Ecology and environmental issues Definition Examples of environmental problems Conferences on law Developments in International Environmental law Definition

tion Environment, is a terminology that comprises all living and nonliving things that occur naturally on Earth or some part of it (e.g. the natural environment in a country). This term includes a few key components:
1. Complete ecological units that function as natural systems

without massive human intervention, including all vegetation, animals, microorganisms, rocks, atmosphere and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries. 2. Universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from human activity. The natural environment is contrasted with the built environment, which comprises the areas and components that are strongly influenced by man. A geographical area is regarded as a natural environment (with an indefinite article), if the human impact on it is kept under a certain limited level (similar to section 1 above). This level depends on the specific context, and changes in different areas and contexts. The term wilderness, on the other hand, refers to areas without any human intervention whatsoever (or almost so). Goals commonly expressed by environmental scientists include:

reduction and clean up of pollution, with future goals of zero pollution; cleanly converting nonrecyclable materials into energy through direct combustion or after conversion into secondary fuels; reducing societal consumption of non-renewable fuels; development of alternative, green, low-carbon or renewable energy sources;

conservation and sustainable use of scarce resources such as water, land, and air; protection of representative or unique or pristine ecosystems; preservation of threatened and endangered species extinction; the establishment of nature and biosphere reserves under various types of protection; and, most generally, the protection of biodiversity and ecosystems upon which all human and other life on earth depends.

Ecology (from Greek: , oikos, "household"; and , logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life and the interactions between organisms and their environment. The environment of an organism includes physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as insolation (sunlight), climate, and geology, and biotic factors, which are other organisms that share its habitat. The word "ecology" is often used more loosely in such terms as social ecology and deep ecology and in common parlance as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. Likewise "ecologic" or "ecological" is often taken in the sense of environmentally friendly. The term ecology or oekologie was coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866, when he defined it as "the comprehensive science of the relationship of the organism to the environment."[1] Haeckel did not elaborate on the concept, and the first significant textbook on the subject (together with the first university course) was written by the Danish botanist, Eugenius Warming. For this early work, Warming is often identified as the founder of ecology.[2] Background

The development of the environmental movement took place in three periods of raised environmental consciousness in the 20th century: The first period of raised environmental consciousness began in 1900 and ended in 1910. The most influential environmentalists of that decade were the founders of the American Sierre Club and other environmental organizations. In this period the central aim of the environmental movement was to achieve a high rate of environmental protection. There were no a-political movements or protest organizations that were anti-industrial or anti-capitalist. These organizations began to develop in the second period of raised environmental consciousness. The second period of raised environmental consciousness started at the end of the 1960s and ended around 1973. It was the result of Silent Spring, the famous book by Rachel Carson published in 1962. In this book Carson discusses environmental and health problems caused by pesticides, among other things. The publication of the book resulted in a widespread criticism on modern-day industry and capitalism. The second period of raised environmental consciousness was mainly noticeable in industrialized countries. In the middle-class small environmental organizations began to form, which were soon called NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations). Theories such as Limits to Growth by the Club of Rome and Small is Beautiful by Schumacher led to widespread environmental discussions. Governments started introducing environmental legislation, such as the Clean Air Act. In 1972 the first environmental conference took place in Stockholm, Sweden. The second period of raised environmental consciousness ended in 1973 when the oil crisis took place. Little money was left for environmental purposes after that.

The third period of raised environmental consciousness started in 1987 with the publication of the Brundtland report, titled Our Common Future, written for the United Nations by the Norwegian prime minister Gro Harlem Brundtland. The report was about sustainability and sustainable production. According to this theory, environment and economy should develop simultaneously, causing a decrease in economic pressure on the environment. Contrary to the second period of raised environmental consciousness, the third period involved developing countries in the process. International environmental policy was formulated. In 1992 the UN-CED (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) was held, leading to the formulation of Agenda 21. The UN-CCC (United Nations Conference on Climate Change) was also convened. Biodiversity became part of the international environmental agenda. The third period of raised environmental consciousness ended in 1993, when the environment became less of a hot topic. The periods of raised environmental consciousness become increasingly shorter. It is thought that increasing media dynamics causes this. The introduction of radio and television caused people to be informed of situation quicker. This caused media attention for environmental topics to become more and more brief.

