%)
24C
anc bacclyit
24
, though hanium can also b a
by-procuct o zirconium mtal procssing.
WorId production and resources
Hafnium
242

{thousand metric tonnes)
Country Primary
production
243
{est. metric
tonnes)
Reserves
{metric tonnes)
Resources
{est. miIIion of
tonnes)
South Africa N/ 28C N/
AustraIia N/ 23C N/
United States 4C 68 4
BraziI N/ 44 N/
lndia N/ 42 N/
France 25 N/ N/
Ukraine 5 N/ N/
China N/ N/
WorId totaI 7 66C 6C
KEY USE
Thr ar two main uss o hanium. lt is mostly usc in nickl-basc alloys
to crat so-callc supralloys, withstancing high-strss anc high
tmpraturs situations. Du to its nutron-absorbanc ability, it is also
usc in nuclar ractors (inclucing thos o nuclar submarins) in control
rocs
244
. /nothr us o hanium has bn announcc in 2CC7 whn lntl
startc procucing working vrsions o hanium-basc chips incicating
possibl substitution o silicon-basc transistors.
245

RECYCLING
No cata availabl
3. 6 LITHIUM
7,400
2,300
2,200
490
480
350
110
4,400
NA
NA
0-100,000
Reserves
1
Production
1
100,000-250,000
250,000-500,000
500,000-1,000,000
over 1,000,000
NA
1
Key
Characteristics LlTHlUM
24S
Formula Li
Color Silvry
Strak Vhit
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Mallabl anc
cuctil
Crystal Cubic
Lithium, alkalin anc th last cns o all mtals can b ounc in two basic
typs o cposits: continntal brins anc harc rock or.
247
lts high ractivity
maks it ciicult to b ounc in its nativ stat, so it is usually compouncc
in complx minrals. Thr ar C9 rgistrc minrals containing lithium,
o which lpicolit, ptalit anc spocumn ar th most usc. Th last
minral to b ounc so ar, in 2CC6, |acarit, is still xaminc or incustrial
usulnss.
LlTHlUM
base
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2009 2009
ChiIe 8.27C 8.2CC .CC C.6CC 7.4CC 7.5CC.CCC 3.CCC.CCC
AustraIia 3.77C 5.5CC 6.9C 6.28C 4.4CC 58C.CCC 22C.CCC
China 2.82C 2.82C 3.CC 3.29C 2.3CC 54C.CCC .CC.CCC
Argentina .98C 2.9CC 3.CCC 3.7C 2.2CC 8CC.CCC N/
PortugaI 32C 32C 57C 7CC 49C N/ N/
Canada 7C7 7C7 7C7 69C 48C 8C.CCC 36C.CCC
Zimbabwe 26C 6CC 3CC 5CC 35C 23.CCC 27.CCC
BraziI 242 242 8C 6C C 9C.CCC 9C.CCC
BoIivia - - - - - - 5.4CC.CCC
United States V V V V V 38.CCC 4C.CCC
Russia 2.2CC 2.2CC N/ N/ N/ N/ N/
WorId totaI: 2C.6CC 23.5CC 25.8CC 25.4CC 8.CCC 9.9CC.CCC .CCC.CCC
Chil anc th US/ ar worlc lacrs in primary lithium procuction, yt, th
xact cata on th min procuction o lithium by th US/ ar withhlc anc
thror not availabl to th public. Vith th ciscovry o important
sourcs o lithium baring or in th /ncs, /rgntina also bcam on o
th biggr procucrs. Nvrthlss, its procuction is signiicantly lowr
than Chil's whos main sourc o lithium brins lays in th inamous
/tacama Dsrt.
248

KEY USE
249
Lithium irst bcam an important incustrial matrial in anoc procuction.
Nowacays, it is mostly usc in cramic anc glass anc lithium-ion battris
procuction. Du to its chmical charactristics it is mainly xploitc by th
pharmacutical incustry to procuc mooc stabilizrs. Lithium also has a
nuclar application. lt was usc as a usion ul in th irst vrsions o th
hycrogn bomb. lt is now usc in nuclar plants anc ractors. Probably th
most promising incustrial us o lithium is in r-chargabl battris or
lctric cars, which ar consicrc to b th vhicls o th utur.
RECYCLING
Lithium rcycling appars not to b as important now as it might b in th
utur, givn th incrasing cmanc or clan nrgy anc lctric vhicls.
So ar, thr ar no oicial cata on rcycling worlcwic anc th companis
uippc to co so ar w. Th biggst on is Toxco lnc, a US-basc
company, which introcucc patntc procss or primary rcycling o
lithium battris as arly as 992.
3.7 MANGANESE
2,400
1,600
1,300
1,200
990
960
810
310
94
Other
Countries
0-10,000
Reserves
1
Production
1
10,000-50,000
50,000-100,000
100,000-200,000
over 200,000
1
Key
Characteristics MANGANESE
250
Formula Mn
Color Gray-whit
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Prittl
Crystal Cubic
Mangans is a transitional lmnt otn ounc in pur stat or in iron
compouncs. Thr ar 494 rgistrc minrals containing mangans, o
which pyrolusit anc rhocochrosit ar th minrals that ar mostly usc or
primary procuction o mangans. Main or cposits ar cp-sa noculs,
cratc whn watr rom hot springs mts colc cp ocan watr. Howvr,
th xploitation o noculs is not cost-icint cspit thir rlativly high
prcntag o th mtal (25%). Vhn alloyc, this transitional mtal is
magntic anc whn alloyc with iron it bcoms harcr anc at th sam
tim coxicizing, which is why it is usc a lot in stl procuction.
WorId production and resources
MANGANESE
Country: Mine Production Reserves Reserve base
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2009 2009
China .CC .6CC 2.CCC 2.2CC 2.4CC 4C.CCC CC.CCC
AustraIia .45C 2.9C 2.54C 2.32C .6CC 87.CCC 6C.CCC
South
Africa 2.CC 2.3CC 2.6CC 2.9CC .3CC 3C.CCC 4.CCC.CCC
BraziI .59C .37C 933 .38C 99C 29.CCC 57.CCC
lndia 64C 8 9CC 96C 96C 56.CCC 5C.CCC
Gabon .29C .35C .49C .6CC 8C 52.CCC 6C.CCC
Ukraine 77C 82C 58C 49C 3C 4C.CCC 52C.CCC
Mexico 8C 33 25 7C 94 4.CCC 9.CCC
Other
Countries .39C .36C .42C .3C .2CC Small Small
WorId
totaI: C.5CC .9CC 2.6CC 3.3CC 9.6CC 54C.CCC 5.2CC.CCC
/tr a prioc o stacy growth in mangans min procuction
(approximatly 3% pr yar), thr has bn a signiicant cclin in 2CC9
accorcing to th USGS stimations. Th procuction ccrasc by almost a
thirc anc it occurrc mostly cu to th signiicant ccrass in Prazil's anc
Gabon's procuction o mangans or.
25
KEY USE
252
/part rom stl procuction, mangans is also usc in various othr ilcs,
such as procuction o alkalin battris which ar xpctc to b
substitutc compltly by lithium-ion ons, in ccolorizing (or colorizing)
glass anc as micronutrint or animal ooc anc plant rtilizrs. lt is also
usc, as potassium prmanganat, as a bactricic anc algacic in watr
anc watr-wast tratmnts.
RECYCLING
Thr is not much inormation on mangans rcycling. lt is usually
incicntally rcyclc as a by-procuct o rrous anc nonrrous scrap. Th
latst anc only availabl oicial cata on mangans rcycling cat rom
998 anc ar rom th US/. /ccorcing to ths cata, th rcycling icincy
or olc scrap was only 53%. /s this numbr shows th ratio btwn th
amount o scrap rcovrc anc rusc anc th amount o availabl scrap,
that a lot o mangans was lost in th proccur. lt is our stimat that
th biggst part o utur mangans sconcary scrap will b turnc into
alkalin mangans battris.
3. 8 MOLYBDENUM
77
50
32
15
7.2
7.2
4
3.4
3
3.1
0.4
0.4
0.25
0-100
Reserves
1
Production
1
100-200
200-1,000
1,000-2,500
over 2,500
1
Key
Characteristics MOLYBDENUM
253
Formula Mo
Color Silvry-whit
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Rlativly cuctil
Crystal Cubic
Molybcnum cos not appar as a r lmnt in natur but is primarily
xtractc rom th minral molybcnit or as a by-procuct in mining
procsss o coppr anc tungstn.
254
Out o 44 rgistrc molybcnum-
basc minrals
255
only thr ar rgularly usc or incustrial purposs.
Thos ar molybcnit, wulnit anc powllit.
256
On o th most important
charactristics o this mtal is its high mlting point (sixth o all lmnts)
at 2623C, which maks it vry usul in making hath-rsistant alloys.
MOLYBDENUM
{in metric tonnes)
base
{thousand
m. tonnes)
2CC5 2CC6 2CC7 2CC8 2CC9st. 2CC9 2CC9
China 4C.CCC 43.9CC 59.8CC 8.CCC 77.CCC 3.3CC 8.3CC
United
States 58.CCC 59.8CC 57.CCC 55.9CC 5C.CCC 2.7CC 5.4CC
ChiIe 47.748 43.278 44.92 33.7CC 32.CCC .CC 2.5CC
Peru 7.325 7.2C9 6.737 6.7CC 5.CCC 4C 23C
Canada 7.9C 7.27C 2.CCC 7.72C 7.2CC 45C 9C
Mexico 4.246 2.5CC 2.5CC 7.8C 7.2CC 35 23C
Armenia 275C 3.CCC 4.C8C 4.25C 4.CCC 2CC 4CC
Russia 3.CCC 3.CC 3.3CC 3.6CC 3.4CC 24C 36C
lran 2.CCC 2.CCC 2.6CC 3.8CC 3.CC 5C 4C
MongoIia .88 .2CC .3CC 2.CCC 3.CCC CC 5C
Kazakhstan 23C 25C 4CC 4CC 4CC 3C 2CC
Uzbekistan 5CC 6CC 6CC 5CC 4CC 6C 5C
Kyrgyzstan 25C 25C 25C 25C 25C CC 8C
WorId
totaI: 85.CCC 84.CCC 2C5.CCC 28.CCC 2CC.CCC 8.7CC 9.CCC
Th procuction o Molybcnum is primarily concntratc in China, US/,
Chil anc Pru. Togthr, ths our countris procuc as much as 7/8 o
th global min procuction. Ths countris minus Pru also holc 83% th
o worlc's mangans rsrv.
257

KEY USE
258
Vith an xtrmly high mlting point anc corrosivnss only at lvatc
tmpraturs, molybcnum has xtnsiv incustrial us whn alloyc with
nickl. lt is also usc in stl procuction as it nhancs its strngth anc
harcnss. Molybcnum is also usc in th chmical incustry as a pigmnt
or lubricant.
259
ln th US/ 88% o national molybcnum consumption is
usc in th mtallurgical incustry.
RECYCLING
Molybcnum is rarly rcyclc on its own, but usually gts rutilizc in th
procss o rcycling stl alloys scrap. USGS stimats th amount o
molybcnum rusc in this procss as high as 3C% o th molybcnum
supplis.
26C

3. 9 NICKEL
266
189
181
167 107
93
85
84.3
65
56.7
36
34
14
12
7.8
NA
0-400
Reserves
1
Production
1
400-1,000
1,000-5,000
5,000-10,000
over 10,000
1
Key
Characteristics NlCKEL
2S1
Formula Ni
Color Silvry-whit
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Ductil anc
mallabl
Crystal Cubic
This lustrous, transitional mtal is th ith most common lmnt on th
plant. lt appars in srpntinizc maic anc ultramaic rocks
262
, magmatic
sulics anc latrits, mostly as a pntanclit, incustrially th most xploitc
o 37 rgistrc minrals baring nickl. Othr important sourcs o nickl
ar pyrrothit, garnirit anc nicklirous limonit. Nickl can also b
xtractc as a by-procuct rom coppr procuction. lts high suitability to
mak alloys maks it appropriat or various incustrial uss, spcially as it
accs to corrosion rsistanc anc magntic ualitis.
263

