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Gunnar Damgrd Nielsen PhD, Dr Sc (Pharm) National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Denmark
Updated: 16.04.2012
A short-term (30 min) guideline of 0.1 mg/m3 was recommended for preventing sensory irritation in the general population. Also, the value was considered to prevent cancer.
N. vagus (X)
Shusterman D. Review of the upper airway, including olfaction, as mediator of symptoms. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110 (suppl.4): 649-653.
Portal-of-entry effects
I. Sensory irritation of eyes and upper airways Asthma: not supported by the WHO (2010) or recent studies
II.
II. Asthma
FA does not cause asthma in itself a) (except RADS) No lung function effects of FA (< 1 mg/m3) in asthmatics and nonasthmatics b) Pre-exposure to FA in asthmatics and post exposure to an allergen to which subjects were sensitized showed no consistent increase in allergen sensitivity b) No convincing association between FA exposures in homes and schools and asthma in children and adults b). New epidemiological studies: - One found a positive association in the group with the lowest (rural) FA exposure (Hulin et al. 2010):. - Two found no association (Hwang et al. 2011; Kim et al. 2011). Meta-analysis (McGwin et al., 2010): Significant association between FA exposure and asthma in children. Most influential studies were the Rumchev et al. (2002) and the Garret et al. (1999) studies.
a) Paustenbachet al. J Toxicol Environ Health 1997, 50: 217-263. b) Wolkoff and Nielsen. Environ Int 2010, 36: 788-799.
Hauptmann M, Lubin JH, Stewart PA, Hayes RB, Blair A. Mortality from solid cancers among workers in formaldehyde industries. Am J Epidemiol 2004, 159: 1117-1130.
Nasal epithelial squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) in rats exposed 6 h/day, 5 days/week to formaldehyde for 2 years a)
Formaldehyde (ppm) 0 0.3 0.7 2 6 10 14 15 Number with SCC/group size (%) 0/453 (0) 0/32 (0) 0/90 (0) 0/364 (0) Apparent NOAEL 3/325 (0.9) Apparent LOAEL 20/90 (22) 103/232 (44) 120/278 (43)
a) Studies: Kerns et al. (1983), Sellakumar et al. (1985), Monticello et al. (1996), Kamata et al.(1997); for full references c.f. Nielsen and Wolkoff. Arch Toxicol 2010, 84: 423-446.
Three largest, recently updated, occupational cohorts, simplified from WHO (2010)
Study
Exposure (ppm)
UK cohort (N=14,014)
Range: 0.1 to >2
All cancers Nose and sinuses Pharynx Nasopharynx Larynx Lung Hodgkins disease Non-Hodgkins lymphoma Multiple myeloma Leukemia Lymphatic leukemia Myeloid leukemia
1.10 0.87 1.55 0.50 (O/E: 1/2) 1.07 1.22 0.70 0.98 0.86 0.91 0.89 (exp> 2 ppm)
a) Standardized mortality ratio. Where 95% CI does not include 1, it is indicated by bold. b) NCI updated to1994 (Hauptmann et al. 2003); not corrected data. c) NCI updated to 2004 (Freeman et al. 2009). d) Exact CI: 0.91-4.14.
Average exposure intensity ppm 0 >0 - < 0.5 RR and number of cases/person-y 1.00 (Reference) 2 /409,074 Not obtainable 0/279,992 0.38 NOAEL? 1/88,074 1.67 LOAEL? 6/88,568 P=0.126 P=0.066
Not obtainable 0.5 -< 1.0 0/121,729 NOAEL? 1.83 LOAEL? 7/125,090 P=0.04 P<0.001 1.0
WHO 2010 and nasopharyngeal cancer (NPC) Based on the Hauptmann et al. (2004) study:
Effect supported from the rat studies No excess NPC at mean concentrations 1 ppm FA and at peak concentrations below 4 ppm For the guideline setting, the rats NOAEL at 1 ppm for histopathological effects and cell proliferation (below the 2 ppm NOAEL for SCC) was used as point of departure and considered to prevent NPC in humans
Lymphohematopoietic malignancies
Animal studies:
Not convincing, but if present only at 15 ppm and with a non-linear exposure-response relationship
Human studies:
The WHO (2010) analyzed the studies for: Exposure-response relationships? If non-linear, apparent NOAEL? Establishing levels, which the guideline level has to be below
Year 0
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.36
1.29
1.20
1.20
1.37
1.40
1.0
1.25
1.07
0.80
0.71
1.39
1.49
P(0+FA) P(FA)
0.4 0.4
>0.50 >0.50
>0.5 >0.5
0.40 >0.5
>0.5 >0.5
>0.50 >0.50
a) Sometimes added 95% confidence limits. Figures marked with * do not include one. Hauptmann et al. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003, 95, 1615-1623. Corrected data are presented; had missed 1006 death. Freeman et al. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009, 101, 751-761.