II.

Examples of environmental problems

List of Environmental Problems

Acid deposition Air pollution Air pollution news Climate change Development environmental movement Drinking water pollution Environmental disasters
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Environmental effects and toxicology Environmental impact of volcanic eruption Environmental effects of warfare Eutrophication Filamentous bacteria Floods Global warming and the greenhouse effect Groundwater pollution Heavy metals Irrigation water pollution Matter cycles and pollution Odour Ozone toxicology Particulate matter Periodic table, including environmental effects Population growth Recent environmental disasters Water pollution

Major Causes of Environmental Problems

Three categories of environmental problems: natural disasters, technological catastrophes, and long-term environmental degradation. It is important to point out how these categories are increasingly overlapping. Many natural disasters, if not caused outright by human intervention, are worsened by human factors. Global warming seems to be causing an increase in hurricanes and their severity. Deforestation promotes floods and landslides because the natural buffers of the forests no longer absorb the rainfall they used to. Even the spread of human habitation increases the likelihood of the loss of property and life in natural disasters.

So, the boundary between natural disasters and technological catastrophes is more blurred than before. A. Natural disasters (e.g., floods, hurricanes, storms caused by natural processes) 1. Usually unpredictable (though there may be some short-term warnings), uncontrollable, destructive, acute, BUT they are expectable. While we cannot predict the next tsunami, forest fire, or tornado, we can expect they will occur. Furthermore, they tend to have a recognizable low point. With natural disasters, we generally know when the worst is over. 2. Psychological effects: Short-term stress is common. Generally, chronic stress is rare. Often, increases in cooperation and social bonding are seen. B. Technological catastrophes, sudden, major toxic exposure (e.g., chemical and radioactive leaks, industrial accidents, e.g., Chernobyl, Three-Mile Island, Bhopal) 1. Duration is variable. There may be long-term effects, there is often no clear low point, and victims have little control. There may be a lack of visible destruction and no closure since the long-terms effects are unknown and unknowable. Most people have low familiarity with these, and there is low predictablity. Basically, such catastrophes are NEVER supposed to happen, so when they do, people are not psychologically prepared for them. 2. Toxic exposure leads to both neuropsychological effects and stress effects. The belief in exposure leads to stress. In some cases, their low salience may lead to a denial. 3. Psychological effects: Compared to natural disasters, these effects are more severe, complex, longer-lasting, and likely to be chronic. They often increase interpersonal conflict. C. Chronic, pervasive, long-term environmental degradation (e.g., air, water, noise, and light pollution; global warming). While there is some available theory, there is little research on these effects. Some parallels can be drawn from research on the psychological effects of the threat of nuclear war. It is easy to hypothesize the following effects.
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1. Psychic numbing, denial. This is by far the most common and visible effect. 2. Anxiety 3. Helplessness, depression 4. Alienation, the sense of not-belonging 5. Child development. E.g., the need for a positive future to enable an Ego-Ideal will have negative effects of child development. 6. There may also be a positive effect of recognizing and dealing with environmental destruction. It may be a call to awareness and service, existential authenticity, responsibility & empowerment

WATER POLLUTION
Water use for irrigation Agriculture is by far the largest water use at global level. Irrigation of agricultural lands accounted for 70% of the water used worldwide. In several developing countries, irrigation represents up to 95% of all water uses, and plays a major role in food production and food security. Future agricultural development strategies of most of these countries depend on the possibility to maintain, improve and expand irrigated agriculture. On the other hand, the increasing pressure on water resources by agriculture faces competition from other water use sectors and represents a threat to the environment. Water is a resource that may create tensions among countries down and upstream. Irrigated agriculture is driving much of the competition since it accounts for 70-90% of water use in many of these regions. In fact the major part of irrigated land in Europe is located in the South with Spain, Italy, France, Greece and Portugal accounting for 85% of the total irrigated area in the EU. For example, in Spain irrigated agriculture accounts for 56% of total agricultural production, occupying only 18% of the total agricultural surface