NlCKEL
{in metric tonnes)
base
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2009 2009
Russia 35.CCC 32C.CCC 28C.CCC 277.CCC 266.CCC 6.6CC.CCC 9.2CC.CCC
lndonesia 6C.CCC 4C.CCC 229.CCC 93.CCC 89.CCC 3.2CC.CCC 3.CCC.CCC
Canada 98.CCC 233.CCC 255.CCC 26C.CCC 8.CCC 4.CC.CCC 5.CCC.CCC
AustraIia 89.CCC 85.CCC 6.CCC 2CC.CCC 67.CCC 26.CCC.CCC 29.CCC.CCC
New CaIedonia 2.CCC C3.CCC 25.CCC C3.CCC C7.CCC 7.CC.CCC 5.CCC.CCC
CoIombia 89.CCC 94.CC C.CCC 76.4CC 93.CCC .7CC.CCC 2.7CC.CCC
PhiIippines 26.6CC 58.9CC 79.5CC 83.9CC 85.CCC 94C.CCC 5.2CC.CCC
China 77.CCC 82.CC 85.CCC 68.4CC 84.3CC .CC.CCC 7.6CC.CCC
Cuba 72.CCC 75.CCC 75.CCC 67.3CC 65.CCC 5.5CC.CCC 23.CCC.CCC
BraziI 52.CCC 82.5CC 75.3CC 58.5CC 56.7CC 4.5CC.CCC 8.3CC.CCC
Botswana 28.CCC 38.CCC 38.CCC 38.CCC 36.CCC 49C.CCC 92C.CCC
South Africa 42.5CC 4.6CC 37.9CC 3.7CC 34.CCC 3.7CC.CCC 2.CCC.CCC
Dominican RepubIic 46.CCC 46.5CC 47.CC 3.3CC N/ 84C.CCC .CCC.CCC
Greece 23.2CC 2.7CC 2.2CC 8.6CC 4.CCC 49C.CCC 9CC.CCC
Zimbabwe 9.5CC 8.82C 7.2C 3.CCC 2.CCC 49C.CCC 26C.CCC
VenezueIa 2C.CCC 2C.CCC 2C.CCC 8.4C 7.8CC 57.CCC 63C.CCC
WorId totaI: .49C.CCC .58C.CCC .66C.CCC .57C.CCC .43C.CCC 7.CCC.CCC 5C.CCC.CCC
Th global nickl min procuction cclinc in 2CC8 anc 2CC9. /lthough
som countris incrasc thir procuction, such as Zimbabw, China anc
Colombia, th ccras in othrs was too signiicant to maintain th sam
lvl o worlc procuction. Th countris xprincing th biggst all cown
in primary nickl procuction rom 2CC7 ar Russia, Canaca anc /ustralia,
all thr bing among th top iv procucrs.
KEY USE
264
/ccorcing to both th USGS anc PGS, 8C% o th worlc consumption o
nickl consists o alloys (stainlss stl, rrous anc non-rrous alloys) out
o which only 2% ar non-rrous ons. /mong its othr uss ar CD
procuction, whr it is usc in lctro-plating anc th procuction o
rtilizrs, psticics anc ungicics.
265

RECYCLING
Nickl is ical or rcycling cu to its corrosion rsistanc.
266
Howvr,
though succssully rcyclc rom alloys (xcpt or th spcial alloys
whr th trnc is not to rcycl it sparatly), nickl is not asy to b
rcyclc rom catalysts in th ptrolum incustry. /tr th EU publishc
its 'Pattris Dirctiv' in 2CC6 all nickl-cacmium battris bcam
classiic as cangrous wast in Europ. Th goal was st to collct 8C% o
all usc battris o this kinc.
3. 10 NIOBIUM
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
57
4,3
0-50
Reserves
1
Production
1
50-500
500-1,000
1,000-3,000
over 3,000
NA
1
Key
Characteristics NlOBlUM
2S7
Formula Nb
Color Gray-whit
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Ductil anc
mallabl
Crystal Cubic
Niobium, also known as columbium, is a rar mtal which can b ounc in
niobit, niobit-tantalit, pyrochlor anc uxnit. lts tracs ar ctctc in
as many as 23 minrals.
268
Dposits associatc with niobium ar usually
carbonatits consisting mainly o pyrochlor.
269
/s it is highly ractiv with
oxygn anc carbon as wll as with nitrogn anc sulur - niobium ruirs
carul anc protctiv hancling. Small uantitis o niobium ar xtractc
as by-procuct o tantalit, tin slug anc struvrit procssing.
NlOBlUM
{in metric tonnes)
Country: Mine Production Reserves
Reserve
base
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2008J09 2008
AustraIia 2CC 2CC N/ N/ N/ 2.CCC 32C.CCC
BraziI 35.CCC 4C.CCC 57.3CC 58.CCC 57.CCC 2.9CC.CCC 2.6CC.CCC
Canada 3.3C 4.67 3.C2C 4.38C 4.3CC 46.CCC 92.CCC
Congo 25 N/ N/ N/ N/ N/ N/
Ethiopia 7 N/ N/ N/ N/ N/
Mozambique 34 29 N/ N/ N/ N/ N/
Nigeria 4C 35 N/ N/ N/ N/ N/
Rwanda 63 8C N/ N/ N/ N/ N/
WorId totaI: 38.7CC 44.5CC 6C.4CC 62.9CC 62.CCC 2.9CC.CCC 3.CCC.CCC
/ccorcing to publicly availabl inormation, Prazil is by ar th largst
procucr o niobium with main cposits locatc in /raxa, Minas Grais
stat. Canaca is also consicrc to hav a signiicant sourc o niobium
containing or. ln most o th othr primary procucr countris niobium is
rcovrc as a by-procuct o th tantalum mining.
KEY USE
270
/part rom bing a vry important alloying agnt, niobium is usc in th
procuction o |wllry. lts most important application is in combination
with titanium or th procuction o suprconcuctiv wirs. Ths wirs ar
usc or th cration o suprconcuctiv magnts. Stainlss stl with
niobium is wicly usc: rom nuclar ractors anc missils to cutting
instrumnts anc piplins.
RECYCLING
lnormation on worlc-wic rcyclc niobium scrap is not availabl, but it is
stimatc at approximatly 2C% o apparnt consumption.
27
ln th US/,
or xampl, niobium is rcyclc with alloys whil niobium-cominatc scrap
rcycling is ngligibl.
272

3. 11 PLATINUM GROUP METALS
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
57
4,3
0-50
Reserves
1
Production
1
50-500
500-1,000
1,000-3,000
over 3,000
NA
1
Key
Characteristics PLATlNUM
273
Formula 6 mtal lmnts
(Ru, Os, Rh, lr, Pc
anc Pt)
Color Dark
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Mallabl anc
cuctil
Th platinum group mtals, runtly rrrc to as PGMs or platinoics,
ar a group o six lmnts with similar chmical aturs that ar usually
ounc togthr in cposits. Ths lmnts ar: ruthnium, rhocium,
pallacium, iricium, osmium anc platinum. Only two o thm, pallacium anc
platinum, can b ounc in pur orm in natur whil all othrs ar ounc
alloyc ithr with golc or with platinum.
274
/s a group thy blong to vry
scarc lmnts. Platinum (th main sourc o procuction) is usually ounc
as in grains or laks but rarly as larg nuggts
275
in ultramaic rocks
such as pricotit, but can also b xtractc rom sulic minrals
pyrrhotit, chalcopyrit or pntlancit.
276
PGMs ar also procucc as
by-procucts o coppr anc nickl mining.
Ruthnium
277
(Ru) is a harc whit mtal o low ractivity that oxicizs only
at tmpraturs highr than 8CCC. Du to its harcnss, it is usc alloyc
with platinum anc pallacium but its main us is in catalysts anc lctronic
applications. lt is always usc in small uantitis but it is consicrc to b
on o th chapr PGMs.
Rhocium
278
(Rh) is a highly rlctiv, harc anc curabl mtal with an vn
highr mlting point than platinum. This silvry-whit lmnt is xtrmly
rsistant to corrosivs anc is mainly usc in platinum anc pallacium alloys
to which it accs harcnss. lt is applic, as most o th PGMs, as catalyst but
also, cu to its low lctrical rsistanc, as an lctrical contact matrial.
High rlctivity anc colour mak this lmnt on o th most usc PGMs
in |wllry procuction.
Pallacium
279
(Pc) is mor runt than most o th othr PGMs in th
arth's crust (5 to parts pr billion). This lustrous silvry colourc mtal is
vry cuctil anc mallabl anc it can b batn into las (similar to golc).
lt is amous or its oxygn absorbanc capacitis as it can absorb as much
as 9CC tims its own volum o oxygn xpancing visibly in th procss.
lricium
28C
(lr) is a whit mtal with a hing o yllow. lts salts, though, ar
vry colourul. /s a vry harc anc brittl lmnt it is ciicult to procss. lt
is known as a corrosiv rsistant mtal anc is thus usc in anti-corrosiv
alloys. Othr main uss incluc platinum alloys (harcning ct), high-
tmpratur appliancs as wll as tipping pns anc compass barings
whn alloyc with osmium.
Osmium
28
(Os) is, with ruthnium, th harcst o all mtals which maks it
almost unworkabl. This bluish-whit lmnt is, thror, mainly usc as
a harcnr in alloys but it is also usc in mcical implants anc in ingrprints
ctction tchnologis.
Platinum
282
(Pl), cu to its bauty, has bn usc in |wllry procuction or
cnturis. lt is catgorizc among th prcious mtals anc is its pric is
comparabl to golc, somtims vn xccing it. lt also srvs to mak
salc glass lctrocs, cu to its xpansionary ualitis, but it can also b
ounc in, or xampl, antipollution cvics in vhicls.
PIatinum
Country Mine Production
{kg)
Reserves
{PGMs)
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009 2009
South Africa 69.CCC 7C.CCC 66.CCC 46.CCC 4C.CCC 63.CCC.CCC
Russia 3C.CCC 29.CCC 27.CCC 23.CCC 2C.CCC 6.2CC.CCC
Zimbabwe N/ 5.CC 5.3CC 5.64C 6.CCC N/
Canada 6.4CC 9.CCC 6.2CC 7.CCC 5.CCC 3C.CCC
United States 3.92C 4.29C 3.86C 3.58C 3.8CC 9CC.CCC
CoIombia .C8C .CC .4CC .5CC .2CC N/
WorId totaI 27.CCC 22.CCC 23.CCC 89.CCC 78.CCC 7.CCC.CCC
PaIIadium
Country Mine Production Reserve
base {PGMs)
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009
Russia 97.4CC 98.4CC 96.8CC 87.7CC 8C.CCC 6.6CC.CCC
South Africa 84.9CC 85.CCC 86.5CC 75.5CC 79.CCC 7C.CCC.CCC
United States 3.3CC 4.4CC 2.8CC .9CC 2.5CC 2.CCC.CCC
Canada 3.CCC 4.CCC C.5CC 5.CCC 9.CCC 39C.CCC
Zimbabwe N/ 4.CCC 4.2CC 4.39C 4.8CC N/
WorId totaI 29.CCC 224.CCC 29.CCC 2C4.CCC 95.CCC 8C.CCC.CCC
ln comparison to its pak in 2CC6, th worlc primary procuction o PGMs
ccrasc or almost 2C% in 2CC9. /part rom Zimbabw which has
stacily incrasc its procuction, othr ma|or procucrs, spcially South
/rica, Canaca anc Russia, hav hac a signiicant anc constant cclin.
KEY USE
283
/ll PGMs unction as catalyst so thy ar usc as procss catalysts or in
mission control systms. Du to thir strngth anc anti-corrosivnss thy
hav othr applications as civrs as |wllry procuction or ptrolum
rining. Lss scarc than th othrs rom th group, platinum anc pallacium
ar th most usc.
RECYCLING
Th rcovry o PGMs, mostly platinum anc pallacium, is th most icint
rom autocatalysts. /ccorcing to th US Gological Survy platinum
rcovry ros by 7% in 2CC8 raching 3.3CCkg, whil pallacium rcovry
was vn mor succssul with a ris o 5% anc 36.4CCkg rcovrc
worlcwic. On US-basc company, Stillwatr Mining Co., rcovrc as
much as 2.4CCkg o PGE's in its rcycling program.
3. 12 RARE EARTH ELEMENTS
0.38
0.65
2.7
120
0-50
Reserves
1
Production
1
50-100
100-1,000
1,000-5,000
over 5,000
1
in thousands of metric tons of rare-earth oxide
Key
Characteristics REEs
284
Formula Sc, Y, La, C, Pr,
Nc, Pm, Sm, Eu,
Gc, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er,
Tm, Yb anc Lu
Color lron-gry to
silvry
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Mallabl anc
cuctil
Thr ar 7 lmnts known as ar Earth Elmnts or REEs. Thos ar:
Scancium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Lanthanum (La), Crium (C), Prasocymium
(Pr), Nocymium (Nc), Promthium (Pm), Samarium (Sm), Europium (Eu),
Gacolinium (Gc), Trbium (Tb), Dysprosium (Dy), Holmium (Ho), Erbium
(Er), Thulium (Tm), Yttrbium (Yb) anc Luttium (Lu). /ll ths mtallic
lmnts hav similar chmical aturs anc, although callc Rar Earth
Elmnts, thy ar mor abuncant than, or xampl, silvr. Som o thm
ar mor common (crium with 33ppb) whil othrs can b ounc only in
tracs, lik promthium anc luttium (C.3ppb). This group o lmnts
contains a larg sub-group callc lanthanics which inclucs all mntionc
lmnts xcpt Scancium anc Yttrium, which ar consicrc REEs cu to
thir chmical anc physical proprtis similar to th lmnts in th rst o
th group. REEs can b ounc in svral typs o minrals lik halics,
carbonats, oxics anc phosphats. Thr ar approximatly 2CC minrals
containing REEs although only thr ar consicrc to b o ma|or incustrial
us: bastnsit, monazit anc xnotim.
285
REEs ar otn procucc as a
by-procuct o iron, coppr, uranium, phosphats anc golc mining.
286