Exposure
Benzene, trichloroethylene, agriculture/farmers, abattoir (butcher) workers (viruses?), herbicides and pesticides Agriculture/farmers, abattoir workers (viruses?), EBV Benzene (AMLa)), gasoline (3-5% benzene), ionizing radiation (AML), dioxins (TCDD)?, butchers (viruses?), agriculture/farmers (CLL), 1,3butadiene, embalmers and formaldehyde exposed workers, treatment with alkylating agents, rubber industry (CLL, benzene?), arsenic, cigarette smoking (9% of AML?), pesticides Engine exhaust, teachers, pesticides,
Multiple myeloma
Backup slides
EU, Canada Geometric mean, and USA median or average 95th percentile Maximum Japan China Mean Mean
Sarigiannis et al. Exposure to major volatile organic compounds and carbonyls in European indoor environments and associated health risk. Environ Int 2011, 37: 743-765. Salthammer et al. Formaldehyde in indoor environment. Chem Rev 2010, 110: 2536-2572.
Physicochemical properties of FA
Properties Reaction with Melting point Boiling point Water solubility Vapour pressure
Values OH, -NH2 or = NH, -SH a) -92C a,b) -19C a,b) 400g/L at 20C a,b) 3886 mmHg at 25C a,b)
Adducts with mucus layer and cell surface constituents from gene expression1,2) DNA adducts3) Gene expression1,2)
HO-CH2-SG
FDH
HCOO- + GSH 1. Andersen et al. Toxicol Sci 2010, 118, 716-731. 2. Andersen et al. Toxicol Sci 2008, 105, 368-383. 3. Swenberg et al. Toxicol Sci 2011,120(S1): S130-S145.
Similar conclusion in a recent review c) In rats SCC and potentially lymphohematopoietic malignancies
a) WHO (2010) b) Nielsen GD, Wolkoff P. Arch Toxicol 2010, 84, 423-446. c) Golden R. Crit Rev Toxicol 2011, 41: 672-721.
If corrected for survival, only lymphohematopoietic malignancies in the highest exposure group across all inhalation studies in rats and mice, i.e. non-linear exposureresponse relationship and NOAEL
Monticello et al. Correlation of regional and nonlinear formaldehyde-induced nasal cancer with proliferating populations of cells. Cancer Research 1996, 56, 1012-1022.
Highly exposed Chines workers c) (FA median: 1.3 ppm; 90th percentile: 2.5 ppm)
had decreased lymphocyte, granulocyte, platelet and red blood cell counts. Cultivated blood stem cells had increased monosomy of chromosome 7 and trisomy of chromosome 8 in exposed to a median of 2.1 ppm and a 90th percentile of 4.1 ppm. WHO (2010): No exposure-response relationship, high exposures (extreme peaks?), and limited transparency. Later evaluations: Study with severe limitations. d,e)
(lymphocytic line)
Genetic damage
Chromosomal aberrations often translocations, i.e. rearrangement of pieces between
two non-homologous chromosomes; AML, e.g. t(8;21), inv(16) and t(15;17), and ALL, e.g. t(9;22), t(12;12), t(1;19), t(17;19) and t(8;14). Normal karyotype in AML (30-50%) and in ALL (20-45%). Gene mutations genes controlling crucial signalling pathways and key transcription factors.
year 0
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.02
1.08
1.55
1.65
4.0
0.95
0.91
P(0+FA) P(FA)
>0.5 >0.5
>0.50 >0.50
a) Sometimes added 95% confidence limits. Figures in red and marked with * do not include one. Hauptmann et al. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003, 95, 1615-1623. Corrected data are presented; had missed 1006 death. Freeman et al. J Natl Cancer Inst 2009, 101, 751-761.