Water Changes in the environment can have a dramatic effect on the quality and availability of water. Much of the water used in human activities is returned to the environment, but in a polluted form. Around the world, millions lack access to proper sanitation systems, which means that used water is returned to the environment without any treatment for bacteria or other hazards. Phosphate residues from fertilizers and pesticides used in intensive agriculture, untreated manure from pig and cattle farming, and hazardous chemicals from industry, all threaten the quality of groundwater and ultimately the health of those who use it. Problems with water contaminated by bacteria and parasites are not restricted to developing countries. Ineffective water treatment systems have caused serious outbreaks, for example of the parasite cryptosporidium in the United States or the bacteria E. coli in Canada. During an outbreak of the cholera in South America in the early 1990's, Peru was most affected because of the poor state of its water sanitation systems. CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change is a reality. Today, our world is hotter than it has been in two thousand years. By the end of the century, if current trends continue, the global temperature will likely climb higher than at any time in the past two million years. While the end of the 20th century may not necessarily be the warmest time in Earth's history, what is unique is that the warmth is global and cannot be explained by the natural mechanisms that explain previous warm periods. There is a broad scientific consensus that humanity is in large part responsible for this change, and that choices we make today will decide the climate of the future. How we are changing the climate For more than a century, people have relied on fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas for their energy needs. Burning these fossil fuels releases the global warming gas carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Other, even more potent, greenhouse gasses are also playing a role, as is massive deforestation.
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What we know While there are still uncertainties, particularly related to the timing, extent and regional variations of climate change, there is mainstream scientific agreement on the key facts:

Certain gasses, such as carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere create a "greenhouse effect", trapping heat and keeping the Earth warm enough to sustain life as we know it. Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, etc.) releases more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Although not the most potent greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide is the most significant in terms of human effects because of the large quantities emitted. Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere are now the highest in 150,000 years. The 1990s were most likely the warmest decade in history, and 1998 the warmest year.

Climate and Environment More than any other substance on Earth, water, with its unique properties, affects and is affected by changes in climate or the environment. Water acts like a climatic thermostat-it can absorb more heat than most other substances. Holding this heat rather than releasing it, large bodies of water, like oceans and lakes, will maintain more constant temperatures. Water also acts as a heat exchanger. When temperatures rise, it stores the heat, becoming a vapour; when temperatures drop, it releases the heat and freezes. In this way, both heat from the sun and water - in the form of vapour, rain, snow, or ice-are redistributed. This cycle of change of water is referred to as the hydrological cycle. Rising temperatures increase the rate of water evaporation creating yet more vapour in the atmosphere. Rising temperatures also increase melting of glaciers and polar ice caps, which can cause sea levels to rise. Higher temperatures also cause more water to be lost from soil, which in turn will become drier and need more irrigation. Increased water vapour in the atmosphere not only has a greenhouse effect, but also can change precipitation patterns causing flooding and monsoons in some regions, while others face drought.

 Dams, reservoirs, irrigation and drainage systems, and waterways, all change how much and where water flows. Removal of trees and vegetation, changes of land uses, and expansion of paved areas, not only affect soil ecology, but also the water balance. Without cover, more soil moisture is lost to the atmosphere. Drier soils are more at risk of erosion and further water loss. Similarly, changes in land use from agriculture to urban can dramatically change surface water distribution, blocking routes that once drained into natural reservoirs. Increased urbanization also requires more water to feed the city's population and industry, often requiring deeper and deeper wells to be drilled or water to be moved from even more distant locations. Expansion of paved areas reduces the amount of vegetation available to transpire water back into the atmosphere. It also affects the drainage of surface water, and in northern latitudes, contributes to groundwater pollution should salt used to melt road ice be allowed to runoff into the natural drainage system. The World Resources Institute reports that there is a link between biodiversity and climate change, as rapid global warming can affect an ecosystems chances to adapt naturally. This highlights the importance of attempts to do things about it, such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Buenos Aires Conference. The weather phenomenon, El Nio, having wreaked much havoc around the world, coupled with deforestation and other unregulated activities by many countries, are leading to huge disaster zones, such as that in Mexico, which houses a whopping great 10% of all the species on this earth. Airborne pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide, causes water vapour in the atmosphere to become more acidic. This so-called acid rain then passes on this increased acidity further along the hydrological cycle-to surface water, groundwater, lakes, and rivers. The increased acidity not only affects the water itself, but all life that relies on it. UNFAIR TRADING PRACTICES