Scancium
287
(Sc) is a vry sot, light mtal with a rlativly high mlting
point (highr than or xampl aluminium), which maks it particularly
intrsting to spaccrat csignrs anc constructors. Du to th act that it
is mor xpnsiv than aluminium, howvr, it is lss usc. /nothr wll-
known us is in th procuction o high-intnsity lights.

Yttrium
288
(Y) is a lustrous, silvry mtal, otn usc to incras th strngth
o aluminium anc magnsium alloys. /s yttrium oxic it is usc in high-
tmpratur suprconcuctors anc in phosphors usc to provic th colour
rc in TV tubs. lts racioactiv isotop is usc in cancr tratmnt.
Lanthanum
289
(La) is on o th rar mtals that is so sot it can b cut with
a kni. This silvry, whit lmnt is on o th highst ractiv mtals that
circtly racts with halogns, but also with lmntals such as nitrogn or
sulphur. ln larg uantitis this REE is usc in battris or hybric vhicls
anc as an oxic it is usc or camra anc tlscop lnss.
Crium
29C
(C) is consicrc to b th most abuncant o all REEs. This
cuctil gry mtal oxicizs vry uickly at room tmpratur anc is also
highly ractiv. Misch-mtal (crium-lanthanum alloy with nocymium anc
prasocymium) is usc in cigartt lightrs whn combinc with iron anc
magnsium oxics. Crium-oxic is consicrc on o th bst glass
polishrs anc is also usc in polishing uartz, agat, opal tc.
29
Prasocymium
292
(Pr) is a sot anc mallabl mtal anc a bit mor rsistant
to corrosivs than most o th REEs. lts oxic is on o th most rractory
substancs in th worlc. Togthr with othr REEs it is applic in carbon
arcs mainly usc or stucio lighting anc pro|ction in ilm incustry.
Nocymium
293
(Nc) is anothr mtal that is prsnt in Misch-mtal anc is
so up to 8%. lt is a silvry lustrous lmnt, which is among th mor
ractiv REEs. lt is usc in colouring glass anc is urthr applic in
astronomical works, as wll as in procucing cohrnt light in lasrs. lt is
also usc in th procuction o so-callc nocymium magnts, th strongst
kinc o prmannt magnts.
Promthium
294
(Pm) is a racioactiv lmnt which ruirs carul
hancling. ln th cark, its salts luminscnc in grn anc blu colours. lt is
usc or th convrsion o light into lctricity anc has th potntial to b
usc as a portabl X-ray unit. lt is also usc as a powr sourc or solar
smiconcuctor battris.
Samarium
295
(Sm) is a bright silvr mtal usc, as som o th othr
lanthanics, in carbon arcs lightings or th motion pictur incustry. lts
oxic is usc as an inrarc absorbr in optical glasss as wll as nutron
absorbr in nuclar ractors. Sinc th 97C's it has bn usc in th
procuction o samarium-cobalt magnts, a prmannt magnt. wakr
than th nocymium on, but consicrc bttr or work in high-
tmpratur nvironmnts
296
.
Europium
297
(Eu) is on o th most ractiv REEs which uickly oxicizs.
/s its isotops ar gooc nutron absorbrs, uropium is usc in nuclar
control applications. lt is also usc as an activator in substancs crucial or
th procuction o TV tubs.
Gacolinium
298
(Gc) is known or its us in microwav applications as wll as
in phosphors usc in TV tubs. This shiny silvry mtal is also th lmnt
with th highst known thrmal nutron captur cross-sction.
Trbium
299
(Tb) is anothr gray mtal sot nough to b cut with a kni. lt
is usc in grn phosphorus in TV tubs but its main application is in solic-
stat cvics to cop calcium luoric, calcium tungstat anc strontium
molybcat.
Dysprosium
3CC
(Dy) has a mtallic lustr anc a rlativly low ractivity whn
comparc to most o th lanthanics. Howvr, vn small impuritis can
svrly act its physical proprtis. lt has potntial to b usc in nuclar
applications anc it has bn applic, with vanacium, in lasr procuction.
Holmium
3C
(Ho) is a silvry mtal that uickly oxicizs whn xposc to
high tmpraturs anc a moist nvironmnt. Thr ar not many uss
known apart rom th usual application o REES in alloys.
Erbium
3C2
(Er) in air oxicizs slowr than most REEs. /s with som othr
mtals rom th group, its physical proprtis ar snsitiv to impuritis.
Th main applications o Erbium ar in th nuclar anc mtallurgical
incustry. Vhn combinc with vanacium, this mtal tncs to ccras th
harcnss o th alloy anc mak it mor workabl.
Thulium
3C3
(Tm) is a silvr-gray mtal o grat sotnss. /s it is rlativly highly
pricc on th markt, its practical applications ar almost ngligibl but, |ust
as Promthium, it is consicrc to b o potntial us as a portabl X-ray unit.
Yttrbium
3C4
(Yb) is a vry sot, mallabl anc cuctil lmnt. lts main
uss ar in alloys (stainlss stl) anc lasrs but on o its isotops is also
usc as a raciation sourc or portabl X-ray units whn thr is no
lctricity.
Luttium
3C5
(Lu) is probably th most xpnsiv o all REEs as it is prsnt
in only small amounts (usually accompanis Yttrium) anc vry ciicult to
xtract. lts nuclics can b usc as catalysts in various procsss, inclucing
polymrization anc hycrognation.
RARE EARTH ELEMENTS
Country Mine Production
{metric tonnes of rare-earth oxide)
Reserves
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009 2009
China 9.CCC 9.CCC 2C.CCC 2C.CCC 2C.CCC 36.CCC.CCC
lndia 2.7CC 2.7CC 2.7CC 2.7CC 2.7CC 3.CC.CCC
BraziI N/ 73C 65C 65C 65C 48.CCC
MaIaysia 75C 2CC 38C 38C 38C 3C.CCC
WorId totaI 23.CCC 23.CCC 24.CCC 24.CCC 24.CCC 99.CCC.CCC
Th primary procuction o REEs has bn rlativly stacy, with Malaysia
bing th sol ma|or procucr rgistring a signiicant cclin sinc 2CC5.
Evn though Malaysia igurs among th ma|or procucrs, its contribution
to th global min procuction o REEs is only C.3%. China holcs a ull grasp
ovr global primary REE procuction with as much as 96.7% in 2CC9,
accorcing to USGS cata.
KEY USES
306
RECYCLING
/lthough th rol o REEs is rising in th ilc o grn tchnology, thus
incrasing th cmanc o sconcary procucc REE mtals, thir rcycling
has bn lss than stllar. lt appars, accorcing to th Unitc Nations
Environmnt Program, that 'high-tch spcialty mtals' (REEs - spcially
nocymium as wll as lithium anc gallium which co not blong to th REE
group) rcycling accounts or arounc % whil th rst is ciscarcc.
3C7
3. 13 TANTALUM
560
180
100
NA
NA
100
40
Reserves
1
Production
1
40,000
65,000
NA
1
in metric tons
Key
Characteristics TANTALUM
308
Formula Ta
Color Gray
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Rlativly cuctil
Crystal Cubic
This rar, conlict minral
3C9
lmnt can b ounc in as many as 54
minrals
3C
anc is compouncc with niobium. Howvr, only som minrals
contain nough tantalum to mak thm xploitation worthy, such as
microlit, wocginit, samarskit anc uxnit. Th most important sourcs
o tantalum ar minrals callc tantalit anc niobit. /lthough structurally
ths two ar icntical, th prcntag o tantalum/niobium in thir
composition ctrmins thir nam anc primary us. Tantalum is also
xtractc as a by-procuct o rro-niobium.
TANTALUM
{in metric tonnes)
base
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2009 2009
AustraIia 73C 75C 435 557 56C 4C.CCC 84.CCC
BraziI 25C 25C 8C 8C 8C 65.CCC 9C.CCC
Rwanda 4C 62 42 CC CC N/ N/
Congo 25 N/ N/ CC CC N/ N/
Canada 7C 68 45 4C 4C N/ 3.CCC
Ethiopia 45 7C 77 N/ N/ N/ N/
Mozambique 8 7C N/ N/ N/ N/ N/
WorId totaI: .26C .4CC 85 C7C .6C C.CCC 8C.CCC
Th conomic crisis sriously actc th tantalum incustry. Du to pric
ccrass, som o th biggst mins (such as Talison mins in /ustralia or
Novnta's in Mozambiu) wr tmporarily shut cown, causing a
signiicant cclin in worlc procuction. This, togthr with an ctiv
mbargo on tantalum procucc in conlict rgion o th DR Congo, maks
it harc or th tantalum incustry to assur supply in th coming yars,
particularly now that conomis ar rcovring anc cmanc is rising
again.
KEY USE
/s on o th iv ma|or rractory mtals, tantalum is bing usc in th
lctronic incustry mainly or capacitors anc high powr rsistors.
Espcially its hat rsistanc anc high mlting point mak it vry usul in
manuacturing componnts or nuclar anc chmical plants, missils anc
aircrat.
3
Tantalum also has a wic us in th procuction o mcical
uipmnt as it is rsistant to bocy luics anc causs no harm to th
immun systm.
32

RECYCLING
Tantalum gts rcyclc mainly rom nw scrap rom lctronic componnts
anc supralloy scrap. Thr ar no rlasc cata on th amount o tantalum
rcyclc in th worlc pr yar, but th rcycling rat in US/ in 998 was
stimatc to b 35%. Crtain stimations ar claiming that th rcyclc
tantalum participation in yarly consumption is approximatly 2C%.
33
3. 14 TIN
115
100
38
16
12
12
3,5
2
2
2
0.1
0.1
0-100
Reserves
1
Production
1
100-500
500-1,000
1,000-1,500
over 1,500
NA
1
Key
Characteristics TlN
314
Formula Sn
Color Tin-whit
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Mallabl
Crystal Ttragonal
Tin is a rlativly scarc mtal anc on o th arlist to b ciscovrc anc
usc. Th main incustrial sourc o this lmnt is minral cassitrit,
although conomically ngligibl amounts o Sn ar bing xtractc rom
sulics lik stanit, cylincrit anc tallit, to nam only a w out o th 92
rgistrc tin-baring minrals.
35
lt usually lays in placr sancs anc ciscrt
grains.
36

TlN
{in metric tonnes)
base
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2009 2009
China 2C.CCC 25.CCC 35.CCC C.CCC 5.CCC .7CC.CCC 3.5CC.CCC
lndonesia 8C.CCC 9C.CCC C2.CCC 96.CCC CC.CCC 8CC.CCC 9CC.CCC
Peru 42.CC 38.CCC 39.CCC 39.CCC 38.CCC 7C.CCC .CCC.CCC
BoIivia 8.7CC 8.CCC 6.CCC 7.CCC 6.CCC 45C.CCC 9CC.CCC
BraziI 2.5CC 2.CCC C.CCC 2.CCC 2.CCC 54C.CCC 2.5CC.CCC
Congo 8C 2.8CC 3.5CC 2.CCC 2.CCC N/ N/
Vietnam 3.5CC 3.5CC 3.5CC 3.5CC 3.5CC N/ N/
AustraIia 2.8CC 2.CCC 2.CC .8CC 2.CCC 5C.CCC 3CC.CCC
MaIaysia 3.CCC 3.CCC 2.5CC 2.2CC 2.CCC 5CC.CCC 6CC.CCC
Russia 3.CCC 3.CCC 2.5CC .5CC 2.CCC 3CC.CCC 35C.CCC
PortugaI 2CC 2CC CC CC CC 7C.CCC 8C.CCC
ThaiIand 6CC 2CC CC CC CC 7C.CCC 2CC.CCC
WorId totaI: 29C.CCC 3C2.CCC 32C.CCC 299.CCC 3C7.CCC 5.6CC.CCC .CCC.CCC
/tr a signiicant cclin in 2CC8, global primary tin procuction is again
on th ris accorcing to th USGS stimations. Togthr th two most
important procucrs, China anc lnconsia, covr almost
2
/
3
o th global
min tin procuction.
KEY USE
317
Du to its anti-corrosion charactr, tin is usc to coat corrosiv mtals.
Stl platc with tin is otn usc in th procuction o ooc prsrvation
containrs. /nothr usag o tin is in wincow-glass making. Th proccur,
which is callc 'Pilkington procss', ntails loating moltn hot glass ovr
th moltn tin making so-callc 'loating glass' in orcr to crat a prctly
lat surac.
RECYCLING
/ccorcing to th Rcycling Guic, only on rcyclc tin can can sav th
amount o nrgy suicint to powr a TV or thr hours.
38
Vorlcwic
statistics ar missing about th amounts o tin rcyclc pr yar. /vailabl
inormation is championing th US in tin rcycling as it is crating roughly
2,CCC tonns o sconcary tin in its 86 plants pr yar,
39
raching 65.2%
rat in rcycling tin cans in 2CC8.
32C
3. 15 TUNGSTEN
47
2.4
2
1
0.9
0.85 NA
0-10
Reserves
1
Production
1
10-50
50-100
100-500
over 500
NA
1
Key
Characteristics TUNGSTEN
321
Formula V
Color Silvry-whit
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Ductil
Crystal Cubic
This mtal, whos original nam was wolram, has th highst mlting point
o all mtals (sconc highst or lmnts) anc its cnsity maks it on o
th havist mtals. lt is also acclaimc or its high thrmal anc lctrical
concuctivity. /mong 36 lM/
322
rgistrc minrals containing tungstn, th
incustrially most important ons ar wolramit anc schlit.
323
Tungstn
is also a by-procuct o procssing porphyry coppr
324
anc molybcnum
325

cposits.

TUNGSTEN
{in metric tonnes)
base
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2009 2009
China 6.CCC 79.CCC 4.CCC 43.5CC 47.CCC .8CC.CCC 4.2CC.CCC
Russia 4.4CC 4.CCC 3.2CC 3.CCC 2.4CC 25C.CCC 42C.CCC
Canada 7CC 2.56C 2.7CC 2.3CC 2.CCC C.CCC 49C.CCC
Austria .35C .3CC .2CC .CC .CCC C.CCC 5.CCC
BoIivia 52C 87C .CC .CC 9CC 53.CCC CC.CCC
PortugaI 82C 78C 85C 85C 85C 4.2CC 62.CCC
North Korea 6CC 6CC 6CC N/ N/ N/ 35.CCC
WorId totaI: 7C.CC 9C.8CC 54.5CC 55.9CC 58.CCC 2.8CC.CCC 6.3CC.CCC
/tr a sharp cclin in tungstn min procuction in 2CC7, thr has bn a
slow but stacy ris. Th main rason o th signiicant cclin in 2CC7 was
a ccras in th stimatc procuction o China (by almost 5C%). China is
by ar th biggst primary procucr o tin in th worlc, accounting or 8%
o worlc procuction accorcing to th 2CC9 USGS stimations.
KEY USE
Th lntrnational Tungstn lncustry /ssociation (lTl/) stimats that mor
than 6C% o worlcwic tungstn procuction is usc to crat harc mtals.
326

Othr uss incluc th procuction o stl anc spcial alloys (.g. in th
procuction o ciamonc tools), lamps (sinc th bginning o th 2Cth
cntury) as wll as lctronics, or which tungstn is usc as practically th
only matrial or lctron mittrs.
RECYCLING
/s much as 34% o th worlcwic cmanc or tungstn is mt by sconcary
procuction. Th act that th tungstn procssing incustry is capabl o
rcycling almost all kincs o tungstn scrap maks this prcntag lss
than imprssiv. ln most countris rcyclc tungstn accounts or 3C to
4C% o yarly consumption (37% in th US
327
).
328
3. 16 ZINC
2,800
1,470
1,300
730
690
520
490
0-10,000
Reserves
1
Production
1
10,000-15,000
15,000-20,000
20,000-30,000
over 30,000
1
Key
Characteristics ZlNC
329
Formula Zn
Color Pluish-whit
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Prittl (mallabl
abov CCC)
Crystal Hxagonal
Zinc is prsnt with 7C parts pr million (ppm) in th arth's crust. lt mostly
occurs in so-callc scx (scimntary xhalativ) anc volcanognic
massiv sulphic cposits (although thr ar as many as 5 ma|or typs o
zinc or cposits).
33C
/mong 28 minrals
33
, incustrially th most important
on is sphalrit, ollowc closly by smithsonit, hmimorphit anc
ranklinit.
332
Zinc blongs to ssntial biological trac lmnts whos
cicincy in th human organism can caus svr morbicitis to growth
anc gonacs, whil ovrconsumption can caus mntal lthargy anc
ataxia.
333
ln small uantitis zinc is procucc as a by-procuct o mlting
sulphic ors.
WorId production and reserve
ZlNC
base
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2009 2009
China 2.45C 2.6CC 2.9CC 3.2CC 2.8CC 33.CCC 92.CCC
Peru .2CC .2CC .44C .6CC .47C 9.CCC 23.CCC
AustraIia .33C .38C .52C .48C .3CC 2.CCC CC.CCC
Canada 755 7C 62C 75C 73C 8.CCC 3C.CCC
USA 748 727 8C3 778 69C 4.CCC 9C.CCC
Mexico 47C 48C 43C 4CC 52C 4.CCC 25.CCC
Kazakhstan 4CC 4CC 39C 46C 49C 7.CCC 35.CCC
WorId totaI: 9.8CC C.CCC C.9CC .6CC .CC 2CC.CCC 48C.CCC
/tr a 5% incras in global zinc min procuction in 2CC8, th 2CC9
stimats show a cclin again, mostly cu to th ccras in procuction
o China, a ma|or contributor to th worlc procuction o zinc. Th USGS
stimatc that two othr ma|or procucrs, Pru anc /ustralia, woulc also
xprinc a cclin in procuction in 2CC9, but thir pro|ctc ccras
was rlativly smallr than China's.
KEY USE
334
Zinc is mostly usc as an anti-corrosion agnt. lts rlativ ractivity maks
it also usul in cathocic protction. Th act it has a gooc lctroc
potntial maks zinc on o th important lmnts in battris procuction.
Zinc powcr is usc in alkalin battris, whil it is applic in anocs or as
ul in carbon-zinc ons.
RECYCLING
/ccorcing to th lntrnational Lac & Zinc Stucy Group (lLZSG) rcyclc
amounts o Zinc account or as much as 3C% o total worlc consumption.
335

Howvr, this numbr is not consicrc to b compltly accurat as it
inclucs only primary zinc scrap.
336
2,800
1,470
1,300
730
690
520
490
0-10,000
Reserves
1
Production
1
10,000-15,000
15,000-20,000
20,000-30,000
over 30,000
1
Key
Characteristics ZlRCONlUM
337
Formula Zr
Color Grayish-whit
Strak Shiny
Transparncy Opau
Lustr Mtallic
Tnacity Ductil anc
mallabl
Crystal Hxagonal
3. 17 ZIRCONIUM
This lmnt with clos visual liknss to ciamonc can nvr b ounc in its
nativ stat but always compouncc, most otn with hanium, rom which
sparation is ciicult. Out o 4 rgistrc minrals containing zirconium
338
,
only on is consicrc to b an conomically important rsourc, namly
zirconium silicat, also known as zircon. Othrs incluc bacclyit anc
kosnarit. Zircon is usually a sic-procuct o titanium anc tin or procssing
anc in its commrcial grac it contains -3 % o hanium.
339
ZlRCONlUM
{thousand metric tonnes)
base
{miIIion metric
tonnes)
2005 200S 2007 2008 2009est. 2009 2009
AustraIia 445 49 6C5 55C 5C 25 35
South Africa 3C5 398 4CC 4CC 395 4 4
China 7 7C 8C 4C 4C C.5 3.7
lndonesia N/ N/ N/ 42 42 N/ N/
Ukraine 35 35 35 35 35 4.C 6.C
lndia 2C 2 29 3C 3C 3.4 3.8
BraziI 35 26 3 27 27 2.2 4.6
WorId totaI: 88C .8C .43C .28C .23C 56 77
Th global min procuction o zirconium btwn 2CC5 anc 2CC9 rachc
a pak in 2CC7, incrasing with as much as 45C thousanc mtric tonns.
Howvr, sinc 2CC8 procuction shows a slight yt constant cclin.
/ustralia, bing th largst procucr accorcing to USGS stimations, was
covring 4.5% o global zirconium min procuction ollowc at som
cistanc by South /rica anc China.
KEY USE
Du to its poor ability to absorb nutrons, zirconium has an important us
in nuclar ractors in th claccings o ul rocs. lt is also usc in th
procuction o harc mtal alloys anc consuntly in th procuction o
surgical instrumnts, as wll as cutting tools that ruir xtraorcinary
harcnss.
34C
Vith its xcptional anti-corrosiv ualitis, zirconium is also
usc in th chmical incustry, spcially in highly corrosiv nvironmnts.
34

lt is also usc in th procuction o high-strngth cramics, mostly or
mcical applications as prosthss.
342