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The World Trade Organisation (WTO) promotes free trade for the gain of private interests, over and above our health and the environment. It is fatally flawed and is moving the world in the wrong direction away from peace, security and sustainability. By stalling on issues that are crucial to poorer countries, the WTO faces a crisis of legitimacy.

The WTO is secretive, non-transparent and undemocratic. Meetings are by invitation only, are hidden from public view and are closed to direct public input. The WTO puts trade on the highest pedestal - before our health and the environment. This is because the WTO is driven by narrow corporate interests, like genetic engineering companies and the agri-business. These companies are behind the US attempt to use the WTO as a tool to force feed the world genetically engineered (GE) food. The WTO threatens crucial environmental agreements, like the first legally binding global agreement that allows countries to reject genetically modified organisms, the Biosafety Protocol. So-called "free" trade is speeding up the use of natural resources such as water, forests, fisheries, and minerals, much faster than they can be regenerated.

TOXIC CHEMICALS Toxic chemicals in our environment threaten our rivers and lakes, our air, land, and oceans, and ultimately ourselves and our future. The production, trade, use, and release of many synthetic chemicals is now widely recognised as a global threat to human health and the environment. Yet, the world's chemical industries continue to produce and release thousands of chemical compounds every year, in most cases with none or very little testing and understanding of their impacts on people and the environment. Hi-Tech - Highly toxic The world is consuming more and more electronic products every year. This has caused a dangerous explosion in electronic scrap (ewaste) containing toxic chemicals and heavy metals that cannot be disposed of or recycled safely. But this problem can be avoided.
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Solving the chemicals crisis Substituting hazardous chemicals with safer materials is the answer to governments and industry that have failed to control the spread of dangerous chemicals around the globe. Toxic trade Stricter environmental regulations in developed countries have led to many polluting industries transferring their toxic technologies to the developing world. Across the globe irresponsible companies and negligent governments have created many global toxic hotspots. Many toxic chemicals are global pollutants and areas such as old factories, dumping grounds, effluent outfalls and waste storage sites are heavily polluted and listed on our Global Toxics Hotspots Map. Check the Map to find out where toxics hotspots are in your country and who was responsible for creating them.

Bhopal: The Bhopal disaster in India, in 1984, was the world's

worst chemical disaster. Toxic gas leaked from the poorly maintained and understaffed plant owned by Union Carbide, killing up to 20,000 people and leaving 120,000 chronically ill. The survivors have never received adequate compensation for their debilitating illnesses and even 20 years after the disaster, the polluted site of the abandoned factory, bleeds poisons daily into the groundwater of local residents. Bhopal is an ongoing disaster and Union Carbide's new owners, Dow Chemicals, should pay to clean up the toxic mess.

EMERGING DISEASES
In the last decades of the 20th century, new diseases began emerging at the unprecedented rate of one or more per year. From 1997 to 2000, 9 infectious agents capable of causing human disease were newly identified. Since new diseases partly arise from fundamental changes in the way humanity inhabits the planet, the emergence of new diseases is likely to continue, if not escalate.
1. In January 2004, intensified surveillance detected a cluster of

young children with severe respiratory disease at a paediatric

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hospital in Hanoi, Viet nam, many of whom had died. That event marked the first human cases of H5N1 avian influenza outside of China, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. Since then, the world has been on constant alert for an influenza pandemic. Highly contagious, a pandemic of influenza could extend the devastating consequences that had been seen with SARS to every corner of the world within a matter of weeks or months. 2. Even more worryingly, the rate of drug failure due to the development of microbial resistance outpaced scientific discovery of replacement drugs. The danger that new diseases to which there is universal vulnerability will cause international harm means that countries can no longer manage certain types of outbreaks as though they were strictly domestic affairs. An absolute concept of national sovereignty has been challenged by these events and by the need to secure collective defence against the emerging disease threat. The potential inability of affected countries to engage fully in surveillance and sustain an emergency response system over months, if not years in the case of a severe pandemic, is the single most important obstacle to international health security. UNSUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT A key issue is how we use the resources that we have. Our choice of how to use those resources (i.e. our economic policies) and for what purposes (i.e. our political directions and policies) are critical issues as well on the resulting impact on the environment to meet those uses and purposes. Inequality in wealth and consumption is a key issue. "Globally, the 20% of the world's people in the highest-income countries account for 86% of total private consumption expenditures - the poorest 20% a minuscule 1.3%". This means richer nations consume more energy, use more communication and technology devices like telephones and computers, and use more paper and more polluting vehicles.

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The developed nations, whose population is one fourth of the world total, consume 80% of world goods. The developing nations consume their environment and their renewable resources faster than one can rebuild them. Possible guidelines for the sustainable development are:

Protection of the agriculture soil Reafforestation Demographic control Energy saving Development of renewable energy sources

Industries: a) Fishing Fishing is one of the oldest industries that man has known and various fishing practices are followed in different parts of the world. The global fishing fleet is estimated to be 250% larger than needed to catch what the ocean can produce. It is only now that people are waking up to the environmental impact of fishing and how it affects the ecosystem of the oceans. b) Tourism Another growing industry is tourism. One of the largest issues about tourism is the pollution it causes; air emissions, solid waste, litter, noise, oil and chemical, and the release of sewage. Tourism now accounts for more than 60% of air travel, and thus contributes more to air emissions. c) Coal Coal is still one of the major sources of energy in the developing and developed world. The coal mines not only cause environmental damage but also have adverse effect on the health of the workers. Burning coal also releases tons of pollutants like carbon dioxide (a major cause of global warming) and sulphur dioxide (a cause of acid rain) into the atmosphere. Coal is the
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most carbon-rich of all fossil fuels. Burning it generates 70% more of the most important greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide (CO2), for every unit of energy produced than natural gas. From 1971 to 1995 there was an eightfold increase in coal burning for electricity generation in the industrializing countries of Asia. The trend continues, and India and China will be responsible for 75% of the increased global coal consumption. By 2025, nearly 60% of all coal will be burned in Asia-Pacific. As a consequence, the region's CO2 emissions are predicted to double. Extensive use of coal in the Chinese industrial town of Taigen causes some of the worst air pollution in the country, and has been linked to respiratory diseases and lung cancer. Besides those concerns, in recent years, in the context of growing internationalization, a pressing need exists for responses to global environmental risks, such as trans-boundary acid deposition, dioxins and endocrine disruptors, and global warming. Burning coal is a leading cause of smog, acid rain, global warming, and air toxics. In an average year, a typical coal plant generates:

3,700,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2), the primary human cause of global warming--as much carbon dioxide as cutting down 161 million trees. 10,000 tons of sulphur dioxide (SO2), which causes acid rain that damages forests, lakes, and buildings, and forms small airborne particles that can penetrate deep into lungs. 500 tons of small airborne particles, which can cause chronic bronchitis, aggravated asthma, and premature death, as well as haze obstructing visibility. 10,200 tons of nitrogen oxide (NOx), as much as would be emitted by half a million late-model cars. NOx leads to formation of ozone (smog) which inflames the lungs, burning through lung tissue making people more susceptible to respiratory illness. 720 tons of carbon monoxide (CO), which causes headaches and place additional stress on people with heart disease.