RECYCLING
Zirconium is mainly rcovrc rom primary scrap. Thr ar not many
companis rcycling Zirconium, but thos who co, rcycl it mainly rom
Zirconium anc Zirconium alloys scrap gnratc rom mtal procuction.
Th usual procss involvs mlting th scrap anc thn sparating it.
Zirconium ncs to b sparatc rom hanium, or xampl, i it is to b
usc in nuclar ul appliancs claccing.
343
4 GLOSSARY
/lST National lnstitut o /cvancc lncustrial Scinc anc Tchnology
PERR Dpartmnt or Pusinss, Entrpris anc Rgulatory Rorm
PGS Pritish Gological Survy
CPl Concration o Pritish lncustry
CN/S Cntr or a Nw /mrican Cntury
CSlS Cntr or Stratgic anc lntrnational Stucis
DOD Dpartmnt o Dns
DOE Dpartmnt o Enrgy
DOl Dpartmnt o th lntrior
EU Europan Union
GDP Gross Domstic Procuct
l/GS lnstitut or th /nalysis o Global Scurity
JPlC Japan Pank or lntrnational Coopration
JlC/ Japan lntrnational Coopration /gncy
JOGMEC Japan Oil, Gas anc Mtal National Corporation
MERl/J Mtal Economics Rsarch lnstitut
METl Ministry o Economy, Trac anc lncustry
MEXT Ministry o Ecucation, Cultur, Sports, Scinc anc Tchnology
MM/J Mtal Mining /gncy o Japan
MOU Mmorancum o Uncrstancing
MRP Minrals Rconnaissanc Program
MSP Minral Policy Statmnt
NEXl Nippon Export anc lnvstmnt lnsuranc
NRC National Rsarch Council
OD/ Oicial Dvlopmnt /ssistanc
OPEC Organization o th Ptrolum Exporting Countris
PGMs Platinum Group Mtals
REEs Rar Earth Elmnt
REST/RT Rar Earths Supply-Chain Tchnology anc Rsourcs
Transormation
R&D Rsarch anc Dvlopmnt
GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
S among othr Tilton, J.E., Assossing tho Throat of Minoral Doplotion in Minorals
ano Fnorgy - Paw Matorials Poport, no. 8, ., 2CC3.
2 Futur lssu 3carcity, HCSS, Th Hagu, March 2CC8.
3 Pasc on Skinnr, P.J., A 3ocono /ron Ago Ahoao?, in Amorican 3ciontist, vol. 64,
976, pp. 258-269.
4 S http://www.mining-tchnology.com/pro|cts/tautona_golcmin/
5 USGS, 'Rar Earth Elmnts in U.S. Not So Rar', USGS,
http://www.usgs.gov/corcast/ctails.asp?p=37.
6 Congrssional Pucgt Oic, 3tratogic ano Critical Non-Fuol Minorals: Probloms
ano Policy Altornativos. (Vashington, DC, US/: US Govrnmnt Printing Oic,
/ugust 983).
7 Scott F. Romans, Tho Polo of tho National Dofonso 3tockpilo in tho 3upply of
3tratogic ano Critical Matorials (Carlisl Parracks, P/, US/: US /rmy Var Collg,
May 9, 2CC8), .
ano Policy Altornativos, 8.
9 lbic.
C lbic., 9.
lbic.
2 V.J. Van Rnsburg, 'Global Comptition or Stratgic Minral Supplis', Posourcos
Policy (March 98): 8. /.K. Jorcan, 'Th US Stratgic Minrals Stockpil: Rmcy
or lncrasing Vulnrability?', Comparativo 3tratogy , no. 4: 3C8.
3 'Pusinss: Stratgic Mtals, Critical Choics', Timo, 2, 98C,
http://www.tim.com/tim/magazin/articl/C,97,95256,CC.html.
4 Van Rnsburg, 'Global Comptition or Stratgic Minral Supplis', 5.
5 Gorg C. Eacs, 'Viw o th National Commission on Supplis anc Shortags',
Journal of /ntornational law ano Fconomics (977).
6 Jorcan, 'Th US Stratgic Minrals Stockpil: Rmcy or lncrasing
Vulnrability?,' 3C8.
REFERENCES
ano Policy Altornativos.
8 lbic., 67.
9 lbic.
2C lbic., 9.
2 Romans, Tho Polo of tho National Dofonso 3tockpilo in tho 3upply of 3tratogic ano
Critical Matorials, 9.
22 lbic., 2.
23 Marc Humphris, Paro Farth Flomonts: Tho Global 3upply Chain
(Congrssional Rsarch Srvic, July 28, 2CC), .
24 National Rsarch Council, Minorals, Critical Minorals ano tho U3 Fconomy
(Vashington, DC, US/: Th National /cacmis Prss, 2CC8), 2C.
25 lbic.
26 3tratogic ano Critical Matorial 3tock Piling Act, 5O U.3.C. 98h-3(I).
27 Poport of tho Mooting Dopartmont of Dofonso 3tratogic Matorials Protoction Boaro
holo on Docombor I2, 2OO8. (Oic o th Uncr-Scrtary o Dns
(/cuisition, Tchnology anc Logistics) Dputy Uncr Scrtary o Dns
(lncustrial Policy) Excutiv Scrtary to th Stratgic Matrials Protction Poarc,
Dcmbr 2CC8), 6.
28 Unoor 3ocrotary of Dofonso for Acquisition, Poport to Congross, Tochnology ano
Logistics Poconfiguration of tho National Dofonso 3tockpilo
(Dpartmnt o Dns, /pril 2CC), 6.
29 National Rsarch Council, Minorals, Critical Minorals ano tho U3 Fconomy, 3-32.
3C Van Rnsburg, 'Global Comptition or Stratgic Minral Supplis,' 8.
3 'Stratgic Minrals: / Transatlantic Priority,'
http://csis.org/vnt/stratgic-minrals-transatlantic-priority.
National Rsarch Council, Minorals, Critical Minorals ano tho U3 Fconomy, 48-6C.
32 Rar Earth Elmnts compris Yttrium, Scancium anc 5 lmnts within th
chmical group callc lanthanics, which ar Lanthanum, Crium, Prasocymium,
Nocymium, Promthium, Samarium, Europium, Gacolinium, Trbium, Dysprosium,
Holmium, Erbium, Thulium, Yttrbium, anc Luttium (also s /nnx).
33 National Rsarch Council, Minorals, Critical Minorals ano tho U3 Fconomy, C-.
34 Jry Grn, 'Enrgy Markts Shoulc Prac or Shortags o Ky Matrials,'
National Dofonso Magazino (Octobr 2CC9),
www.nationalcnsmagazin.org/archiv/2CC9/Octobr/Pags.
35 Marc Humphris, Paro Farth Flomonts: Tho Global 3upply Chain.
(Congrssional Rsarch Srvic, July 8, 2CC), 4.
REFERENCES
holo on Docombor I2, 2OO8, 9.
37 Mik Coman, Paro Farths 3upply-Chain Tochnology ano Posourcos Transformation
Act of 2OIO (PF3TAPT Act).
38 'Coman lntrocucs REST/RT /ct to Dvlop Rar Earths Supply Chain',
Tochnology ano Paro Farth Motal Contro, March 7, 2CC, www.trmcntr.org.
39 Humphris, Paro Farth Flomonts: Tho Global 3upply Chain, 2.
4C National Rsarch Council, Minorals, Critical Minorals ano tho U3 Fconomy, 4C.
43 Paro Farth Matorials in tho Dofonso 3upply Chain. Briofing for Congrossional
Committoos (US Govrnmnt /ccountability Oic (G/O), /pril 2CC).
44 National Rsarch Council, Minorals, Critical Minorals ano tho U3 Fconomy, 23.
45 lbic., 33-35.Humphris, Paro Farth Flomonts: Tho Global 3upply Chain, 2.
46 National Rsarch Council, Minorals, Critical Minorals ano tho U3 Fconomy, 49.
47 lbic.
holo on Docombor I2, 2OO8, 9.
Committoos.
5C Global Outlook (Molycorp Minrals), http://www.molycorp.com/globaloutlook.asp.
5 ibio.
ano Policy Altornativos, 7-72.
ano Policy Altornativos, 27.
56 lbic., 73.
57 National Rsarch Council, Minorals, Critical Minorals ano tho U3 Fconomy, .
58 3tratogic Matorials 3ocurity Program (3M3P) /mplomontation Plan Poport to
Congross (Dns Logistics /gncy, /ugust 2CC).
59 Tchnology anc Rar Earth Mtal Cntr, 'Congrssman Coman Slams Chins or
Rar Earths Frz', Octobr 2C, 2CC, http://www.trmcntr.org/incx.
php?option=com_contnt&viw=articl&ic=472:congrssman-coman-slams-
chins-or-rar-arths-rz&catic=C5:latst-nws&ltmic=476.
6C Paro Farth Matorials in tho Dofonso 3upply Chain. Briofing for Congrossional
Committoos, 4-5.
REFERENCES
6 Davic Sancalow, Tochnology ano raro oarth motals conforonco 2OIO Koynoto
Aooross.
62 Global Outlook.
63 'Coman on CNN: Rar Earth Mtals',
http://www.youtub.com/watch?v=/4GppnVl4kO&atur=playr_mbccc.
64 Rc Livrgooc, D//G Curront /ssuos No. 22: Paro Farth Flomonts. A Wronch
3upply Chain, Octobr 5, 2CC, http://csis.org/publication/ciig-currnt-issus-no-
22-rar-arth-lmnts.
65 'Stratgic Minrals: / Transatlantic Priority.'
66 'Natural Scurity Plog,'
http://www.cnas.org/blogs/naturalscurity/catgory/minrals.
67 Sharon E. Purk, Natural socurity (CN/S, Novmbr 6, 2CC9).
68 'Krugman on rar Earth Dpncnc', Octobr 7, 2CC,
http://www.trmcntr.org/incx.php?option=com_contnt&viw=articl&ic=467:k
rugman-on-rar-arth-cpncnc&catic=C5:latst-nws&ltmic=476.
69 Paul Krugman, 'Rar anc Foolish', Now York Timos, Octobr 9, 2CC,
http://www.nytims.com/2CC/C/8/opinion/8krugman.html?_r=&r=opinion.
7C Humphris, Paro Farth Flomonts: Tho Global 3upply Chain, 3.
7 Coman, Paro Farths 3upply-Chain Tochnology ano Posourcos Transformation Act
of 2OIO (PF3TAPT Act).
72 Murkowski, Paro Farths 3upply Tochnology ano Posourcos Transformation Act of
2OIO (PF3TAPT Act).
73 Kathln Dahlkmpr, Paro Farths ano Critical Matorials Povitalization Act of 2OIO.
Committoos.
75 Uncr Scrtary o Dns or /cuisition, Rport to Congrss, Tchnology anc
Logistics Rconiguration o th National Dns Stockpil (Dpartmnt o
Dns, /pril 2CC).
76 lbic.
77 Poconfiguration of tho National Dofonso 3tockpilo Poport to Congross of April
2OO9, -4.
78 lbic., 3.
79 Vorlc Trac Organization, China - Moasuros Polatoo to tho Fxportation of Various
Paw Matorials D/3PUTF D3394.
8C Trnc P. Stwart, Managing Partnr Law Oics o Stwart anc Stwart, Hoaring
on Paro Farth Minorals ano 2Ist Contury /noustry.
8 Nick Morly anc Dan Eathrly, 3ocurity. Fnsuring rosourco availability for tho UK
oconomy. (C-Tch lnnovation Ltc, 2CC8), 8.
REFERENCES
82 Pritish Gological Survy, Tho Fconomic /mportanco of Minorals to tho UK
(Kyworth Nottingham, 2CC4), 5.
83 Poport of tho UK Minorals Forum 3ocurity of 3upply Working Group, Fbruary
2CC9, 2.
84 Pritish Gological Survy, Tho Fconomic /mportanco of Minorals to tho UK, 5.
85 Morly anc Eathrly, 3ocurity. Fnsuring rosourco availability for tho UK oconomy, 8.
86 Poport of tho UK Minorals Forum 3ocurity of 3upply Working Group, 2.
87 Fvaluation of tho Minorals Poconnaissanco Program-ovaluation roport I4,
http://www.bis.gov.uk/policis/scinc/scinc-innovation-analysis/valuation-
rports/valuation_rports__to_23/rport_4.
Poport of tho UK Minorals Forum 3ocurity of 3upply Working Group, .
89 Morly anc Eathrly, 3ocurity. Fnsuring rosourco availability for tho UK oconomy., 9.
9C Pritish Gological Survy anc Oic o th Dputy Prim Ministr, Minoral Mattors:
Minoral-What makos a Mino? Fact 3hoot.
92 lbic., 8.
93 lbic., 2C.
94 3haping UK minorals policy (UK Minrals Forum, Sptmbr 2CC9), 4.
95 Pritish Gological Survy, Tho Fconomic /mportanco of Minorals to tho UK.
98 'Planning [ MinralsUK,' Planning Minorals UK, http://www.bgs.ac.uk/minralsuk/
planning/hom.html.
CC 'Fact Sht 9: Enrgy, Rsourcs anc Climat Chang.'
C Pritish Gological Survy, Tho Fconomic /mportanco of Minorals to tho UK, 22.
C2 Morly anc Eathrly, 3ocurity. Fnsuring rosourco availability for tho UK oconomy, 9.
C3 lbic.
C4 Hcai Kara t al., Lanthanioo Posourcos ano Altornativos, / rport or Dpartmnt
or Transport anc Dpartmnt or Pusinss, lnnovation anc Skills
(Puckinghamshir: Oakcn Hollins Rsarch anc Consulting, May 26, 2CC).
C5 3cionco ano Fnginooring Assuranco Poviow of tho Dopartmont for Transport
(Govrnmnt Oic or Scinc, July 2CC).
C6 Poport of tho UK Minorals Forum 3ocurity of 3upply Working Group, 6.
C7 Minorals Policy 3tatomont I:Minorals ano Mining (Loncon: Dpartmnt or
Communitis anc Local Govrnmnt, Novmbr 2CC6).
C8 lbic.
REFERENCES
C9 Poport of tho UK Minorals Forum 3ocurity of 3upply Working Group, 4.
C Minorals Policy 3tatomont I:Minorals ano Mining, 5-2.
lbic., 3.
2 lbic.
3 Poport of tho UK Minorals Forum 3ocurity of 3upply Working Group, 6.
4 Minorals Policy 3tatomont 2: Controlling ano Mitigating tho Fnvironmontal Fffocts
of Minorals Fxtraction in Fnglano (Loncon: Oic o th Dputy Prim Ministr,
March 2CC5), 8.
5 A 3trong Britain in an Ago of Uncortainty: Tho National 3ocurity 3tratogy,
Prsntc to Parliamnt by th Prim Ministr by Commanc o Hr Ma|sty
(Loncon: HM Govrnmnt, Octobr 2CC), 8.
6 'Fact Sht 9: Enrgy, Rsourcs anc Climat Chang' (Crown Copyright, 2CC).
7 Scuring Pritain in an /g o lnscurity: Th Stratgic Dns anc Scurity
Rviw. (Octobr 2CC), 52.
8 Minorals Policy 3tatomont I: Minorals ano Mining. Minorals Policy 3tatomont 2:
Controlling ano Mitigating tho Fnvironmontal Fffocts of Minorals Fxtraction in
Fnglano (Loncon: Oic o th Dputy Prim Ministr, March 2CC5).
9 UK Minrals Yarbook 2CC9, pp 5-25.
2C /lbrto /lxancr Prz, 'Th Minral lncustry o th Unitc Kingcom', in Minorals
Yoarbook 2OO7 (Unitc Stats Gological Survy, 2CC9), 45.
2 Cahal Milmo, 'Prcious mtals that coulc sav th plant; Rar arth lmnts ar
criving a rvolution in low-carbon tchnology', Tho /nooponoont
(Loncon, January 2, 2CC), sc. Ecitorial, 2C.
22 3haping UK minorals policy, -6.
23 Tho UK National Minorals Forum. Nigol Jackson, chairman of tho CB/ Minorals
Group, outlinos tho nooo for a stratogic viow of tho futuro of all UK minoral
rosourcos., Dcmbr 2CC6, www.uarrymanagmnt.com.
24 3haping UK minorals policy, 8.
25 'CPl Minrals,' CB/ Tho Voico of Businoss,
http://www.cbi.org.uk/ncbs/contnt.ns/8C2737ac3342C58C2567C6CC539Ca/
C59aC59cC8b88C257bCC54?OpnDocumnt.
26 'UK Minrals Forum', UK Minorals Forum, http://www.bgs.ac.uk/ukm/hom.html.
27 3ustainablo Fnorgy 3ocurity 3tratogic risks ano opportunitios for businoss,
Vhitpapr (Loncon: Lloyc's, 2CC), 2.
28 Milmo, 'Prcious mtals that coulc sav th plant; Rar arth lmnts ar criving
a rvolution in low-carbon tchnology.' Lo Lwis, 'Digging or victory: how rising
powrs holc th ky to th utur', Tho Timos (Loncon, /ugust 27, 2CC), sc.
Nws, Opinions, Columns.
REFERENCES
a rvolution in low-carbon tchnology.'
3C Lwis, 'Digging or victory: how rising powrs holc th ky to th utur.'
3 Davic Robrtson, 'China's march on rsourcs continus with our nw orign
cals', Tho Timos (Loncon, Fbruary 5, 2CC8), sc. Pusinss.
32 Lwis, Lo, 'Japan on alrt ovr China's proposals to rstrict xports o vital rar
arth mtals', Tho Timos (Loncon /ugust 28 2CC9)
a rvolution in low-carbon tchnology.'
34 Lwis, 'Digging or victory: how rising powrs holc th ky to th utur.'
35 Jack Liton, 'Has Toyota Discovrc Rar Mtal /uciting /nc Consrvation?,'
Tochnology Motals Posoarch, March 27, 2CC, http://www.tchmtalsrsarch.
com/2CC9/C3/has-toyota-ciscovrc-rar-mtal-auciting-anc-consrvation.
36 JOGMEC, '/bout us,' Octobr 28, 2CC,
http://www.|ogmc.go.|p/nglish/aboutus/incx.html.
37 JOGMEC, 'Rar Mtals Stockpiling Program : Mtals [ JOGMEC's /ctivitis [
JOGMEC', http://www.|ogmc.go.|p/nglish/activitis/stockpiling_mtal/
rarmtals.html.
38 Kawamoto, 'Japan's Policis to b acoptc on Rar Mtal Rsourcs', 59.
39 Kawamoto, 'Japan's Policis to b acoptc on Rar Mtal Rsourcs', 59-6.
4C lbic.
4 Hiroshi Kawamoto, 'Japan's Policis to b acoptc on Rar Mtal Rsourcs',
Ouartorly Poviow, no. 27 (/pril 2CC8): 58.
42 '/nnouncmnt o 'Stratgy or Ensuring Stabl Supplis o Rar Mtals''
(Japans Ministry o Economy, Trac anc lncustry, July 28, 2CC9),
http://www.mti.go.|p/nglish/prss/cata/2CC9C728_C.html.
43 JOGMEC, 'Rar Mtals Stockpiling Program: Mtals', Octobr 25, 2CC,
http://www.|ogmc.go.|p/nglish/activitis/stockpiling_mtal/rarmtals.html.
44 Yu|i Nishikawav, 'Extncing th sarch', Mining Journal (Jun 8, 2CC): 2C.
45 Sayuri Daimon, 'Nippon Kicanrn Th all-powrul voic o corporat Japan',
Tho Japan Timos Onlino, Jun 6, 2CC9, http://sarch.|apantims.co.|p/cgi-bin/
nn2CC9C66i.html.
46 'Gov't to stucy stockpiling rar arth minrals', Japan Tooay, Octobr 2, 2CC,
http://www.|apantocay.com/catgory/businss/viw/govt-to-stucy-stockpiling-
rar-arth-minrals
47 Nishikawav, 'Extncing th sarch,' 2C.
48 ibic
49 Kawamoto, 'Japan's Policis to b acoptc on Rar Mtal Rsourcs,' 6.
REFERENCES
5C ibic, 62.
5 ibic, 63.
52 Manuacturing lncustris Purau, 'Manuacturing lncustris: Our Socioconomic
Founcation', http://www.mti.go.|p/nglish/aboutmti/cata/
aOrganization/2CC7/C5_manuacturing_incustris.html.
53 'Kp an y on mtal supply: Kicanrn,' Tho Japan Timos Onlino, Octobr , 2CC,
, http://sarch.|apantims.co.|p/cgi-bin/nb2CCCCa4.html.
54 'Nations wary o cpncnc on China's rar arths', PHY3org.com, Octobr 4,
2CC, http://www.physorg.com/nws2C538773.html.
55 Manuacturing lncustris Purau, 'Manuacturing lncustris: Our Socioconomic
Founcation.'
56 Kp an y on mtal supply: Kicanrn, 62.
57 'Guiclins or Scuring Natural Rsourcs (provisional translation)' (Japans
Ministry o Economy, Trac anc lncustry, 2CC8), http://www.mti.go.|p/nglish/
prss/cata/pc/C8C328Guiclins.pc.
58 Mark Lanclr, 'China Saic to Rsum Shipmnts o Rar Earth Minrals', Now York
Timos, Octobr 28, 2CC, http://www.nytims.com/2CC/C/29/businss/nrgy-
nvironmnt/29rar.html?_r=2&pagwantc=2.
59 Yamaguchi, 'Japan Says Chins Rar Earth Exports Still Haltc.'
6C 'Kp an y on mtal supply: Kicanrn.'
6 lbic.
62 /nnouncmnt o 'Stratgy or Ensuring Stabl Supplis o Rar Mtals.'
63 lbic.
64 lbic.
65 'Guiclins or Scuring Natural Rsourcs (provisional translation)' (Japans
Ministry o Economy, Trac anc lncustry, 2CC8), 2,
http://www.mti.go.|p/nglish/prss/cata/pc/C8C328Guiclins.pc.
66 IOO Actions to Launch Japans Now Growth 3tratogy, 4.
67 lbic., 5.
68 Japans Cabint Oic, Tho Now Growth 3tratogy Towaro a Paoiant Japan,
Dcmbr 3C, 2CC9, 3.
69 Kawamoto, 'Japan's Policis to b acoptc on Rar Mtal Rsourcs', 58, 7.
7C IOO Actions to Launch Japans Now Growth 3tratogy, 4.
7 lbic, p 4.
72 'Guiclins or Scuring Natural Rsourcs (provisional translation).'
73 IOO Actions to Launch Japans Now Growth 3tratogy, 4.
74 Kawamoto, 'Japan's Policis to b acoptc on Rar Mtal Rsourcs', 68.
75 lbic.
REFERENCES
76 'Kp an y on mtal supply: Kicanrn', Tho Japan Timos Onlino, Octobr , 2CC,
http://sarch.|apantims.co.|p/cgi-bin/nb2CCCCa4.html.
77 'Guiclins or Scuring Natural Rsourcs (provisional translation).'
78 JOGMEC, Motals 3tratogy Fxploration ano Tochnology Dovolopmont, /nnual
Rport, 2CC9, 2.
79 lbic., 2-5.
8C lbic.
8 /ccorcing to JPlC /ccount in JFC on March 3, 2CC, JPlC's capital was Y ,C55.5
billion, outstancing loans anc othr inancing wr Y 8,88 billion anc outstancing
guarants Y ,977 billion.
82 Japan Pank or lntrnational Coopration, 'Th Rol anc Function o th Japan
Pank or lntrnational Coopration',
http://www.|bic.go.|p/n/about/rol-unction/pc/|bic-brochur-nglish.pc.
83 Japan Pank or lntrnational Coopration, 'Th Rol anc Function o th Japan
Pank or lntrnational Coopration',
http://www.|bic.go.|p/n/about/rol-unction/pc/|bic-brochur-nglish.pc.
84 Tho Polo ano Function of tho Japan Bank for /ntornational Cooporation
(Japan Financ Corporation), 5, http://www.|bic.go.|p/n/.
85 JOGMEC, 'Th Mining lncustry in Japan' (JOGMEC, /ugust 2CC7), .
86 Nishikawav, 'Extncing th sarch,' 2C.JOGMEC, 'Th Mining lncustry in Japan', 3.
87 'Nations wary o cpncnc on China's rar arths.'
88 Hiroko Nakata, 'Firms rthink rar arth sourcing', Tho Japan Timos Onlino, Octobr
2CC, http://sarch.|apantims.co.|p/cgi-bin/nb2CCCC2a.html.
89 lbic.
9C 'Toshiba Signs Lttrs o lntnt with Kazatomprom in JV or Rar Mtals', Octobr
23, 2CC9, http://www.toshiba.co.|p/about/prss/2CC9_C/pr23C.htm.
9 METl,'Rcovry o usc mobil phons', March , 2CC,
http://www.mti.go.|p/topic/cata/tansukitai.html
92 METl, 'Rcovry o usc mobil phons', March , 2CC,
http://www.mti.go.|p/topic/cata/tansukitai.html
93 Masao Yamaca anc Yasuharu Yanai, '/ 'Golc Min' o Prcious Mtals in Discarcc
Elctronic Dvics', Highlighting Japan 44,no. 3, (2CC9), 5.
94 'Kp an y on mtal supply: Kicanrn.'
95 S or xampl, 'Pusinss lacrs urg China to cancl rar-arth xport curbs,'
Japan Timos Onlino, Sptmbr 9, 2CC, anc Minoru Matsutani, 'Japan ovr a barrl
whn it coms to rar arth mtals', Japan Timos Onlino, Sptmbr 3C, 2CC, anc