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220 tons of hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOC), which form ozone. 170 pounds of mercury, where just 1/70th of a teaspoon deposited on a 25-acre lake can make the fish unsafe to eat. 225 pounds of arsenic, which will cause cancer in one out of 100 people who drink water containing 50 parts per billion. 114 pounds of lead, 4 pounds of cadmium, other toxic heavy metals, and trace amounts of uranium.

Air pollution Air pollution is identified as one of main causes of environmental and health problems in the world today. Many air pollutants, such as those that form urban smog and toxic compounds, remain in the environment for long periods of time and are carried by the winds hundreds of miles from their origin. This increases the damage they can cause Radioactive contamination

Radioactive contamination seems the most dangerous kind of pollution. Nuclear wastes are radioactive for thousands of years. The volumes of radioactive wastes discharged in the environment are growing very fast.

They are generally highly toxic and can contaminate water or the marine environment. The reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels is creating most radioactive wastes in Western Europe; reprocessing plants based in United Kingdom and France are contaminating the North Sea and North Atlantic coasts. In these plants, also spent fuel coming from other European and non-European countries is reprocessed: so, there are additional risks, due to the shipments of radioactive material by land and sea.

Nuclear power already delivers less energy globally than renewable energy, and the share will continue to decrease in the coming years.

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Despite what the nuclear industry tells us, building enough nuclear power stations to make a meaningful reduction in greenhouse gas emissions would cost trillions of dollars, create tens of thousands of tons of lethal high-level radioactive waste, contribute to further proliferation of nuclear weapons materials, and result in a Chernobylscale accident once every decade. Perhaps most significantly, it will squander the resources necessary to implement meaningful climate change solutions. "Nuclear power plants are, next to nuclear warheads themselves, the most dangerous devices that man has ever created. Their construction and proliferation is the most irresponsible, in fact the most criminal, act ever to have taken place on this planet." Patrick Moore, Assault on Future Generations, 1976 The Nuclear Age began in July 1945 when the US tested their first nuclear bomb near Alamogordo, New Mexico. A few years later, in 1953, President Eisenhower launched his "Atoms for Peace" Programme at the UN amid a wave of unbridled atomic optimism. In November 2000 the world recognised nuclear power as a dirty, dangerous and unnecessary technology by refusing to give it greenhouse gas credits during the UN Climate Change talks in The Hague. Nuclear power was dealt a further blow when a UN Sustainable Development Conference refused to label nuclear a sustainable technology in April 2001. The risks from nuclear energy are real, inherent and long-lasting.
1) Safety:

No reactor in the world is inherently safe. All operational reactors have inherent safety flaws, which cannot be eliminated by safety upgrading. Highly radioactive spent fuel requires constant cooling. If this fails, it could lead to a catastrophic release of radioactivity. They are also highly vulnerable to deliberate acts of sabotage, including terrorist attack.

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2) Waste: From the moment uranium is mined nuclear waste on a

massive scale is produced. There is no secure, risk free way to store nuclear waste. No country in the world has a solution for high-level waste that stays radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. The least damaging option at this current time is for waste to be stored above ground, in dry storage at the site of origin, but this option also presents major challenges and the threats.

3) Weapons proliferation: The possession of nuclear weapons

by the US, Russia, France, the UK and China has encouraged the further proliferation of nuclear technology and materials. Every state that has a nuclear power capability, has the means to obtain nuclear material usable in a nuclear weapon. Basically this means that the 44 nuclear power states could become 44 nuclear weapons states. Many nations that have active commercial nuclear power programs, began their research with two objectives - electricity generation and the option to develop nuclear weapons. Also nuclear programs based on reprocessing plutonium from spent fuel have dramatically increased the risk of proliferation as the creation of more plutonium, means more nuclear waste which in turn means more materials available for the creation of dirty bombs.

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Development Environmental Law

III.

of

International

When attempting to determine the boundaries of international environmental law, one finds that no clear definition can be applied. Like many other branches of international law, international environmental law is interdisciplinary, intersecting and overlapping with numerous other areas of research, including economics, political science, ecology, human rights and navigation/admiralty. International environmental law, a new branch of international law, is already complex and vast, comprising hundreds of international norms the purpose of which is to protect the earths living and non-living elements and ecological processes. This body of law emerged from a growing awareness that the activities of a continually-increasing number of humans, invasive technology, and rapid consumption of the earths resources endanger our planet. Alexandre Kiss, INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL LAW (1999). Conventions1 and protocols2 are referred to as hard law instruments; they are legally binding on States that are parties to them. Until the late 1960s, most international agreements aimed at protecting the environment served narrowly defined utilitarian purposes. Alexandre C. Kiss and Dinah Shelton, International Environmental Law (New York: Transnational Pub., 1991) at p. 1. Beginning with the 1972 Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, however, international agreements came to reflect a desire to limit damages to the environment. (linked from http://www.unep.org/Documents/Default.asp?DocumentID=97)
1

An agreement between states, sides, or military forces, especially an international agreement dealing with a specific subject, such as the treatment of prisoners of war.
2

A Protocol is a set of guidelines or rules.

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These international agreements paralleled national legislation which increasingly sought to preserve the environment. International environmental law encompasses a diverse group of topics, including:

sustainable development (The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development http://www.unep.org/documents/default.asp? documentid=78), biodiversity (Convention on Biological Diversity http://www.biodiv.org/convention/articles.asp, transfrontier pollution (Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Pollution http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/, marine pollution (Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter http://www.londonconvention.org/, endangered species (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species(CITES) http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/text.shtml hazardous materials and activities (Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal http://www.basel.int/text/documents.html cultural preservation (Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural & Natural Heritage, http://whc.unesco.org/en/conventiontext/), desertification (United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, http://www.unccd.int/), uses of the seas (United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) linked from http://www.un.org/Depts/los/index.htm), and climate change (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol on Global Warming (http://unfccc.int/essential_background/convention/items/2627.p hp).

Over the past 30 years, UNEP was significantly involved in developing legally and non-legally binding instruments. Today, UNEP is also working to ensure that the policies pursued under existing conventions remain as mutually supportive as possible.

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UNEPs efforts to promote the development of international law include:

encourage international action to address gaps and weaknesses in existing international environmental law respond to new environmental challenges promote and provide legal advisory services for the development or strengthening of regional and global multilateral environmental agreements assist governments, particularly those of developing countries and countries with economies in transition, in the development of legal instruments develop and promote the development of soft law instruments, such as codes of conduct and guidelines

Development of Multilateral International Law Instruments

GLOBAL LEVEL Multilateral Environmental Agreements

1979 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS - Bonn Convention) 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1989 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal and 1999 Basel Protocol on Liability and Compensation for Damage resulting from Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CDB) and 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity 1998 Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (PICs) 2001 Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

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Biodiversity Cluster

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)

UNEP provided technical assistance to the development of:

1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the related Tokyo Protocol, negotiated following the establishment of UNEP and WMO of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1997 1994 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (UNCCD)

REGIONAL LEVEL: UNEP has actively supported governments and regional organizations in the development of environmental law at a regional level through the provision of technical legal assistance as well as legal advice and support to intergovernmental meetings in the context of developing regional environmental agreements. Areas of focus at the regional level include:

Regional Seas Programme Shared Water Resources Biodiversity Atmosphere Hazardous Waste

Regional Seas Programme This programme focuses on the protection of the oceans and seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and coastal areas and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources. It

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is also a catalyst for the implementation of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. The revitalising of the Regional Seas programme is a current priority. Under this programme, a variety of agreements have been concluded:

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Black Sea:

1992 Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea against Pollution, the Bucharest Convention 1992 Protocol on Protection of the Black Sea Marine Environment against Pollution from Land-Based Sources 1992 Protocol on Cooperation in Combating Pollution of the Black Sea Marine Environment by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Emergency Situations 1992 Protocol on the Protection of the Black Sea Marine Environment against Pollution by Dumping

Eastern Africa:

1985 Convention for the Protection Management and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Eastern African Region, the Nairobi Convention 1985 Protocol Concerning Protected Areas and Wild Fauna and Flora in the Eastern African Region 1985 Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Marine Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the Eastern African Region

Kuwait region:

1978 Kuwait Regional Convention for Co-operation on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Pollution, the Kuwait Convention 1978 Protocol Concerning Regional Co-Operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency 1989 Protocol Concerning Marine Pollution Resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf 1990 Protocol for the Protection of the Marine Environment Against Pollution from Land-Based Sources 1998 Protocol on the Control of Marine Transboundary Movements and Disposal of Hazardous Wastes, Tehran

Mediterranean:

1976 Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution, the Barcelona Convention

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1976 Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft 1978 Protocol Concerning Regional Co-Operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency 1980 Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution from Land-Based Sources, Athens 1982 Protocol Concerning Mediterranean Specially Protected Areas, Geneva 1994 Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the Continental Shelf and the Seabed and its Subsoil, Madrid 1995 Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean, Barcelona 1996 Protocol on the Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, Izmir

North-East Pacific:

2002 The Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the Northeast Pacific, Antigua Convention

Red Sea and Gulf of Aden:

1982 Regional Convention for the Conservation of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden Environment, the Jeddah Convention 1982 Protocol Concerning Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution by Oil and Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency, Jeddah

South-East Pacific:

1981 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the South-East Pacific, the Lima Convention 1981 Agreement on Regional Co-operation in Combating Pollution of the South-East Pacific by Hydrocarbons or Other Harmful Substances in Cases of Emergency, Lima 1983 Supplementary Protocol to the Agreement on Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution of the South-East Pacific by Hydrocarbons or Other Harmful Substances, Quito

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1983 Protocol for the Protection of the South-East Pacific Against Pollution from Land-based Sources, Quito 1989 Protocol for the Conservation and Management Of Protected Marine and Coastal Areas of the South-East Pacific, Paipa 1989 Protocol for the Protection of the South-East Pacific Against Radioactive Contamination, Paipa 1992 Protocol on the Programme for the Regional Study on the El Nino Phenomenon (ERFEN) in the Southeast Pacific

South Pacific:

1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region, the Noumea Convention 1986 Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the South Pacific Region by Dumping, Noumea 1986 Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution Emergencies in the South Pacific Region, Noumea

West and Central Africa:

1984 Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, the Abidjan Convention 1984 Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency, Abidjan

Wider Caribbean:

1983 Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, the Cartagena Convention 1983 Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region, Cartagena 1990 Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region, Kingston (SPAW) 1999 Protocol Concerning Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities to the 1983 Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean, Oranjestad (Aruba)
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Partner programmes:

1992 Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, the Helsinki Convention 1972 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft, & 1974 Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources, the Oslo and Paris conventions respectively revised and combined into the 1992 Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic, the OSPAR Convention

back to top Shared Water Resources

Environmentally Sound Management of Inland Waters (EMINWA); 1987 Agreement on the Action Plan for the Environmentally Sound Management of the Common Zambezi River System, Harare (ZACPLAN); 1995 Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems of the Southern African Development Community (SADC), Johannesburg 1995 Agreement on the Cooperation for the Sustainable Development of the Mekong River Basin, Chiang Rai Rules for the Environmental Management of the Victoria Basin and the Lake Tanganyika Basin

Biodiversity

1994 Lusaka Agreement on Co-Operative Enforcement Operations Directed at Illegal Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora, Lusaka; 1995 Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA); 1992 Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas (ASCOBANS); 1996 Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area, Monaco (ACCOBAMS) Revision of 1968 Algiers Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (adopted in 2003 subject to ratification)

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Atmosphere

Hosting and supporting the Latin America and Caribbean regional coordination of the network of ozone-depleting substance offices; Development of a legal framework for the prevention of transboundary haze/pollution for the association of South East Asian nations (ASEAN) countries (2002 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution)

Hazardous Waste 1991 Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa

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Chemicals and Hazardous Wastes Cluster

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (PICs) Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

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