'Japan, China lacrs mt at /PEC amic tnsions', Tho Mainichi Daily Nows,
Novmbr 3, 2CC.
REFERENCES
96 '/lST: History', http://www.aist.go.|p/aist_/about_aist/history/history.html.
97 '/lST Tocay 2CC- No.35', Novmbr 9, 2CC,
http://www.aist.go.|p/aist_/aist_tocay/2CC_35/atur/atur_C.html.
98 'Rports Mtal Economics Rsarch lnstitut, Japan', 3,
http://www.mri|.or.|p/nglish/rport/incx.htm.
99 National lnstitut o /cvancc lncustrial Scinc anc Tchnology (/lST), 'Rar
Mtals' (Publication Oic, Public Rlations Dpartmnt /lST, Sptmbr 2CC8), 3.
2CC Nishikawav, 'Extncing th sarch.'
2C lbic.
2C2 Tom Vulcan 2CC8, 'Pryllium: Pombs anc Mor (Much Mor)', Harcasstsinvstor.com
2C3 'Pryllium', Motals Bullotin Monthly, Jun 2CC7, pp. 42-43.
2C4 USGS Minral Commocity Survys, various citions.
2C5 Tom Vulcan 2CC8, 'Pryllium: Pombs anc Mor (Much Mor)', Harcasstsinvstor.com
2C6 Data on usag rom 'Pryllium', Motals Bullotin Monthly, Jun 2CC7, pp. 42-43.
2C7 Larry Cunningham, 2CC4, Pryllium Rcycling in th Unitc Stats in 2CCC.USGS
Circular 96-P.
2C8 Physical anc chmical charactristics.
2C9 Coppr, Hanobook of Minoralogy 2OOI-2OO5,
http://www.hancbookominralogy.org/pcs/coppr.pc (July 2CC).
2C Coppr, Commocity Proil, Pritish Gological Survy, www.minralsuk.com (July 2CC).
2 Coppr, Commocity Proil, Pritish Gological Survy, www.minralsuk.com (July 2CC).
22 Coppr, Commocity Proil, Pritish Gological Survy, www.minralsuk.com (July 2CC).
23 Coppr, Minral Commocity Summaris, US Gological Survy 2CC,
http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/commocity/coppr/mcs-2CC-copp.pc
(July 2CC).
24 'Rsrv is that part o th rsrv bas which coulc b conomically xtractc
anc procucc at th tim o ctrmination.' USGS,
http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/mcs/2CC/mcsapp2CC.pc (July 2CC).
25 'Rsrv bas is that part o an icntiic rsourc that mts spciic minimum
physical anc chmical critria rlatc to currnt mining anc procuction practics,
inclucing thos or grac, uality, thicknss, anc cpth.' USGS,
http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/mcs/2CC/mcsapp2CC.pc (July 2CC).
26 Data or th pi-chart is rom Coppr, Minral Commocity Summaris, 2CC, US
Gological Survy.
27 Th Vorlc Coppr Yarbook 2CC9, http://www.icsg.org/incx.php?option=com_co
ntnt&task=viw&ic=57&ltmic=6C (July 2CC).
28 lntrnational Coppr Stucy Group, Vorlc Rinc Coppr Procuction anc Usag
Trncs, http://www.icsg.org/imags/storis/pcs/tabl.pc (July 2CC).
REFERENCES
29 Gallium, Jrson Lab, /ts Flomontal,
http://cucation.|lab.org/itslmntal/lC3.html (July 2CC).
22C Gallium, Jrson Lab, /ts Flomontal,
22 Gallium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/gallium.html (July 2CC).
222 lM/ Minral List with Databas o Minral Proprtis, http://rru.ino/ima/ (July 2CC).
223 Vorlc Mining Data 2CC, EuroGoSurvys, pp.74.
224 Estimation is withcrawn rom Gallium, Minrals Rport, US Gological Survy, 2CC8
anc is incirct as it is basc on bauxit-rsourcs cata.
225 Cntrally Plannc Economis (China, Vitnam, North Kora, Cuba anc Mongolia),
Vorlc Mining Data 2CC, EuroGoSurvys, pp.2.
226 Gallium, Mining Journal, http://www.mmta.co.uk/uploacc_ils/GalliumMJ.pc
(July 2CC).
227 Gallium. USGS Minral Commocity Summaris. 2CC, http://minrals.usgs.gov/
minrals/pubs/commocity/gallium/mcs-2CC-galli.pc (/ugust 2CC).
228 Data or th pi-chart ar rom Gallium, Minral Commocity Summaris 2CC, USGS
http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/commocity/gallium/mcs-2CC-galli.pc
(July 2CC).
229 Gallium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/gallium/ (July 2CC).
23C Moskalyk, R.R. (2CC3), Gallium: Th Packbon o th Elctronic lncustry, Minorals
Fnginooring, Vol.6, No. C, Scinc Dirct.
23 Gallium, Jrson Lab, /ts Flomontal,
232 Gallium, Los /lamos National Laboratory's Chmistry Division,
http://www.priocic.lanl.gov/lmnts/3.html (July 2CC).
233 Moskalyk, R.R. (2CC3), Gallium: Th Packbon o th Elctronic lncustry, Minorals
Fnginooring, Vol.6, No. C, Scinc Dirct.
234 USGS Minral Commocity Rport 2CC7,
http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/commocity/gallium/46C496.pc (July 2CC).
235 Gallium, Mining Journal, http://www.mmta.co.uk/uploacc_ils/GalliumMJ.pc
(July 2CC).
236 Gallium: Th Slippry Mtal,
http://skingalpha.com/articl/7894-gallium-th-slippry-mtal (July 2CC).
237 Hanium, Environmntal Chmistry,
http://nvironmntalchmistry.com/yogi/priocic/H.html (July 2CC).
238 lM/ Minral List with Databas o Minral Proprtis,
http://rru.ino/ima/ (July 2CC).
239 Hanon, Vb Minral Data, http://wbminral.com/cata/Hanon.shtml (July 2CC).
REFERENCES
24C Zircon, Vb Minral Data, http://wbminral.com/cata/Zircon.shtml (July 2CC).
24 Hanium anc Zirconium, USGS Commocity Rport 2CC,
http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/commocity/zirconium/mcs-2CC-zirco.pc
(July 2CC).
242 Hanium anc Zirconium, USGS Commocity Rport 2CC, http://minrals.usgs.gov/
minrals/pubs/commocity/zirconium/mcs-2CC-zirco.pc (July 2CC).
243 Stvn Munnoch, Hanium, /von Mtals Ltc.,
http://www.mmta.co.uk/uploacc_ils/Hanium%2CMJ.pc (July 2CC).
246 Lithium, Th Priocic Tabl,
http://www.priocic-tabl.org.uk/lmnt-lithium.htm (July 2CC).
247 Lithium, USGS Minrals Yarbook 2CC8, http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/
commocity/lithium/myb-2CC8-lithi.pc (July 2CC).
248 Lithium. U3G3 Minorals Yoarbook. 2CC8. http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/
commocity/lithium/myb-2CC8-lithi.pc (/ugust 2CC).
249 Pi chart cata rom Lithium, U3G3 Minorals Yoarbook. 2CC8. http://minrals.usgs.
gov/minrals/pubs/commocity/lithium/myb-2CC8-lithi.pc (July 2CC).
25C Mangans, Environmntal Chmistry,
http://nvironmntalchmistry.com/yogi/priocic/Mn.html (July 2CC).
25 Mangans. USGS Minrals Yarbook. 2CC7 http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/
pubs/commocity/mangans/myb-2CC7-manga.pc (/ugust 2CC).
252 Data or th Mangans Consumption pi-chart rom Mangans Rcycling in th US
in 998, http://pubs.usgs.gov/o/2CC/oC-3C4/oC-3C4.pc (/ugust 2CC);
Data or th Mangans Stl Us pi-chart com rom Minrals Zon - Mangans,
http://www.minralszon.com/minrals/mangans.html (/ugust 2CC).
253 Molybcnum, Los /lamos National Laboratory - Chmistry Division,
http://priocic.lanl.gov/lmnts/42.html (/ugust 2CC).
254 Molybcnum, Los /lamos National Laboratory - Chmistry Division,
255 lM/ Databas o Minral Proprtis, http://rru.ino/ima/ (/ugust 2CC).
256 Molybcnum, lt's Elmntal, Jrson Lab, http://cucation.|lab.org/itslmntal/
lC42.html (/ugust 2CC).
257 Molybcnum. USGS Minrals Yarbook. 2CC8. http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/
pubs/commocity/molybcnum/myb-2CC8-molyb.pc (/ugust 2CC).
REFERENCES
258 Data or th pi-chart rom Factbox - Th Vital Statistics o Molybcnum. 2CC.
Rutrs. http://www.rutrs.com/articl/icUSLDE6PVC2CCC22 (/ugust 2CC).
259 Molybcnum, USGS Minrals Yarbook 2CC8, http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/
pubs/commocity/molybcnum/myb-2CC8-molyb.pc (/ugust 2CC).
26C Molybcnum, USGS Minral Commocity Summaris, 2CC, http://minrals.usgs.
gov/minrals/pubs/commocity/molybcnum/mcs-2CC-molyb.pc (/ugust 2CC).
26 Nickl, Th Hancbook o Minralogy 2CC-2CC5,
http://www.hancbookominralogy.org/pcs/nickl.pc (/ugust, 2CC).
262 Nickl, Hancbook o Minralogy 2CC-2CC5,
http://www.hancbookominralogy.org/pcs/nickl.pc (/ugust, 2CC).
263 Nickl, Pritish Gological Survy, Commocity Proil, www.minralsuk.com
(/ugust, 2CC).
264 Data or th pi-chart ar rom th USGS Minral Yarbook 2CC7 - Nickl anc thy
ar valic or US/ consumption only. Th worlc nickl consumption ull brakcown
is not availabl onlin.
265 Pritish Gological Survy, Minral Proil - Nickl, www.minralsuk.com (/ugust, 2CC).
266 Pritish Gological Survy, Minral Proil - Nickl, www.minralsuk.com (/ugust, 2CC).
267 Niobium, Los /lamos National Laboratory - Chmistry Division,
268 lM/ Databas o Minral Proprtis, http://rru.ino/ima/ (/ugust 2CC).
269 Niobium, Los /lamos National Laboratory - Chmistry Division,
27C Data or th pi-chart ar rom th USGS Minral Commocity Rport 2CC anc
rr to US consumption, a worlc consumption brakcown is not availabl.
27 Niobium, USGS Minral Yarbook 2CC8, http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/
commocity/niobium/myb-2CC8-niobi.pc (/ugust 2CC).
272 Niobium, USGS Minral Commocity Rport 2CC, http://minrals.usgs.gov/
minrals/pubs/commocity/niobium/mcs-2CC-niobi.pc (/ugust 2CC).
273 Platinum, Commocity Proil, Pritish Gological Survy.
274 Platinum, Minral lnormation lnstitut, http://www.mii.org/Minrals/photoplat.html
(/ugust 2CC).
275 Platinum, Minral lnormation lnstitut, http://www.mii.org/Minrals/photoplat.html
(/ugust 2CC).
276 Platinum, Commocity Proil, Pritish Gological Survy.
277 Ruthnium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/ruthnium.html;
Ruthnium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/ruthnium/ Platinum,
Commocity Proil, Pritish Gological Survy.
REFERENCES
278 Rhocium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/rhocium.html;
Rhocium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/rhocium/ Platinum,
279 Pallacium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/pallacium.html;
Pallacium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/pallacium/ Platinum,
28C lricium, Chmicool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/iricium.html; lricium,
VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/iricium/; Platinum, Commocity
Proil, Pritish Gological Survy.
28 Osmium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/osmium.html; Osmium,
VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/osmium/; Platinum, Commocity
Proil, Pritish Gological Survy.
282 Platinum, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/platinum.html;
Platinum, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/platinum/; Platinum,
283 Data usc or pi-charts ar rom Platinum, Commocity Proil, Pritish Gological
Survy, www.minralsuk.com (/ugust 2CC).
284 Rar Earth Elmnts, Th Hancbook o Minralogy 2CC-2CC5,
http://www.hancbookominralogy.com/pcs/tin.pc (/ugust 2CC).
285 Rar Earth Elmnts, Commocity Proil, Pritish Gological Survy; Rar Earth's,
USGS Minrals lnormation,
http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/commocity/rar_arths/
286 Humphris, M. 2CC. Paro Farth Flomonts: Tho Global 3upply Chain.
CRS Rport. pg. 8.
287 Scancium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division,
http://priocic.lanl.gov/lmnts/2.html (/ugust 2CC), Scancium, ChmiCool,
http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/scancium.html; Scancium, VbElmnts,
http://www.wblmnts.com/scancium/
288 Yttrium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/39.html; Yttrium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
yttrium.html; Yttrium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/yttrium/
289 Lanthanum, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division,
http://priocic.lanl.gov/lmnts/57.html; Lanthanum , ChmiCool,
http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/lanthanum.html; Lanthanum, VbElmnts,
http://www.wblmnts.com/lanthanum/
29C Crium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/58.html; Crium , ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
crium.html; Crium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/crium/
REFERENCES
29 Lapicary Polishing Powcrs, Covington Enginring.
292 Prasocymium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division,
http://priocic.lanl.gov/lmnts/59.html; Prasocymium, VbElmnts,
http://www.wblmnts.com/prasocymium/
293 Nocymium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division,
http://priocic.lanl.gov/lmnts/6C.html; Nocymium, VbElmnts,
http://www.wblmnts.com/nocymium/
294 Promthium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division,
http://priocic.lanl.gov/lmnts/6.html; Promthium , ChmiCool,
http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/promthium.html; Promthium, VbElmnts,
http://www.wblmnts.com/promthium/
295 Samarium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/62.html; Samarium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
samarium.html; Samarium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/
samarium/
296 Samarium-cobalt magnt, Prmannt Magnts. China Rar Earth Magnt Ltc.
297 Europium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/63.html; Europium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
uropium.html; Europium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/uropium/
298 Gacolinium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/64.html; Gacolinium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
gacolinium.html; Gacolinium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/
gacolinium/
299 Trbium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/65.html; Trbium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
trbium.html; Trbium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/trbium/
3CC Dysprosium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.
gov/lmnts/66.html; Dysprosium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/
lmnts/cysprosium.html; Dysprosium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.
com/cysprosium/
3C Holmium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/67.html; Holmium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
holmium.html; Holmium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/holmium/
3C2 Erbium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/68.html; Erbium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
rbium.html; Erbium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/rbium/
REFERENCES
3C3 Thulium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/69.html; Thulium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
thulium.html; Thulium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/thulium/
3C4 Yttrbium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/7C.html; Yttrbium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
yttrbium.html; Yttrbium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/
yttrbium/
3C5 Luttium, Los /lamos National Lab - Chmistry Division, http://priocic.lanl.gov/
lmnts/7.html; Luttium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/
luttium.html; Luttium, VbElmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/luttium/
3C6 Data or th pi-chart is rom th Rar Earth's, USGS, Minral Commocity
Summary, 2CC8
3C7 Rcycling o Spcialty Mtals Ky to Poom in Clan-Tch Sctor, From Solar anc
Vinc Powr to Ful Clls anc Enrgy Eicint Lightning, Prss Rlas May 3
th
2CC,
Unitc Nations Environmnt Program, http://www.unp.org/Documnts.Multilingual/
Dault.asp?DocumntlD=624&/rticllD=6564&l=n&t=long (/ugust 2CC).
3C8 Molybcnum, Los /lamos National Laboratory - Chmistry Division,
3C9 Tantalum-baring minrals icntiic as a criving-orc or th conlict in Congo,
USGS Minrals Yarbook 2CC8 - Tantalum anc Niobium, pg. 3, http://minrals.usgs.
gov/minrals/pubs/commocity/niobium/myb-2CC8-niobi.pc (/ugust 2CC).
3C lM/ Databas o Minral Proprtis, http://rru.ino/ima/ (/ugust 2CC).
3 Tantalum, lt's Elmntal, Jrson Lab, http://cucation.|lab.org/itslmntal/
lC73.html (/ugust 2CC).
32 Tantalum, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/tantalum.html
(/ugust 2CC).
33 Rsarch intrviw with /xl Hopp, HCSS, 2CC.
34 Tin, Th Hancbook o Minralogy 2CC-2CC5, http://www.hancbookominralogy.
com/pcs/tin.pc (/ugust 2CC).
35 lM/ Minral List with Databas, http://rru.ino/ima/ (/ugust 2CC).
36 Tin Minral Data, Vbminral, http://wbminral.com/cata/Tin.shtml (/ugust 2CC).
37 Data or th pi-chart rom th Loncon Mtal Exchang,
http://www.lm.com/tin_incustryusag.asp (/ugust 2CC).
38 Rcycling Guic, http://www.rcycling-guic.org.uk/acts.html (/ugust 2CC).
39 Tin, USGS Minral Commocity Rport 2CC, http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/
pubs/commocity/tin/mcs-2CC-tin.pc (/ugust 2CC).
32C Tin, USGS Minrals Yarbook 2CC8, http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/pubs/
commocity/tin/myb-2CC8-tin.pc (/ugust 2CC).
REFERENCES
32 Tungstn, Proprtis, lTl/, http://www.itia.ino/Dault.asp?Pag=33 (/ugust 2CC).
323 Tungstn, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/tungstn.html
(/ugust 2CC).
324 SME-Virtual /tlas o Opau anc or minrals associatc with intrmciat anc
ignit rocks. Socity or Mining. Mtallurgy anc Exploration.
325 Tungstn in Pritish Columbia. 2CC7. lnormation Circular, Ministry o Enrgy, Mins
anc Ptrolum Rsourcs.
326 Tungstn Uss, lTl/, http://www.itia.ino/Dault.asp?Pag=25 (/ugust 2CC).
327 Tungstn, Minral Commocity Rport 2CC, http://minrals.usgs.gov/minrals/
pubs/commocity/tungstn/mcs-2CC-tungs.pc (/ugust 2CC).
328 Tungstn- Supply anc Dmanc, lTl/, http://www.itia.ino/Dault.asp?Pag=C5
(/ugust 2CC).
329 Zinc, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/zinc.html (/ugust 2CC).
33C Zinc, Minral Proil, UK Gological Survy, http://www.bgs.ac.uk/minralsuk/
statistics/minralProils.html (/ugust 2CC).
332 Zinc, Minral Proil, UK Gological Survy, http://www.bgs.ac.uk/minralsuk/
statistics/minralProils.html anc Zinc, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/
lmnts/zinc.html (/ugust 2CC).
333 Prasac, /. 2CC3. Zinc Doficioncy. Pritish Mcical Journal. 326(7386): 4C9-4C.
334 Data or th pi-chart rom Factbox - Th Vital Statistics o Zinc. 2CC.Rutrs.
http://www.rutrs.com/articl/icUKLDE653CSl2CCC6C7 (/ugust 2CC).
335 Hawks, Nil. 2CC9. Long trm lssus or Zn anc Pb. Prsntation. lntrnational Lac
& Zinc Stucy Group. http://www.ilzsg.org/gnric/pags/list.aspx?tabl=cocumnt&
pag=2&moc=viw&_aa_cocumnt_typ=P&rom=3&ic=3 (/ugust 2CC)
336 UK Gological Survy.
337 Zirconium, Vb Elmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/zirconium/ (/ugust 2CC).
339 Zirconium, Vb Elmnts, http://www.wblmnts.com/zirconium/ (/ugust 2CC).
34C Zirconium, ChmiCool, http://www.chmicool.com/lmnts/zirconium.html
(/ugust 2CC).
34 Zirconium, Los /lamos National Labs - Chmistry Division,
http://priocic.lanl.gov/lmnts/4C.html (/ugust 2CC).
342 Cramics or Total Joints. Zirconia Cramic.
http://www.total|oints.ino/cramic_or_total_hips.htm#3/ (/ugust 2CC).
343 Monico /lloys, Zirconium Scrap anc Zirconium /lloys Scrap,
http://www.monicoalloys.com/Zirconium.html (/ugust 2CC).
REFERENCES
HCSS, LANSE VDDRHDUT 1S, 2514 EE THE HASUE
T: S1 (D)?D-S1B4B4D E: INFDHCSS.NL
W: STRATESYANDCHANSE.NL

33

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

33

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

HH HTH

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen