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SAVE-U

D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection

SAVE-U
SENSORS AND SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE FOR VULNERABLE ROAD USERS PROTECTION

Information Society Technologies: Systems and Services for the Citizen

Project funded by the European Community under the Information Society Technology Programme (1998-2002)

Project IST 2001 34040

Deliverable D6: Strategies in Terms of Vulnerable Road User Protection


Authors: Co-Authors: Dissemination Level: Version: Contract Date: Document Date: Dr. Marc-Michael Meinecke Dr. Marian Andrzej Obojski, Dr. Dariu Gavrila, Mr. Erwan Marc, Mr. Richard Morris, Mr. Matthias Tns, Dr. Laurent Letellier PU 3.0 01/03/2002 11/12/2003

Partners: Faurecia Industries (FR), SiemensVDO Automotive AG (DE), MIRA Ltd (GB), Commissariat lEnergie Atomique (FR), DaimlerChrysler AG (DE), Volkswagen AG (DE) Commission of the European Communities Directorate-General Information Society

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Revision chart and history log

Version 1.0 2.0 3.0

Date 11.09.2002 04.04.2003 11.12.2003

Reason First draft version Final Version presented during the SAVE-U meeting in Grenoble Revised version according to the comments from the European Commission during Annual Project Review #2 (October 15, 2003)

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Contents

REVISION CHART AND HISTORY LOG .................................................................. 2 CONTENTS................................................................................................................ 3 CREDITS.................................................................................................................... 7 1. 2. 3. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................. 8 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 10 IDENTIFICATION OF POSSIBLE ACTUATOR CONCEPTS FOR VULNERABLE ROAD USER PROTECTION................................................ 11 Motivation ..................................................................................................... 11 Classification of actuators for protection of vulnerable road users ....... 12 Definition of reversible and non-reversible protections methods........... 15 Four Phases for deployment of protection systems ................................ 17 Research of literature, patents and internet publications........................ 21

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Description of different protection systems currently under investigation ....................................................................................................................... 22 3.6.1 Automatic Braking ....................................................................................... 22 3.6.1.1 Components of a Braking System ........................................................ 23 3.6.1.2 Different Technologies of electronic controlled Braking Systems ......... 25 3.6.1.2.1 3.6.1.2.2 Electronic Controlled Brake Booster ............................................. 26 Electro-Hydraulic Brake (EHB)...................................................... 27

3.6.1.2.3 Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB) .................................................. 30 3.6.1.3 Effect of different kinds of braking......................................................... 34 3.6.2 Airbags ........................................................................................................ 35

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3.6.2.1 Occupant Airbag ................................................................................... 36 3.6.2.1.1 Inflator ........................................................................................... 37 3.6.2.1.2 Bag................................................................................................ 38 3.6.2.1.3 Crash sensors............................................................................... 40 3.6.2.2 Exterior Airbag ...................................................................................... 42 3.6.2.3 Windshield airbag ................................................................................. 44 3.6.3 Hood lifting system ...................................................................................... 45 3.6.3.1 Hood lifting by bellows .......................................................................... 49 3.6.3.2 Hood lifting by pneumatic muscles ....................................................... 50 3.6.3.3 Sensor technology for deployment ....................................................... 52 3.6.3.4 Time flow of hood deployment .............................................................. 55 3.6.4 Active bumpers concepts ............................................................................ 58 3.6.4.1 Crash active and non crash active bumper systems............................. 60 3.6.4.2 Possible Concepts ................................................................................ 61 3.6.4.2.1 3.6.4.2.2 3.6.4.2.3 3.6.4.2.4 Pneumatic drive ............................................................................ 61 Hydraulic drive .............................................................................. 64 Electro hydraulic drive................................................................... 65 Mechatronical drive ....................................................................... 66

3.6.4.3 Summary and Prospects....................................................................... 67 3.6.5 Enhancement of driver's view...................................................................... 68 3.6.5.1 Technology of rain sensors for automatic windshield wiper control ...... 68 3.6.5.2 Rain Repellent Windshields .................................................................. 71 3.6.5.3 Headlights............................................................................................. 72 3.6.5.4 Active Night Vision ................................................................................ 73 3.6.6 Night vision.................................................................................................. 74 3.6.6.1 Physical basis ....................................................................................... 74 3.6.6.2 Current production application .............................................................. 75 3.6.6.3 Further development and prospects ..................................................... 77 3.6.7 Driver Warning ............................................................................................ 78 3.6.7.1 Warning signals .................................................................................... 79 3.6.7.2 Criteria of warning effects ..................................................................... 80 3.6.7.3 Categorisation of warning signal failure ................................................ 80 3.6.7.4 Recommendations ................................................................................ 81 3.6.8 Pedestrian warning...................................................................................... 83 3.6.9 Electronic controlled Seat-Belt Pre-Tensioner............................................. 85

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Rules for road constructions to guarantee the visibility and safety of VRU ............................................................................................................... 88 3.7.1 Problems and solutions ............................................................................... 88 3.7.2 Safety strategies in urban areas of Europe ................................................. 89 3.7.2.1 Installation of an accident scene management in Austria ..................... 90 3.7.2.2 Developing of Urban Management and Safety (DUMAS) ..................... 90 3.7.2.3 Efficiency of infrastructural measures for Pedestrian protection in France and the United Kingdom ........................................................................ 91 3.7.3 Examples..................................................................................................... 96 3.7.3.1 Tunnel and Subways ............................................................................ 96 3.7.3.2 Invisibility of VRU in case of parked cars .............................................. 99 3.7.3.3 Single-side illuminated road ................................................................ 100 3.7.3.4 School problematic ............................................................................. 101

4.

IDENTIFICATION OF SYSTEM CONCEPTS FOR VRU PROTECTION ON VEHICLES ................................................................................................... 103 Success of pedestrian protection in the EU in recent years.................. 103 Evaluation of actuators ............................................................................. 104 Deceleration ............................................................................................... 107 Driver Warning Strategies ......................................................................... 111 Pedestrian Warning Approaches.............................................................. 111 Impact on sensor specifications and system specifications ................. 112

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

4.6.1 Sensor system specification versus application ........................................ 112 4.6.2 Measurement accuracies Maximum range............................................. 113 4.6.3 Time scheme for deployment of warning signals or automatic deceleration actuators ............................................................................................................. 122 4.6.4 Sensor specification .................................................................................. 125 4.6.4.1 Radar sensors .................................................................................... 126 4.6.4.2 Video sensors ..................................................................................... 128 4.7 5. Sum up according analyzed actuators and sensors .............................. 132 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 135

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REFERENCES ............................................................................................. 137 LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................... 143 LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................... 146

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Credits

This document was prepared by partners of the SAVE-U consortium. Please contact one of the following project partners for further information regarding this document or the project. Commissariat lEnergie Atomique (CEA)/ France DaimlerChrysler AG/ Germany FAURECIA Industries/ France MIRA Ltd./ United Kingdom SiemensVDO/ Germany VOLKSWAGEN AG/ Germany

Project Co-ordinator: Name: Company: Phone: Fax: E-mail: Workpackage Leader: Name: Company: Phone: Fax: E-mail: Dr. Marc-Michael Meinecke Volkswagen AG +49-5361-9.20663 +49-5361-9.57.20663 marc-michael.meinecke@volkswagen.de Philippe Marchal Faurecia Industries +33-3 81 36 48 10 +33-3 81 36 45 20 pmarchal@seloncourt.faurecia.com

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1.

Executive Summary

This document is one of the deliverables of the EC-Project SAVE-U Sensors and system Architecture for VulnerablE road Users protection. It is the outcome of Workpackage WP3 entitled Identification of system concepts for the protection of Vulnerable Road Users (VRU). The objective of this document is to identify so-called active systems that are really useful for protection of vulnerable road users (VRU) in case of critical traffic situations between vehicles and VRUs. The target set by the EU Commission was to reduce pedestrian fatalities by 30 % and severe injuries by 17 % by 2010. This document provides an overview of what is currently under consideration regarding protection of vulnerable road users. There are many ideas, mainly coming from Europe, America and Asia, which are in a research stage. In this document a survey about conference papers, patents and presentations on the internet is given. It is clear, this bibliography cannot summarise all approaches and all research results, but a high number of references from international sources are provided. The abstract of each of these references is provided for better information for the reader. A main part of this document is based on a pure technical description of actuators to understand physical details. The full breadth of actuators currently under discussion will be described from a technical perspective. Starting from this technical description an evaluation of the actuators for VRU protection systems will be derived. There are so-called passive, preventive and active measures for VRU protection currently under consideration. The actuators can be categorised into reversible and non-reversible (irreversible) protection measures. Current sensor systems for precrash applications or driver assistance system in general (e. g. cameras with image processing and radar sensors) have high performance, but the requirements in this field are much

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stronger. Consequently, the current sensors, which do not have a 100%-fault safe stage, are only applicable for reversible protection systems. Because of basic physical relationships passive measures can provide limited protection potential only. Therefore active and preventive actuators are helpful to enhance the protection effect for VRUs. For example, automatic vehicle deceleration in case of critical situations seems to be a potential approach for active VRU protection (refer SAVE-U Deliverable D1 [SAV03]). In addition to this warning strategies are of interest. But it is very important to provide the warning signal (acoustically, haptically or optically) early enough to the driver. Due to the typical reaction time of an average driver of about 1 second it is obvious that the warning signal has to be provided to the driver more than 1 second before the contact vehicle with VRU. But 1 second before the potentially contact occurs it is not 100% clear if the collision really will happen due to the unknown trajectories of the objects. Therefore, many false alarms seem to be inescapable. Consequently, driver warnings have to be investigated if they are really helpful or if they are only driver confusing. The focus in this SAVE-U project will be on automatic deceleration and some studies in terms of driver warning. Detailed specification of the SAVE-U protection system that will be installed on two demonstrator vehicles will be provided in the Deliverable D 22 as a result of WP 10 Building of prototypes and fitting on cars.

Keywords: pedestrian, protection, actuators

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2.

Introduction

This document is one of the deliverables of the EC-Project SAVE-U Sensors and system Architecture for VulnerablE road Users Protection. It is the outcome of Workpackage WP3 entitled Identification of system concepts for the protection of Unprotected Road Users (VRU). The objective of this document is to identify so-called active systems which are really useful for protection of vulnerable road users (VRU) in case of critical traffic situations between vehicles and VRUs. This document provides first in chapter 3 an overview of what is currently under consideration regarding protection of vulnerable road users. There are many different systems, mainly coming from Europe, America and Asia, which are under development or in a research stage. After a summary of a bibliography in this field it is really helpful to have pure technical information about actuators available to understand physical details. The full breadth of actuators currently under discussion will be described from a technical perspective. Most systems described in chapter 3 are currently in an early stage. The effectiveness for VRU protection of these systems can not be predicted today exactly. An evaluation of actuators is provided in chapter 4 in terms of efficiency for VRU protection and in terms of impact on sensor specifications. Chapter 4 deals also with the selection of system candidates for the SAVE-U project. Finally, chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8 list the conclusions, references, figures and tables, respectively. The Deliverable D6 Annex contains the detailed bibliography on VRU protection systems as a survey about conference papers, patents and presentations on the internet is given.

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3.

Identification of possible Actuator Concepts for Vulnerable Road User Protection

3.1

Motivation

This chapter describes protection systems from a technical perspective that are currently under discussion, under development or in a research stage for future vehicles. This description is important to understand and evaluate how they can be used for effective VRU protection. Especially, this is also helpful to be able to select these kinds of actuators which will be implemented into the SAVE-U demonstrator vehicles from DaimlerChrysler and Volkswagen at the end of the project. The Figure 3.1 below illustrates a collision between vehicle and pedestrian. In this figure a collision with a child is depicted as a special variant case. It is obvious, that this situation is very dangerous for the pedestrian. The whole body of the pedestrian can be endangered, namely the legs, the torso, the thorax and the head.

Figure 3.1. Example of collision pedestrian versus vehicle.

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To avoid such kind of collisions or to reduce the impact of the contact different protection concepts are currently under research and/ or under development in the automotive supply industry. An overview will be given about these concepts in this chapter. First of all, a classification of these protection systems into four groups is introduced to clarify the differences between the different concepts. Second, the different phases before the deployment of protection devices are explained. This part indicates particularly the conditions for deployment. The main section gives the technical description of actuators. However, the list of protection systems that are identified is not only restricted to VRU protection devices. For example, the description of exterior airbags refers to the technology that is used in occupant airbags because exterior airbags will be actuated in a similar way. The other reason to describe pure occupant protection systems (like seat belt pretensioners) is that VRU and occupant protection cannot be considered totally isolated from each other. As an example, if automatic deceleration is integrated into vehicles in the next years then the installation of pre-tensioners could be necessary as well in order to prepare the driver to the modification of vehicle behaviour. Finally, in order to get a complete overview of the solutions for improving VRU safety, important hints will be given too about the possibilities of enhancement of road infrastructure in addition to protection systems installed on vehicles.

3.2

Classification of actuators for protection of vulnerable road users

In the field of protection systems for vulnerable road users three different approaches are under discussion (see Figure 3.2). These terms are well known in the technical community of the European Commission.

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First, passive protection systems are possible. These systems are useful to reduce the accident severity if a crash really occurs. Passive systems can be divided into two sub-classes: pure-passive and crash-active methods. In details: The class of pure-passive systems contains typically measures in the domain of vehicle design layout. A special variant of the passive protection systems are the so-called crashactive protection systems. These systems are passive in general. But only in the case if a crash occurs or if the crash is unavoidable then those actuators will be activated and the effect of protection increases. Consequently, the crash-active protection systems have the goal to reduce the accident severity with active components using countermeasures. Second, active protection systems are possible. Critical traffic situations will be reduced in their criticality by using active components. For example, parameters of the brake system can be adjusted in case of critical situations. The third category is entitled preventive protection methods. The intention is to avoid crashes or reduce severity of accidents in an early stage. Therefore, typically this method needs foresighted sensors.

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Systems for Protection of unprotected road users

Passive Methods reversible irreversible

Active Methods Systems for Protection of unprotectedirreversible road users reversible

Preventive Methods Systems for Protection of unprotectedirreversible road users reversible

Pure Passive Methods

Crash-Active Methods
reversible irreversible

Figure 3.2. Overview about passive and active methods for protection of unprotected road users.

This document is focused on crash-active protection systems and preventive systems. Pure passive protection systems are well known in the automotive community from the literature. They will not be described in detail in this report. Active systems will be described briefly as well. Some examples for pure-passive/ crash-active and active methods are given in the following. Examples of pure-passive methods are: Soft front structures Enhancement of drivers view Examples of crash-active methods are: Lifting hood Exterior airbags (e. g. Windshield Airbag)

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Examples of active methods are: Brake-Assistant Electronic Stability Program (ESP) Examples of preventive methods are: Driver warning Automatic comfort braking Pedestrian warning Support of automatic emergency braking

The following protection systems are under discussion/ under development for future vehicles. However, it is very important to evaluate the use of these systems for protection of vulnerable road users. This will be done in the chapter after. In addition to this important hints will be given regarding to possibilities of enhancements of infrastructure. In this deliverable not only VRU protection systems will be described. Also some occupant protection systems are described, if this general technology is important and similar for future VRU protection systems (e. g. occupant airbag exterior airbag). In addition to the VRU protection system description pure occupant protection systems (like seat belt pre-tensioners) are described. The reason for this is, that VRU protection and occupant protection cannot be considered totally isolated from each other. The serious view in the future is, that in the case if VRU protection systems (like automatic deceleration) will be integrated into vehicles in the next years the installation of pre-tensioners could be necessary.

3.3

Definition of reversible and non-reversible protections methods

The actuators described in the paragraph before can also be differentiated by their kind of deployment. There are reversible and non-reversible systems currently under discussion: Reversible deployment:

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A trigger signal activates the actuator. A second signal can deactivate the actuator in that way, that the actuator has the same state as before the first deployment. Non-reversible deployment: It is also the case, that the actuator will be activated by a trigger signal. The difference to reversible methods is that there is no possibility to deactivate the actuator. Therefore, irreversible methods can be deployed one time only. After that, deployment components have to be changed in the garage. The following table shows examples of reversible and non-reversible protection systems.

Reversible Systems Driver Warning Seat-Belt Pre-Tensioner (electronically deployment) Automatic Comfort Braking Pedestrian Warning Hood Lifting (reversible version) Emergency Braking (reversible version)

Non-Reversible Systems Exterior Airbags Seat-Belt Pre-Tensioner (pyrotechnically deployment) Active Bumpers Hood Lifting (non-reversible version) Emergency Braking (non-reversible version)

Table 3.1. Examples of reversible and non-reversible protection systems.

Some systems can be assigned to these two categories very easily. However, in Table 3.1 two examples are written, who can not be so easily classified, namely lifting hood and emergency braking. There are different technologies currently in the discussion. Therefore, the classification of these actuators depends mainly on the concrete realisation. The main advantages and main disadvantages of reversible and non-reversible systems are summarised in Table 3.2.

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Reversible Systems No 100%-fault-safe sensors required Eventually dosed trigger possible Activating (deployment) and Deactivating (e. g. in case of a false alarm) of actuator possible

Non-Reversible Systems 100%-fault-safe sensors required 100%-fault-safe sensor fusion algorithm and scene interpretation required High Risks: No focus on non-reversible protection systems in the SAVE-U project

Table 3.2. Consequences of reversible and non-reversible methods.

Due to the fact, that the SAVE-U sensor platform will consist of non-100%-fault safe sensors, it is not realistic to deploy non-reversible actuators. The two SAVE-U demonstrator vehicles will base on reversible methods, exclusively (see chapter 4).

3.4

Four Phases for deployment of protection systems

Different methods for protection systems were presented in the previous sections. Each of them needs its special individual deployment strategy. This section deals with the general description for triggering a special protection system. The deployment strategy of protection systems can be divided into the following phases. Each phase is described in words and also is illustrated by a pictogram for easier understanding: Phase 0. Phase 0 is not really a phase for deployment, it is the time before. This is introduced for better understanding only. Before phase 1 (acquisition phase) the VRU is invisible, as depicted in the following graph. There is no chance to detect the VRU with the sensor system in this area. Of course, during this period the automatic deployment cannot do anything.

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Figure 3.3. Deployment of actuators: Phase 0 (VRU invisible)

Phase 1. The first phase can be identified as the acquisition phase. The object moves into the detection area/ operation area of a sensor or sensor system. For example, an object can be observed from a radar sensor at distances less than radar maximum range (e. g. 25 m). The theoretical radar maximum range is given by internal radar parameters like pulse repetition frequency, signal-to-noise-ratio and others. After an object had entered the detection area the sensor/ sensor system needs a special period for detecting. This period is called acquisition time t Acquisition . In case of radar the acquisition time depends on parameters like measurement time (update rate), signal stability, tracking strategies and others. A rough rule for automotive radars is: Acquisition time is 8x measurement time. So, if a radar sensor needs 20 ms for a measurement, the acquisition time is in the order of 160 ms.

Figure 3.4. Deployment of actuators: Phase 1 (acquisition phase)

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Phase 2. The second phase can be identified as tracking phase. During this period t Tracking several measurements are collected, position data are tracked over time and the trajectory will be estimated. To get the required stability of the trajectory many measurements are necessary to increase the measurement accuracy of a single measurement.

Figure 3.5. Deployment of actuators: Phase 2 (tracking phase)

Phase 3. Following the first two phases the deployment phase is located on the time axis. The deployment of a protection system is based on the estimated trajectory of phase II. A protection will be deployed if: a) Trajectory (x-, y-position over time) of the VRU and the trajectory of the host vehicle will have an intersection, b) the calculated time-to-collision (TTC) is equal to the required deployment time t Deployment , Actuator of the specific actuator (e. g. deployment time of a windshield airbag). The goal is to have to maximum degree of protection available at the contact between object and host vehicle, c) Considering all the degrees of freedom of the object, of the host vehicle (taking in account measurement accuracies of the sensor system), two cases are possible: Case A (Non-reversible deployment): Test if the predicted collision is unavoidable. Deployment will be done only in case of so-called unavoidable collision situations. Case B (Reversible deployment): Test if the predicted collision has a high probability.

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection SAVE-U will not deal with actuators like inflatable hood, windshield airbags and so on, because this project is mainly sensor-oriented and not actuator-oriented. The actuator system, which will be integrated on the two SAVE-U demonstrators, will realize the reversible deployment strategy (case B), because there are no 100%-fault safe sensors currently on the market for a powerful nonreversible deployment.

Figure 3.6. Deployment of actuators: Phase 3 (deployment phase)

Phase 4. After the deployment phase the contact between object and host vehicle occurs. At this moment, the protection system must offer the highest level of protection effect, which is possible. Consequently, the complete sensor system must be well adjusted and parameterised to provide this high protection effect to the collision object.

Figure 3.7. Deployment of actuators: Phase 4 (contact)

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In this description the four phases for deployment were introduced. The timing and distance values (e. g. t Acquisition , t Tracking , t Deployment , Actuator ) are calculated in chapter 4 for different vehicle velocities. Results can be found in Figure 4.10.

3.5

Research of literature, patents and internet publications

In the D6 Annex a large literature overview is presented. It consists of three main surveys: on published papers, on published patents and on web-pages on the internet. The orientation of the survey was to find an optimal contribution for choose suitable method and technology for most important components of SAVE-U system. This orientation was found as result of the theoretical analysis for sensor expected capabilities and actuator needed parameters (see chapter 3 and 4). The survey is made as a composition of short summaries of found descriptions. The advantages and disadvantages of proposed solutions for Active Hood, Automatic Braking, Driver Warning, Night Vision, and Advanced Front Lighting etc. are presented. Starting with the overview of technical solutions for active, passive and preventive pedestrian protection systems a description, how such systems work and how their feasibility for this tasks is was done. In the second section of that chapter the research for recognize strategies for deployment of protection systems is made. The last scope of the literature research is focused on the description of sensors, accident statistics and regularities for VRU protection. The same structure features the research on published patents. The analysis of patent - publications was made from the same point of view as the analysis of publications.

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In the parts of researches of internet publication the publications of relating solutions offered by car producers and deliverers of technical solutions for car manufacturers was stressed.

3.6

Description investigation

of

different

protection

systems

currently

under

This paragraph will list potential protection systems able to improve VRU safety. It will describe especially the following systems: Automatic braking Occupant airbag Exterior airbag Windshield airbag Active bumpers concepts Hood lifting system Enhancement of driver's view Night vision Driver warning Pedestrian warning Seat-belt pre-tensioner In addition to vehicle-based actuator concepts hints for selected road constructions items (construction of road infrastructure) will be given.

3.6.1

Automatic Braking

In this paragraph technical aspects about electronic controlled braking will be given.

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Figure 3.8. Example of a conventional braking system.

3.6.1.1

Components of a Braking System

The braking system is the totality of brake environment inside of a vehicle, which is useful to reduce the velocity, to reduce the acceleration, or to bring a vehicle to stop, or hold the vehicle in a standing position. The braking system consists of the following elements: Energy supply environment: The energy supply environment consists of components, which provide the energy, which is necessary for braking, control of the brake, and eventually for to prepare energy for braking. The source for this energy is normally located inside the vehicle, but there is an other possibility, namely to have the energy source located inside of the trailer. The source for brake energy can be the power of muscular strength of the vehicle driver or compressed air or others. Brake activation environment: The brake activation environment includes components of a vehicle brake, which initiate the action of a braking system and control the braking system in this way. This control signal can be transmitted by using mechanical, electrical, or pneumatic or hydraulic connections. It is possible to use additional external energy supply to do that.
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The brake activation environment starts with that component of the braking system on which the control force acts on. The activation of the brake can be done for example: a) b) c) Directly by foot or hand By indirect activation by the vehicle driver By change of the brake pressure or the electrical current in the

connection between vehicle and trailer in case of activating the brake or in case of failure in the braking system d) By mass inertia or weight of the vehicle The end of the brake environment is defined at that point, where the energy for braking will be distributed among other brake components.

Figure 3.9. Example of a brake booster.

Transmission environment: The transmission environment includes components of the braking system, which transports the energy for braking from the brake activation environment to the brake itself. The interfaces are well clear specified. The start point is the activation environment ends and the energy supply environment ends. The end point is specified at these components where the brake forces are generated. The transmission environment can base on e. g. mechanical, hydraulicpneumatic (overpressure or negative pressure) and electrical concepts or combination of these concepts (e. g. hydro-mechanical or hydro-pneumatic).

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Brake: The brake itself is defined as those components, which are able to generate the forces to reduce the movement (velocity) or movement tendency. Examples for brakes are: a) friction brake (based on disks or drums) b) retarder/ decelerator (hydro-dynamical retarder or engine brake)

Figure 3.10. Components of a brake system.

Additional environment inside of a tractor vehicle necessary for vehicle trailer (for tractor vehicles only): This additional environment is necessary to supply the brake of the trailer with energy and control signals. This environment consists of components of the energy supply environment of the tractor vehicle and the coupling head of the supply line (inclusive) and parts of the transmission environment between the tractor vehicle and the coupling head of the brake line (inclusive).

3.6.1.2

Different Technologies of electronic controlled Braking Systems

The general tendency of automotive research/ development is to have all functions of vehicle dynamic under electronic control. So-called brake-by-wire, steer-by-wire or accelerate-by-wire is well known in the scientific automotive world. A vehicle, which includes all these electronically controlled functions, is called X-by-wire vehicle.

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Currently different technologies of electronic controlled braking systems are under discussion. In the following, the main topics of those technologies will be described. For VRU protection the electronic control capability of a braking system is very important. There is no request of one specific braking system technology from a VRU protection point of view.

3.6.1.2.1 Electronic Controlled Brake Booster

There are two basic types of brake booster: vacuum assistant and hydraulically assistant. Currently these systems are mainly in a research stage in the automotive manufacturer industry. Only a few years ago, this sort of system could not have existed - merely because of the rudimentary microprocessors available then. Neither their storage capacity nor their working speed would have been sufficient to cope with the huge amounts of data and extremely short CPU times. But that's no longer a problem thanks to the invention of digital signal processors, there is a real possibility that the autonomous intelligent cruise control unit will go into series production. These kinds of processors, which have not previously been used in cars, are characterised by a particularly high working speed and can evaluate data in split seconds. The engineers are also venturing into new technical territory with automatic brake control. They have developed an electronically controlled brake booster with a solenoid valve that even responds to very gentle braking commands. It is all thanks to this innovation that automatic proximity control has been made possible: through accurately metered brake applications - which are hardly noticed by the driver - the experts can keep the test car constantly at the correct distance and it can also react very quickly to new traffic situations should they arise.

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Electro-hydraulic braking (EHB) systems are designed to allow electronic control of vehicle braking while retaining a reduced hydraulic system. The hydraulic system is able to function as a back up in the event of a failure in the electronic control. The EHB control unit receives inputs from sensors connected to the brake pedal. In normal operation, a backup valve is closed and the controller activates the brakes of the wheel through an electric motor driven hydraulic pump. It is only if the controller goes into a fail safe mode that the backup valve is opened allowing the brakes to be controlled via a conventional hydraulic circuit. With EHB we are advancing the technical potential of hydraulic brake systems: the hydraulic link between the brake pedal and the wheel brake is replaced by a by-wiretransmission which offers considerable advantages.

Figure 3.11. Electro-hydraulically Brake (EHB).

Compared to the operation of conventional braking systems, by depressing the brake pedal with the Electro-Hydraulic Brake System (EHB) the appropriate command is transmitted electronically to the electronic controller of the hydraulic unit. This determines the optimum braking pressure and actuates the brake callipers hydraulically.

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EHB brake system


Brake operating
Pedal simulator -

Braking function
brake booster brake shifting ABS, ASR, VDC ECU C A N CAN

Car steering systems Signal interface (Gateway)

Hydraulic unit
Separating valves

Intelligent interface Wheel modulatin valves high presure accumulator

Hydraulic energy supplay system

front wheels

rear wheels

Figure 3.12. Block diagram of an electro-hydraulic braking system [BOS02].

Components of the EHB: Electronic control unit Electronic pedal module with pedal feel simulator and sensors for monitoring driver settings

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Figure 3.13. Comparison between a conventional brake system and an electrohydraulic brake system (EHB).

The potential advantages of the EHB system include mainly comfort braking and packaging, but there are some others: Simplified calibration process as brake response and pedal feel can be adjusted in software Improved connectability with other emerging systems like Adaptive Cruise Control. Flexible installation due to the absence of the large vacuum servo.

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The Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) can be active without feedback from the pedal. Optimized braking and stability behaviour Optimized pedal feel No pedal vibration during ABS mode Improved crash worthiness Improved packaging, less installation effort A high level of technology re-use for hydraulic system suppliers, while incrementally building on development of advanced electronic systems like anti-blocking system (ABS), electronic stability program (ESP), Brake Assistant, adaptive cruise control (ACC) etc.

3.6.1.2.3 Electro-Mechanical Brake (EMB)

Electro-Mechanical Braking Systems (EMB), also referred to by some as Brake by Wire, takes the place of conventional hydraulic braking systems with a completely 'dry' electrical component system by replacing conventional actuators with electric motor driven units. This move to electronic control helps to eliminate many of the manufacturing, maintenance, and environmental concerns associated with hydraulic systems. This new technology is also currently in a research stage. No serial products are available on the market at this moment. This braking system can only operate in 42 V vehicle network. Because there is no mechanical or hydraulic back-up system, reliability is critical and the system must be fault tolerant. The implementation of EMB, therefore, requires features such as a dependable power supply fault tolerant communications protocols (i.e., TTCAN and FlexRay) and some level of hardware redundancy. As in Electro-Hydraulic Braking (EHB), EMB is designed to improve connectivity with other vehicle systems, thus enabling simpler integration of higher level functions such as traction control and vehicle stability control. This integration may vary from embedding the function within the EMB system, as in ABS, to interfacing to these additional systems using communication links.

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Another advantage of both EHB and EMB systems is the elimination of the large vacuum booster found in conventional systems. Along with reducing the dilemma of working with increasingly tight space in the engine bay, this elimination helps simplify production of right and left-hand drive vehicle variants. An increase in flexibility for the placement of components is also provided by EMB systems over those of EHB with the total elimination of the hydraulic system. EMB systems represent a complete change in requirements from previous hydraulic and Electro-Hydraulic Braking systems. The EMB processing components must be networked using high reliability bus protocols ensuring comprehensive fault tolerance as a major aspect of system design. The use of electric brake actuators means additional requirements including motor control operation within a 42 V power system as well as high temperature and high density to the electronic components. In addition to supporting existing communications standards such as CAN and K-line, EMB systems require the implementation of deterministic time-triggered communications like those available with FlexRay to assist in providing the required system fault tolerance. The EMB nodes may not need to be individually fault tolerant but help to provide failsafe operation and rely on a high level of fault detection by the electronic components. These new system requirements must be met using high-end components at very competitive prices in order to replace established, cost effective technology, while maintaining strict adherence to the automotive qualification. Delivering the large current requirements to stop a large SUV may cause limited adoption at first. The first implementation will be on small car platforms.

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Figure 3.14. Electro-mechanical brake (EMB).

With the EMB we are getting involved in pure brake-by-wire technology, which dispenses with brake fluids and hydraulic lines entirely. The braking force is generated directly at each wheel by high performance electric motors, they are controlled by an ECU and actuated by signals from an electronic pedal module. The EMB includes all brake and stability functions such as ABS, EBD, TCS, ESP, BA and ACC. It is virtually noiseless, even in ABS mode. Components of the EMB Four wheel brake modules Electronic controller Electronic pedal module with pedal feel simulator and sensors for monitoring driver settings

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Figure 3.15. Comparison between conventional brake system and electromechanical brake system (EMB).

The potential benefits of the EMB systems include: A reduction in system weight resulting in improved vehicle performance and economy Simpler and faster assembly of the system into the host vehicle Pollutant source reduction through elimination of corrosive and toxic hydraulic fluids

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Increased flexibility of placement due to removal of vacuum servo and hydraulic system Reduced maintenance requirements Implementation of features such as 'hill hold' Freedom of design due to removal of mechanical components Shorter stopping distances and optimized stability More comfort and safety due to adjustable pedals No pedal vibration in ABS mode Virtually silent Environmentally friendly no brake fluid Improved crash worthiness Space saving, using less parts Simple assembly Capable of realizing all required braking and stability functions such as ABS, ESP, BA, ACC etc. Can be easily networked with future traffic management systems. Additional functions such as an electric parking brake can be integrated easily.

3.6.1.3

Effect of different kinds of braking

In Figure 3.16 different types of braking are shown. The standard car driver braking behaviour will be compared with experienced drivers and braking with brakeassistant. It is directly to recognize that the normal driver needs support in braking situations.

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Decelerations with different brake-systems

Brake-Assistant Experienced driver Standard driver

0,4

0,6

Time [s] Impact with pedestrian

Start of braking, v0 = 50 km/h

Standard driver

vK= 40 km/h

Experienced driver

vK= 35 km/h

Brake-Assistant

vK= 25 km/h

Figure 3.16. Simulated effects of different kind of braking.

3.6.2

Airbags

Airbags are restraints systems. They participate to passive safety (crash-active systems), that is to say their functions are to limit crash consequences. Airbags are automatic crash protection systems. At the moment their purpose is to restrain automobile driver and passengers during a crash. This reliable technology installed in automobiles in the late 1980's is now expected to be used also for exterior airbags for pedestrian protection.

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Inside airbags and exterior airbags are different in many parameters. For example, pressure conditions and environment conditions for the bag (e. g. weather) are totally different. Therefore exterior airbags require special technologies. In this section three different kind of airbags will be described, namely occupant airbags, exterior airbags and windshield airbags. The following paragraph 3.6.2.1 will give first some information about the different components in an occupant airbag system, as the firing system is expected to be the same for exterior airbag.'

3.6.2.1

Occupant Airbag

It is obvious, that occupant airbags are not VRU protection systems. Nevertheless, there is one reason because this is described in this document. Namely, occupant airbags are serial products for many years, the technology is well known, many research activities were done in this field and therefore the technology of occupant airbags can be a good base to understand exterior airbags for VRU protection. Inside airbags and exterior airbags are different in many parameters. For example, pressure conditions and environment conditions for the bag (e. g. weather) are totally different. Therefore exterior airbags require special technologies. Airbags are restraints systems. They participate to passive safety, that is to say their functions are to limit crash consequences for the automotive occupants. Airbags are automatic crash protection systems; their purpose is to restrain automobile driver and passengers during a crash, so the inflation has to be quick. More precisely, airbags are designed to keep the occupant's head, neck and chest from hitting the steering wheel, the dashboard or the interior packaging. Also, airbags met out accelerations to the occupant and minimize the stress on the occupant by distributing the restraint forces over as much as possible area. The airbags concept appeared in the early' 1970s, but it's only in the late 1980s that they were installed in automobiles.

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Figure 3.17. Airbag deployment.

Basically, airbag systems consist of 3 main components: an air bag module, crash sensor(s) and a diagnostic unit. The air bag module is composed of an inflator, an initiator and an air bag itself. These components will be described in detail in the following sections.

3.6.2.1.1 Inflator

Because of its function, the airbag has to be filled quickly. The first idea for early airbag developers was to use high-pressure air stored in a tank and to release it with a quick action valve. An other solution is to use a solid propellant which combustion produces inflation gas. Sodium aside was the main ingredient of gas generator, because of its chemical reaction characteristics which are suitable for inflating air bags (quantity of gas generated), and the primary combustion product is harmless nitrogen gas. A mixed solution is hybrid inflators, which use a combination of compressed gas and solid fuel.

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Figure 3.18. Passenger airbag with hybrid inflator (http://www.autoliv.com/appl_alv/Autoliv.nsf/pages/library_illustrations)

Figure 3.19. Airbag inflation device with solid propellant (http://www.howstuffworks.com/airbag1.htm)

3.6.2.1.2 Bag

One of the first bag or cushion was in neoprene-coated nylon. The idea was to reduce the porosity of the bag, but in fact it was observed that the bag reacted like a spring, that is to say return to the occupant the energy stored during the first contact. The consequence was a rebound of the occupant into the seat back and head
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restraint. As a consequence, technical solutions were found to increase the dissipation of energy: porosity of the bag and vents. Vent holes are placed on the underside to assure the correct soft landing, away from the occupants and other sources of blockage. The bag is also folded into the steering wheel, the dashboard, the seat or the door. The folding is precise to make it unfold fast and safely.

Figure 3.20. Airbag Vents.

Delphi tries to use a variable vent to modulate the protection. In fact, the idea is to divert a part of the gas used to inflate the bag, into the cockpit of the vehicle. The state of the vent will be controlled by a pyrotechnic device.

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Figure 3.21. Piloted vents (Delphi)

3.6.2.1.3 Crash sensors

The sensing time is the duration between the crash (or the contact) and the order of deployment. To detect the crash and to determine if the airbags have to be inflated or not, crash sensors are used. Crash sensors were at the beginning electromechanical device. The general principle is a mass retained in a rest position by a magnet and, when the acceleration is strong, the mass can break free of the magnet and move to realize an electrical contact. Designers tried to place a sensor in the bumper, but it wasn't a safe location. Those sensors have to be reliable, to generate an inflation when crash severity is high. Two kind of dysfunction could appear: inadvertent deployment or failed deployment. To decrease inadvertent deployment, a group of sensors "secondary or saving" is used. They're wired in series with a primary or discriminating group of sensors. The saving group is defined to trigger at lower crash severity than the discriminating group in order to prevent failures to deploy.

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To Trigg at lower crash severities

airbag

Discriminating sensor

Safing sensor

Figure 3.22. Configuration of discriminating and saving sensors (adapted from Struble)

Figure 3.23. Crash sensor (http://www.lemurzone.com/airbag/crash.htm)

Nowadays, sensors electro-mechanical described above, have not disappeared, they are always used to limit inadvertent deployment. But, main sensors are accelerometers placed on an electronic control unit; they provide continuous
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information concerning acceleration and deceleration of the vehicle. Software compares this information to crash data stored in a memory. Crash data are defined during various crash tests of the vehicle.

3.6.2.2

Exterior Airbag

Airbags are restraints systems. They participate to passive safety, that is to say their functions are to limit crash consequences. Airbags are crash-active protection systems. At the moment their purpose is to restrain automobile driver and passengers during a crash. This paragraph will give first some information about the different components in an occupant airbag system, as the firing system. When a collision is unavoidable, the exterior airbag has to build an air cushion between the colliding object and the vehicle. To form an airbag system there has to be the three major components detection subsystem, control, deployment subsystem, and airbag subsystem. Figure 3.24 shows the configuration scheme of an exterior airbag system.

Figure 3.24. Configuration of proactive exterior airbag systems

All major components have to be adapted to specific needs and must interact with the others. This feature can be supported by data exchange systems or vehicle bus systems as CAN or LIN. The external airbags stiffness must be adapted to the car stiffness and the bumper stiffness. Otherwise, it would not absorb a proper amount of crash energy.

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In comparison to internal airbags, all used material has to consider hard conditions like extreme temperatures, moisture and mechanical stress by particles hitting the airbags peripherals. Inside airbags and exterior airbags are totally different in terms of pressure conditions. In addition to this bags for outside and inside use are totally different in terms of environment conditions like weather and others. Therefore exterior airbags require special technologies. It is not yet quite clear which kind of airbag is the best for use as an exterior one. There are two alternatives. The exhausted system, like it is used in interior airbag systems, and the closed system.

Figure 3.25. Closed end exhausted airbag system

The exhausted system will reach energy dissipation by creating a high speed air flow through a series of valves. The advantage of this system lies in the temporarily built cushion (see Figure 3.25). The detection system has to work proactive and its reliability is essential for the whole airbag system. To achieve an optimal detection result and to disable specific

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weaknesses as well as to achieve a proper redundancy level the system should use active sensors which emit and receive energy like radar and passive vision based sensors like cameras at the same time. Active sensors enable to detect relative speed and distance to a preceding object in a single step. What these sensors cannot do, is to identify an object. For this purpose passive sensors are needed which in contrast to active sensors tend to have difficulties with poor weather conditions. Consequently, from a technical point of view today it is not possible to deploy airbags using these sensors.

3.6.2.3

Windshield airbag

In many accidents pedestrians serious injuries do not result from the collision with the cars front end, but from the impact on the windshield area. In comparison to metal parts of the car, the windshield gives way when an object collides with it. As a result, most serious injuries do not result from the contact with the windshield but on the a-pillar or the windshield frame. Taking this in account its thought about an exterior airbag that covers the entire windshield frame (see Figure 3.26).

Figure 3.26. Windshield airbag

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In addition to the chapter 3.6.2.2 exterior airbag it must be thought about the place the windshield airbag could be installed. One possibility could be to install several airbags at or in the windshields frame. This would have the advantage of small quickly inflated airbags. On the other hand this would lead to a broader frame and could result in deteriorated drivers view. For this subject see chapter 3.6.5 enhancement of drivers view. Another possibility could be the storage of a single airbag either in a bay between the hood and the windshield or under the rear part of the hood. The first suggestion would result in a shortened hatch and so restrict access to the engine. The second one should be a more consequent way. Unfortunately this system has a high risk in case of false alarms for the driver, because the windshield airbag reduces the view of the driver dramatically. To solve this problem a 100% fault safe sensors would be required. Such sensors are not available today. It has to be mentioned that this solution is linked with great construction effort, but in combination with bumper airbag and the hood lifting system it could be a reasonable pedestrian security package. Especially the hood lifting would enable to store the airbag under the hatch without additional constructive effort. For further information about exterior airbag systems see chapter 3.6.2.2 exterior airbag.

3.6.3

Hood lifting system

A special protection system has been developed to decrease the severity of head-tobonnet impacts. The system is activated at the impact by a sensor located in the bumper, at speeds above 20 km/h. The sensor is able to discriminate objects with a different geometry (another car versus a leg), as well as with a different stiffness (a pole versus a leg). Two actuators lift the rear part of the bonnet approximately 100 mm. The actuators were tuned to have lifted the bonnet at 60 70 milliseconds

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after the leg-to-bumper impact, but before the head impact. The actuators/ lifting elements were also tuned to stay up during the upper torso impact, but still be energy absorbing to keep the head loading down if the head impact is on top of the lifting elements. It is obvious, that only the reversible variant can be of interest due to false alarms by the current sensors. Modern cars have very stiff parts underneath the bonnet with gaps even less than 20 mm. Therefore, the deformation distance is too small to allow for the necessary energy absorption.

Figure 3.27. Intrusion measurement on an adult dummy head.

The hood lifting system is a possibility to increase the space between engine and hood, if this is necessary because of the package. To quantify the load on the head the HIC (Head Injury Criterion) value was introduced. HIC is an internationally accepted, acceleration-based measurement for the violence against the head in a crash. HIC-values under 1000 imply that the risk for life-threatening head injuries is 15 percent or less. But the curve rises sharply; at 2000 HIC the risk is almost 90 percent.
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The HIC values depend not only on the deflection but also on many other factors, e. g. contour, inertia, stiffness and stability. Assuming the space between hood and engine is large enough (in case of deflected hood or not deflected hood) an undershooting of the requested HIC of 1000 can not be guaranteed today. Rather due to a lot of vehicle technical requirements hard parts on the hood (e. g. hinges, locks) are inescapably. At these hard locations the HIC of 1000 can not be achieved. Additional needs coming from requirements like resistance against hailstorm and denting increase the difficulties. The very important tests from Glser and Zellmer (see Figure 3.28) were done in ideal conditions with enough free space. They dont take into account the vehicle technical boundary conditions like hinges and locks.

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Figure 3.28. Bonnet head form tests performed at BASt in Germany, 40 km/h impact speed (Zellmer and Glaser, 1994)

The pedestrian protection system consists of two parts. The first part of the protection system comprises two actuators for the lifting of the rear part of the bonnet (refer section 3.6.3.1 and section 3.6.3.2). This creates a distance between the bonnet and the stiff parts underneath the bonnet.

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SAVE-U 3.6.3.1 Hood lifting by bellows

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The protection system, an active bonnet, comprises two lifting elements, which lifts the rear corners of the bonnet (refer Figure 3.29). The lifting elements consist of compressed metal bellows, which are filled with gas from micro gas generators at the event of an impact. The benefits with the design are several. 1. The design does not need any sealing to keep the gas from leaking. The only opening in the bellow is where the gas generator is attached. Therefore, it is easy to keep the pressure up a long time in the bellow. This is important since there can be large variations for when the head impacts occur, depending on the size of the person and the impact speed. 2. The bellow is insensitive to the angle of the impact. (Some lifting devices can absorb energy only if they get the impact at a perfect angle.) 3. The dimensions of the actuator can be made small. The height of the device can be less than the lifting distance, which is not possible for a lifting device based on a piston.

Figure 3.29. Bonnet with protection system in activated (lifted) position.

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection Hood lifting by pneumatic muscles

An active hood can also be lifted up with a pneumatic muscle. An example is depicted in Figure 3.30. This device can be contracted by the influence of compressed air. The pneumatic muscle is composed of a membrane of contraction and adapted ends of connection. The membrane of contraction consists of a rubber pipe tight with the air under pressure, surrounded by an extremely resistant fibre sleeving. These fibres form a grid in rhombus presenting the form of a three-dimensional latticed structure. When an internal pressure is applied, the pipe dilates in the radial direction, generating a force of traction, as well as a movement of contraction of the muscle in the axial direction. The force of traction is with its maximum at the beginning of the contraction and decrease in a quasi linear way up to zero during the race. The pneumatic muscle makes it possible to carry out races being able to go up to 25 % nominal length of the muscle (see Figure 3.31). The pneumatic muscle is an actuator which works exclusively in traction. It cannot transmit efforts of pressure and does not have guidance. Dilation in the radial direction cannot be used for operations of tightening, because the movement of contraction can generate frictions which would damage the muscle.

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Figure 3.30. Example of a pneumatic muscle.

Power [N]
2000

contraction [%]
Figure 3.31. Contraction of a pneumatic muscle for hood lifting.

25%

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To do a derivation for a sensor system, it is necessary to know the reaction time of an active system. The following table depicts the reaction time measurement of some pneumatic muscles. In the test measurement, two pneumatic muscles lifted the hood. They lifted the hood to 80 mm and 90 mm on the mounting area (near the windscreen).

muscle A B B B

compressed air 8 bar 8 bar 12 bar 8 bar

lifting high 80mm 80mm 80mm 90mm

muscle reaction time 45ms 35ms 32ms 38ms

Table 3.3. Reaction time (measurement results).

3.6.3.3

Sensor technology for deployment

The task of the sensor is not only to sense the impact very fast, but also to detect whether the impacting object is a person or some other object. The sensor system consists of two different components. A membrane switch-type contact sensor covers the complete width of the bumper. It is placed in the foam just inside the plastic cover of the bumper. Two accelerometers are placed on the rear side of the bumper beam.

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Figure 3.32. Position of sensors in bumper (1: contact sensor, 2: accelerometers).

The contact sensor strip is placed in a groove in the surface of the foam between two layers of a thin plastic material. The contact sensor is subdivided into elements, each 100 mm wide. Each element has a number of switches and gives a signal if one of the switches is closed. This gives information about the width of the impacting object. It is also a first indication to the system that an impact is occurring, a so-called arming of the sensor system. The accelerometers are placed 250 mm on each side of the centreline of the car in order to get a good signal regardless of where the impact is. The acceleration is integrated to a delta velocity. The maximum value during a chosen time period after first contact with the contact sensor is used. This value gives information about the stiffness of the impacting object, whether it is a leg or a pole for example. The sensor proved to be able to discriminate between different impacting objects. Figure 3.33 shows a sort of normalised sensor signals performed at 25 km/h. A clear difference can be seen between the sensor output signals for the different impacting objects. The smallest ratio between the lowest pole value and the highest leg value was a factor of 2.6. The tests at other impact speeds showed the same pattern. In the 20 km/h and 30 km/h tests, the lowest ratio was 1.8. The line separating the highest leg values from the lowest pole values could therefore also be drawn for the 20 km/h and 30 km/h test conditions. This line is however velocity dependent. At 20 km/h it is at a lower level and at 30 km/h at a higher level than at 25 km/h. At 30 km/h the bumper beam structure started to yield in some tests. Also in two 25 km/h tests permanent deformation of the bumper beam occurred. In those tests

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the sensor output was much greater than in the tests, in which the bumper beam remained intact. Therefore, the ratio pole to leg form signals were much greater than 2, ranging from 4 up to 18.

Figure 3.33. Sensor tests at 25 km/h

In all the tests with the active bonnet (refer Figure 3.34), the HIC value was below the threshold level of 1000. The highest active bonnet HIC value was 778, compared to the standard bonnet values ranging from 877 to 7056. The reduction in HIC values ranged from 18 to 90 %, where the highest values decreased the most. Also the test performed on top of the lifting point resulted in a HIC value below 1000 (774).

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Figure 3.34. Head-impact results at 40 km/h (25 mph) using the proposed European test limit with a standard hood and with an active hood from Autoliv.

Point Standard Above suspension 16497

HIC Active 1213

Reduction -92%

Table 3.4. Results from head form tests at 50 km/h, comparing the active bonnet with the standard bonnet.

3.6.3.4

Time flow of hood deployment

Figure 3.35 shows a crash test with a pedestrian dummy and a complete car front with the protection system installed. The bonnet lifting devices are activated at approximately 30 ms after the impact and the bonnet is fully raised at 70 ms. This

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test was run at 40 km/h. A prior test was run at 30 km/h. In both tests, the bonnet stayed up until the head impacted the bonnet.

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Figure 3.35. Crash test in 40 km/h with a pedestrian dummy and an active bonnet.

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The idea of constructing active bumper systems is not really new, but as crash-active ones. They only make sense if they deploy before a collision and a collision especially with pedestrians is difficult to predict. Actual development is only in starting position. In the lack of realised solutions this article will show a collection of inventions and aspects concerning the development of active bumpers. The main concept of protecting pedestrians in accidents with cars is to avoid hazardous contact between the pedestrian and the car. This includes the modification of fall trajectories in order to prevent the heads impact on a hard surface. There are several ways of reducing the effect of a pedestrians impact on a cars front end. Three of them will be described in the following: 1. The first way is to soften the impact by using exterior airbag systems. This topic will not be dealt with in this paragraph. 2. The second way is to increase the absorption distance. In this case the total front-end section is deployed and is moved into the front direction. 3. The third way of protection aims to deviate the contact of car and the legs of a pedestrian into a vertical direction and to limit the knee flexion. This can be done by deployment of only a low part of the front-end section.

Figure 3.36. Example of an active bumper system [6]

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When the front-end shape of the car is adapted to enhance the impact position of pedestrians it must be considered that the fall of small people is different of the one followed by tall people.

P3 Dummy (3-year old child), the car front-end optimised for EEVC-Tests

HII Dummy (50%-male), the car front-end optimised for EEVC-Tests Figure 3.37. Impact of a 3-year old child (P3) and 50%-male dummy (HII) on a hood [WEB00]

For both the second and third way of protection there are two solutions to deploy a protection mechanism. The first possibility is an irreversible deployment with an explosive charge comparable to airbag systems. The second possibility is a reversible deployment system. This could be a electrohydraulically driven system.

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SAVE-U 3.6.4.1

D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection Crash active and non crash active bumper systems

Active bumper systems can be divided into crash active systems and non crash active ones. Like it is mentioned above the main problem in the development of crash active protection systems was that sensor technology and computer technology was not able to deal with the problems of pedestrian recognition. Today the point where it is possible to do first steps into the direction of crash active pedestrian protection systems seems to be reached. In spite of this all crash detection units share the problem of reliable detection. The biggest difficulties lie in the boundary region of a possible crash and an avoidable crash which is the most interesting region for pedestrian protection. As long as recognition systems are not able to work reliably in this region a temporary solution could be to use active bumper systems only in situations of heavy collision. Due to the better predictability of the behaviour of these objects this would mean to use active bumpers when two vehicles collide or a vehicle tends to run into a stationary object. Anyway a criterion for the moment of deployment is obstacles and cars momentary speed. The drivers reaction time influences the deployment too. This means with increasing speed the recognition moment is shifted to an earlier point of time before the collision. Todays way out of the danger of false deployment could be the development of non crash-active pedestrian protection systems, because these can renounce at obstacle recognition systems. Modern vehicle networks like CAN and LIN can provide the bumpers control unit with needed information about the car behaviour. Especially the vehicle speed is essential for the momentary adjustment of the bumper. In adaptation to the speed the bumper can move into a position that is suitable to prevent a pedestrians head to impact on hard vehicle parts like the A-pillars or to enhance the car deformation zone. The set-up of a real bumper will have to be found in simulations and try-outs.

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SAVE-U 3.6.4.2 Possible Concepts

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Active bumpers need a device that drives them to their extended position. The following paragraphs will show various possibilities how actuating mechanisms can be realised.

3.6.4.2.1

Pneumatic drive

This protection system is similar to exterior airbag systems and shows off similar difficulties. In contrast to a usual airbag this system has a solid sliding casing around the airbag. In comparison to an airbag without a case it has the advantage of a defined shape what could be used to produce a well defined collision process. In reverse it has the disadvantages of a harder surface and the same difficulties in recognising dangerous situations like any exterior airbag system. On the one hand the reaction time of recognition systems is extremely short, because peoples behaviour is difficult to foresee for more than a fraction of a second. On the other hand false deployment has to be avoided by all means. With view on quick bumpers movement the big advantage of pneumatically driven system is that the moving part of the bumper does not have to be too solid, which means not too heavy, because the inflated cushion has a bearing function. An inflatable bumper is depicted in Figure 3.38 as an example for realisation. Gas generator This unit would contain an envelope with a gas generator that inflates the envelope. Because of the opportunity of producing gas continually this concept is well suitable for non crash active systems. Adaptive to the cars momentary speed the envelope could be inflated or deflated which would result in an optimised front-end contour.

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Figure 3.38. Cross section of inflatable bumper [6]. Legend: 1: vehicles contour, 2: support, 3: guiding, 4: airbag, 5: gas generator, 6: pressure measuring instrument.

For crash active systems the amount of gas that is available in a fraction of a second is probably too small. Air reservoir Using an air reservoir that is inflated at engine start could eliminate the deficit of limited amounts of gas. This is comparable to pneumatic brake boosters and pneumatic suspension. Pyrotechnical, displacement principle Pyrotechnical charges can be used as expendable gas generators. In comparison to gas generators they can produce much gas in a short time. Concerning the active bumpers function as well as the recognition system this concept would lead to a protection system that is really similar to an exterior airbag system. Due to the nonreversible operation or the gas source this system can only be used in crash-active systems. In interest of reliable inflation a number of small airbags should be used instead of one big bag. An alternative could be the use of one big bag with more then one pyrotechnical charge. The Figure 3.39 shows front and rear airbags. The associated covers are removed in order to show the placement of the bags.

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Figure 3.39. Inflatable units at front and rear end [6]. Legend: 2: bumpers, 4: airbags.

The kind of active bumper shown below uses pyrotechnical charges to generate gas that drives pneumatic cylinders. Due to the irreversibility of the charges activation this concept is only suitable for crash-active protection systems. Figure 3.40 shows an example for a complete deployment system including sensors and control units.

Figure 3.40. Scheme of scanning and deployed active bumper system [7]. Legend: 1: radar receiver, 2: wire, 3: radar transmitter, 4: computer, 5: speed sensor, 6: obstacle,7: frame, 9: pyrotechnical mechanism, 10: deformation mechanism.

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Taking into account that the entire bumper is moved involves light weight design of the moving parts in order to guarantee short reaction times. Pyrotechnical, reaction propulsion An alternative pyrotechnical drive uses the reaction propulsion (refer Figure 3.41). The advantage of this concept is that if once activated it is possible to realise well defined working duration without any electronic control. It has to be made sure that the hot exhaust gas does not injure someone and does not burn parts of the car.

Figure 3.41. Reaction propulsion drive for active bumpers [4]. Legend: 7: support , 9: cartridge, 11: charge, 13: rod, 15: support, 17: nozzle, 19: stroke.

3.6.4.2.2

Hydraulic drive

The hydraulic drive is, if designed consistently, suitable for crash-active and for non crash active protection systems as well. In Figure 3.42 the crash bar is connected to the cars body. If the superior system sends the signal to deploy the crash bar two cams that hold the rod in rear position are unlocked. As soon as the rod is released it displaces the crash bar to the front position. This kind of hydraulic driven active bumper works digitally, that means it has only two rest positions.

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Figure 3.42. Hydraulic active bumper [9]

The system described above is meant to be used crash-active. Like the inflatable bumper it could also be used in a continuously working unit. In this case it would need some technical changes. The cams could be omitted and the hydraulic ram must enable linear motion. To enhance the working speed of the rods the hydraulic systems needs high oil pressure. As the hydraulic rods are necessarily placed in the car deformation zone damage can not be ruled out. This means that it has to be compromised between quick rod extension and people safety in the case of rod damage.

3.6.4.2.3

Electro hydraulic drive

In order to improve reaction time and to reduce the car hydraulic components, hydraulic control components of the bumper system can be replaced by electronic component. The main result of this measure is a remarkable weight reduction. Figure 3.43 shows a rod with locked rams. These rams could be controlled electromagnetically. The speed of the release can be adjusted by the transmission ratio of the crank train.

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Figure 3.43. Electrical release unit of a hydraulic rod [9]. Legend: 16: housing, 20: jack, 22: body, 24: stem, 30: package, 56: blocking, 57: broach, 58: block, 60: flange, 62: guiding, 63: annular reinforcement, 66: wheel, 68: rod, 70: rod, 74: positioning stop, 76: complementary stop.

3.6.4.2.4

Mechatronical drive

In this concept the hydraulic components shown in the previous paragraph have to be replaced by electromechanical and electromagnetic ones. The mechatronical bumper is a prospect for the at least medium-term future, but as soon as sufficient power supply is available in cars, the development could go on. Pneumatic or hydraulic lines leakages and environmental contamination by discharged hydraulic fluid would be a part of the past. Dysfunction of electric components should be easier to detect then small leaks in pneumatic and hydraulic lines. Additionally the implementation of redundancy is easier. The precision of positioning in combination with the low wear of contact less positioning systems would still increase the reliability of mechatronical systems. As a consequence, their reliability should be even better than the one given by hydraulic systems. This mechatronical concept seems to be suitable for non-crash-active protection systems. The mode of operation of these bumpers would be comparable to the earlier mentioned continuously working protection systems.
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The suitability for crash-active operation is poor. Although the reaction time of provided actuators is good, it is difficult to realise quick shifting combined with long shift ways.

3.6.4.3

Summary and Prospects

The crash bar and its suspension have to be solid enough to absorb a crashs energy. On the other hand a crash-active system has to be moved as quickly as possible. This means that stress has to be laid on lightweight design. This is valid for the energy absorbing components as well as for the driving mechanisms. There are several suitable concepts for the extension of active bumpers. Due to the opportunities of weight saving and future development potentials the most promising approaches seem to be pneumatic driven systems and mechatronical drives that have still to be developed. The main problem in building active protection systems will remain the ability of foreseeing human behaviour. A pedestrian protection system has to react as soon as a danger occurs. It has to deploy a certain time before a collision, but it must be made sure that it does not deploy if a crash is still avoidable. As a matter of fact todays most effective way of protecting accidents victims from serious harm is to avoid a collision. If this is not possible at all, the best opportunity is to reduce the impact speed. As it will be mentioned in the chapter below the severe of injuries is proportional to the square of the impact speed. In reverse a reduction of speed to the half amount reduces the cars energy to a quarter of the original amount. Without an impact speed reduction all protection systems will not be able to preserve serious injuries. Even if the legs of a pedestrian are protected through the verticalisation of his fall trajectory he still can hit his head when colliding with the windshield or rolling down the cars roof. The basis of all future development has to be the intensified improvement of braking systems.

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SAVE-U 3.6.5 Enhancement of driver's view

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Travelling by car under poor visibility conditions is a dangerous thing. While the volume of traffic is only 20%, the rate of mortal accidents during night hours is about 40% of all. Low beam headlights have a range of 120 m at maximum and have to compromise on good and glaring lighting. To avoid glare hazard there are proposals to light streets with polarized light or UV-light. Due to the weak efficiency those ideas werent brought to realisation. Active and passive systems that detect IR-light seem to be more promising. In the same direction lies the enhancement of todays headlamp technology. If poor sight is not caused by darkness but by rain, snow or dirt that is thrown on the windshield it would be useful to have sensors for automatic wiper control and automatic headlight activation or adjustment. These could be supported by moisture repelling glass surfaces. Coming to constructional features it would be possible to improve the drivers view by increasing the fraction of sight through material on the passenger cell. An example for this is the Volvo Security Concept Car which has frame worked a-posts with Plexiglas filled frames and b-posts that are outlined in a view enhancing way. However, this concept will endanger the occupants in case of rollover. These technologies are useful to guarantee a good view to the traffic situation. Invisibility of obstacles or pedestrians can be reduced by the four techniques described in the following.

3.6.5.1

Technology of rain sensors for automatic windshield wiper control

Most of all rain detectors in the automotive domain are using light emitting diodes (LED) and light sensitive diodes for rain recognition. The rain sensor is located behind the windshield that means inside the vehicle (refer Figure 3.44).

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The transmitter LED (see Figure 3.45) transmits light or infrared radiation. The emitted radiation is directed through the windshield glass. The external surface of the windshield reflects the radiation directly to the receiver diodes due to total reflectance (interface glass air). The intensity of the radiation can be measured.

Figure 3.44. Rain sensor: Localisation of transmitter LED and receiver diode.

In case of a totally dry windshield (no rain) the receiver LED receives approximately the full emitted intensity in fact of the total reflectance. Consequently it is necessary to adjust the angle between radiation direction and the windshield surface to get 100% of reflection. In the other case of rain water drops or a film of water are located on the windshield. Due to the totally different refractive index no total reflectance occurs. The result is that the radiation will be divided into two parts. One part of the radiation goes through the windshield glass into the environment and the other part can be measured by the receiver LED.

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Figure 3.45. Principle of rain detection by reflection measurement techniques on the windshield.

An electronic control unit (see Figure 3.46) calculates the difference between measured radiation in case of rain and the value of radiation in case of dry windshield. That value is the base to control the wipe intervals or the wipe velocity of the windshield wipers depending on the heaviness of the rain. Newly, most of rain sensors are operating in the domain of infrared radiation instead of visible light. This is the reason because the newer rain sensors can be located behind the non-transparent parts of a windshield glass (e. g. behind the black parts of the glass). Therefore, the rain sensor can be integrated invisibly.

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photo diode aperture

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light emitting diode interface

electronic

light conductor windshield raindrop

heating optical connection

Figure 3.46. Detailed structure of a rain sensor.

3.6.5.2

Rain Repellent Windshields

One classic of nanotechnology is the so-called lotus effect, which due to a specific surface structure makes self-cleaning surfaces possible. The water droplets rolling off the water-repellent surface clean this surface by simply carrying away contaminating particles. The model for this technique is the leave of the lotus plant (refer Figure 3.47), which thanks to micro naps and a sophisticated run-off system can effectively use rainwater for cleaning and carries it off together with the dirt. Sanitation, roof tiles, windows and car lacquers can thus be improved. At the same time, cleaning efforts and chemicals can be economized. Lately advances in nano layers have made possible to develop water-repelling windshields. Nano layers of silicon are used to reproduce the lotus effect (http://www.ptb.de/en/blickpunkt/nanowelten/lotus.html).

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Figure 3.47. Even water-based adhesive drips off the lotus leave (photo: Prof. Barthlott, University of Bonn)

This technology is currently in use for the windshield glass in the BMW Z8 Coup [FIR99].

3.6.5.3

Headlights

In the past constructional effort has led to the development of modern halogen, gasdischarge and projection headlights. Modern headlamps have reached a level where the brightness of emitted light has to compromise with the danger of glaring oncoming drivers or pedestrians. For the reason of stability and efficacy enhancement of headlight-bulbs with only one filament and constant light level that is dimmed by flaps are under construction. An old idea that could not be sufficiently realised in former days is the use of headlights that are not fixed to one direction, but light the bending road. An important field is the development of IR-headlights. IR-headlights can light the area in front of a car up to 200 m without glaring the human eye. As many well known headlight systems have strong fractions of IR-light with wavelengths around

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1000 nm, combined with enhanced night vision systems they could lead to distinct advances in driving security.

3.6.5.4

Active Night Vision

Passive night vision systems are described in chapter 3.6.6 night vision. Those systems detect heat that is emitted by creatures or machines and are used for longrange vision. In contrast to passive systems, active night vision emits IR itself and detects the reflected fraction. From this point of view active night vision is similar to radar. IR-light with a wavelength directly above visible light is of especially good use in night vision systems. This IR-light is called Near-IR (NIR). A reason for the good suitability of this IR is the similarity to visible light. Many lamps produce NIR of wavelengths between 780 nm and 1000 nm, many materials have similar characteristics for visible light and NIR and CCD-cameras and CMOS-cameras work with NIR.

Figure 3.48. Active night vision with IR-headlamps (photo: HELLA)

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The brightness of the NIR-picture depends on the distance between car and reflecting object. The nearer an object is the brighter it is on the picture. This means that a traffic sign is presented brighter than a far-off pedestrian. From the pictures intensity the driver cant take any information about the potential danger of an object. Due to this reason active night vision systems are suitable to improve drivers view on short ranges. Because of their more specific picturing passive systems are of better use for long distance sight improvement than active ones. [FRA], [MAZ99], [MIT00].

3.6.6

Night vision

The night vision system increases the range of sight during night driving and counter light on country roads. It uses an infrared camera to detect the heat of pedestrians, bikers, animals and broken down cars. Because the extension of sight with the system is up to five times the normal distance, the driver can identify all objects much earlier, react at an earlier time and avoid an imminent accident. The following chapter describes the passive night vision system that is based on heat emitted by objects mainly. In contrast to this description, active night vision will be discussed in the chapter 3.6.6 entitled enhancement of drivers view.

3.6.6.1

Physical basis

The use of infrared radiation based equipment in order to represent pictures is called thermography. Mostly the kind of presentation is a black and white picture. There are two different possibilities for black and white presentation: white-hot and blackhot. That means, the objects are either white ahead of a black background or black ahead of a white background. In the case of use in darkness, the white-hot effect is better, because the objects appear brighter ahead of the darker background of the environment.

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Figure 3.49. Comparison of direct and IR vision (Valeo)

On mobile use it is desirable to have a large reach of corresponding radiation. Compared with near and middle infrared, distant infrared (also called thermal infrared) has the largest transmission characteristic. Its range of wavelength lies between 5.0 m and 1 mm. Also the wavelength range is ideal, because the maximum of radiation density is at ambient temperatures. Thermal differences in the environment are generated into image signals by assistance of an infrared camera. These signals are finally represented on a virtual display.

3.6.6.2

Current production application

At the moment the night vision system is installed only in a few production cars. It consists of two components: an infrared camera and a virtual display. There are several possibilities to place the camera: behind the front grille, under the rear edge of the hood or behind the windshield. Which position is used depends on the type of car and size of camera.

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Figure 3.50. Infrared camera (Raytheon)

The virtual display which is called Head-Up Display (HUD) is a special screen that is placed in front of the driver. According to the vehicle it can be placed atop the instrument panel, as windshield HUD (see Figure 3.52) or like a sunshade. Compared to other displays it has decisive advantages. First of all the scale of the HUD content is nearly 1:1. This eases the distance estimation to the object. Second, the virtual clearance between image and driver amounts two to three meters. That reduces the work of the eyes and thus the fatigue of eyes and driver. The HUD is easy comprehensible and does not stress the driver.

Figure 3.51. Two examples of head-up displays. Left: IR camera image projected, Right: Navigation data, speed information and object information projected.

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In comparison to these so-called passive infrared systems, where no extra illumination of the scene is necessary, active infrared systems are possible. Active infrared systems need an additional headlamp for illumination of the observation area in front of the vehicle. The following picture shows such an extra-component.

Figure 3.52. IR filter in headlamp (Valeo)

3.6.6.3

Further development and prospects

Market researches give information about improvements for the night vision system. Customers desire for example a bigger image cut-out and a better curve tracking. Corresponding solutions are in process. Car manufacturers see great store by other points. For them aesthetic and economic aspects are as well in front as ergonomic and required space aspects. By the system layout there are conflicts between a wide view angle and a large reach in case of the camera and between the 1:1 presentation and the limitation of required space in case of the HUD. That means a wide view angle reduces the possibilities of detecting objects and lies to problems with required space by the HUD. Because of that these conflicts have to be studied for each vehicle in order to find an optimum for the special types.

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The development of a mirror HUD has the advantage to show several other information of interest (e. g. velocity or info of navigation in only one display). This aspect is of great interest for customers acceptance as well as for reduction of accident risk. The future of this night vision system lies in image processing as well as in fusion with other sensors. At the moment it is not a real safety system but a good driver assistance system that offers a great benefit in subjective safety [BT02].

3.6.7

Driver Warning

A very interesting protection approach is to inform the car driver about the dangerousness of the actual situation. This is called driver warning methods. A big advantage of the warning strategies is that the car driver will be pointed out to the vulnerable road user and can drive manoeuvre himself to avoid the collision. The requirements for the actuators are very low. An example of the general set-up is depicted in the following figure.

Figure 3.53. Example for driver warning system.

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SAVE-U 3.6.7.1 Warning signals

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An emergency signal paradigm is usually one where two components are operating in tandem. The first component consists of a mechanical device that uses sensor logic to determine if and when to trigger a signal [GET95]. It involves proper setting of the sensor decision threshold. If the criterion is set too strictly, false signals will be minimised, but there is the possibility that dangerous situations will go unsignalled. If the criterion is set too leniently, fewer dangerous situations will go unsignalled (missed signals), but the false signal rate will rise. The solution to this dilemma requires designing the physical components of the system to optimise the trade-off between minimised false signals and maximised sensitivity. The second component of an emergency signal response paradigm is the human operator, who is responsible for detecting, evaluating, and responding (or not responding) to the signal that is generated by the sensor-based signalling system. Consideration of the second component is necessarily a more complex process than manipulating the first component, due to the cognitive and perceptual processes of the human operator. Warnings are artefacts [EDW94]. They are representations of the situations to which they refer. Most warnings serve two functions. These are the alerting function, which is somewhat abstract, being emotive, or motivational, or both, and the informing function, which is more explicit. E. g. an auditory warning, contains no information at all beyond the fact that something has gone wrong. Vice versa, e.g. a warning text may contain minimal iconic information, but may contain lots of information. Our knowledge of the situation in which the warning occurs is also relevant [EDW94]. Together the factors which have an alerting function can be seen as the iconic aspects of warning. Such aspects act almost instantaneously and require little conscious information processing. Generally, one of the aims of a warning is to produce a rapid alerting response, which is appropriate to the product or situation.

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The alerting function results from more than just e.g. the signal word, but results from the entire warning-in-context.

3.6.7.2

Criteria of warning effects

"A warning is rated information" [KOP98]. A good warning should include: Element which attracts the attention Reason for the warning Consequences if the warning is not observed Instruction for actions There are different false warnings [KOP98]: Time dependent false warning: too early, too late Logical false warning: no warning in critical situation and vice versa Qualitative false warning: too many, too less, too strong, too weak

3.6.7.3

Categorisation of warning signal failure

Pritchett [PRIT97] investigated the pilot's non-conformance to alerting system. Pilot non-conformance changes the final behaviour of the system, and therefore may reduce actual performance from that anticipated. The pilots perceived need to confirm the alerting systems commands may involve several factors, including: The pilot may be concerned that the alerting system will fail to act as it should. The pilot may feel the alerting system cannot consider relevant information or has different objectives. The pilot may place greater confidence in his own decisions than in the alerting systems. This pilot non-conformance can be associated with following reasons for warning signal failures:

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False signals: In theory, most design and training for emergency signals is based on the assumption that when presented the signal is authentic and thus heeded. However, false signals may result as the product of an over-sensitive sensor system (conservative decision criteria) [GET95]. In many cases, a given signal may be correctly generated based on a threshold violation, but may be invalid or insignificant given the specifics of the operational situation. Such inappropriate signals may create a nuisance that diverts operator attention. Elimination of all false signals is ideal, but attempts to achieve that goal by altering sensor detection decision criteria can lead to overly strict detection systems that fail to signal true emergencies. Instead, it is the humans responsibility to make the appropriate response decision. When the alerting system is designed to prevent catastrophic events in the avionics, variance in the sensor measurements and unpredictability in the system dynamics requires its reasoning to be conservative [PRIT97]. While a conservative design helps ensure prompt, adequate reactions to dangerous situations, it also increases the frequency of false alarms and excessive commands from the alerting system. Although the alerting system is performing to specifications, false alarms may appear to the pilot as failures of the system. Missing signals: Failure of signalling systems may take another form: instead of generating spurious signals, they may fail to inform about legitimate danger. In many of these cases, the problem may be related to the first component of the signalling system: the mechanical sensor [USH94]. If the sensors decision criterion (tolerance level) is set too strictly, then the sensor may.

3.6.7.4

Recommendations

The basic properties of the human "sub-systems", which have to be considered in developing warning systems in vehicles, are [STE2001]. 1. There is considerable human variability in height, reach and strength. Design such that systems are physically big enough for a large male to use yet are still usable for a small female who may have limited strength and reach.

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SAVE-U 2.

D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection Human performance in sustained attention tasks is poor in comparison with machine sensor systems. Warning systems should be designed not to be reliant on the driver maintaining a continuous awareness of the system state or road conditions. People can detect detailed information in a relatively small area in the direction they are looking, the visual area outside of this foveal region is more sensitive to movements and flashing lights and can involuntarily attract the drivers gaze. Average glance duration should be less than 1,2 s. No glances should be longer than 2 seconds. Total task time should be less than 15 seconds.

3.

4.

People have limited colour recognition. Avoid using too many colours in warning systems displays to support good discrimination of information. Preferably, three distinct colours should be used and not more than 10. The need for blue-green or white/yellow discrimination should be avoided.

5.

The vehicle is a relatively noisy environment, and human hearing decays with increasing age, particularly at high frequency. Caution should be adopted in the pitch, frequency and use of auditory warnings. Humans can react quite slowly to warning systems that must provide reasonable time for the human to respond to a signal. Under optimal circumstances, assume one second is required; more realistically provide three seconds or no need to respond in a rapid time frame.

6.

7.

The drivers ability to react to and respond appropriately to warning systems operations will be affected by their fundamental level of driving task capability. The warning systems should not compromise driver safety particularly during periods of high task workload.

8.

Some individuals adopt a level of risk that is personally acceptable and if the situation is perceived to be safer, it has been suggested that they will undertake riskier activities, e.g., faster driving and shorter headways. Design of warning systems should recognise the variation in personally acceptable levels of risk.

9.

10.

Humans have limited short-term memory. Systems should not require the user to remember or recall more than seven items in order to operate an interface or resume operation of the system. Errors will be made by users and should be considered in the system design. Warning systems should be designed to be tolerant of human error.

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SAVE-U 11.

D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection Humans have automatic reactions and expectations when interacting with machines and with the environment. Warning systems should allow for these that controls and displays behave in a manner that meets with expectations. Humans and machines both have strengths and weaknesses. Allocate functions between the human and warning systems to exploit the tasks that each can undertake effectively to optimise overall system performance and enjoyment.

12.

The general conclusions from the comparison of visual and auditory displays for warning messages in vehicles are that short important warnings are basically better presented auditory if any complex information content can be transferred later or visually, the message is repeatable, the signal-to-noise ratio is sufficient and if the annoyance effect can be reduced. Similarity, in the context of vehicles with complex subsystems, high priority should be given to tactile warnings.

3.6.8

Pedestrian warning

It is necessary to clarify the wording at first. Pedestrian warning is a term, which is sometimes misunderstood. Sometimes people talk about pedestrian warning, but what they are had in mind is driver warning. This inaccurateness can be observed in many publications. If the term pedestrian warning is in use in this report, it means that the vulnerable pedestrian located on the road will be warned by a special component installed on the vehicle. Dangerous situations can be differentiated into two most important situations: dangerous situation, where the car has normal speed and a collision with pedestrian has big probability, Alert situation where the car is at low speed, e.g. driving on a parking. There are two kinds of signals to signal a pedestrian an arising danger: acoustic signals, Visual signals.

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Warnings can be differentiated depending on the kind of car control system: prevent, e.g. when moving backwards the car makes a noise, no matter if somebody is behind the car or not, no detection system is needed, Intelligent, e.g. the cars control system recognises something is in its the way.

Acoustic Alert situation Beeping sound informs about a car moving backwards (prevent). Cars, especially electric ones, become increasingly quiet. Loudspeakers are amplifying sound in slow speed passages (prevent) Car announcing Attention, I turn left, Attention, I turn right when moving on parking (prevent or intelligent). If the car recognises something on the way, it uses the signal horn (intelligent). Acoustic signal when starting flasher lights could warn pedestrians. Table 3.5. Possible acoustic reactions to alert and dangerous situations Dangerous situation (only intelligent warning) Signal horn, differentiated volume or special pedestrian horn.

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection Visual Alert situation Dangerous situation (only intelligent warning) Using flash light. Increase brightness or flash rate depending on distance. Special light effects, e.g. with yellow or orange light.

Static or/and flashing light for backwards (prevent, intelligent). Additional flasher lights, visible (prevent).

Table 3.6: Possible visual reactions to alert and dangerous situations

3.6.9

Electronic controlled Seat-Belt Pre-Tensioner

A pre-tensioner is a further device, which participate to passive safety. Its function is to limit slack from the seat-belt when a crash is detected. The slack reduction is benefit for the occupant because the belt load during a crash is reduced. Of course, the ignition of pre-tensioners and airbags is completely linked, because those devices have to be well synchronized to offer an optimized protection. This device helps also to optimize occupant position for effective restraint capabilities of the airbags systems. Of course, seat-belt pre-tensioners are not related to protect vulnerable road users (VRU), but to protect occupants. Actually this actuator neednt to be described in this report. But due to the fact that this technology of these pre-tensioners can be of interest for the car driver in case of automatic braking, this additional section was included. In this case especially the reversible variant (so-called electronic controlled seat-belt pre-tensioner) is of interest. In contrast to the pyrotechnical seat-belt pre-tensioner the electronic controlled variant provides a reversible (reset able) deployment possibility. An example is depicted in Figure 3.54. A reset able pre-tensioning seat-belt retractor will remove slack from the belt and pull the occupant into proper position in the seat. The system will include a motorized retractor. The motor can be controlled e. g. by pulse width modulation (PWM).

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The reset able pre-tensioning seat-belt retractor will be able to help increase seatbelt comfort while also helping to reduce the probability of airbag-inflation-induced injury.

Figure 3.54. Reversible seat-belt pre-tensioner.

There is currently one European car manufacturer only on the market who had decided to integrate reversible seat-belt pre-tensioners into cars. This was done by DaimlerChrysler in the PRE-SAFE system. PRE-SAFE gains advance warning of an impending collision due to unprecedented collusion between the active and passive safety systems. PRE-SAFE is linked up to the anti-lock braking system, Brake Assist and the Electronic Stability Program (ESP), whose sensors identify critical driving manoeuvres and relay appropriate messages to the control units of these standardfitted active safety systems. PRE-SAFE belt tensioners return to their original status if the accident is averted. The precrash protective measures initiated by PRE-SAFE ensure that by the time an accident takes place, the seating position of the occupants has been optimised and the seat belts and airbags can operate more effectively. In other words, PRE-SAFE is not intended as a substitute for the tried-and-trusted restraint systems such as the front airbags, belt tensioners, side bags and window bags but as a complement to them. It does not encroach on their operation and efficiency in any way.

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If the accident is prevented, the advance tensioning of the seat belts is automatically terminated and the occupants can reset the seats and the sunroof to their original positions. This reversible design means that PRE-SAFE is instantly ready to go into action again if required. Emergency braking triggers pre-crash activation of the belt tensioners. If the Brake Assist system on board the S-Class carries out an emergency braking operation, the PRE-SAFE system is triggered too, and takes appropriate precautionary measures:

Figure 3.55. Reversible seat-belt retractor and its force diagram.

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The reversible PRE-SAFE belt tensioners prevent the driver's and front passenger's bodies from moving too far forward during braking. The belt tensioner, driven by a powerful electric motor, can reduce the belt slack within just 120 milliseconds. The engineers have carried out measurements which show that the forward movement of a front passenger who was not expecting sudden emergency braking is reduced by up to 150 millimetres.

3.7

Rules for road constructions to guarantee the visibility and safety of VRU

3.7.1

Problems and solutions

Accidents between motor-vehicles and pedestrians are not only caused by motorvehicles and their drivers, however it is necessary to change the habits in daily street use. It is also important to make changes in town-planning in order to reduce the risk of accidents. The following paragraphs are intended to inspire creativity in this area. Problems and Solutions concerning pedestrian accidents [PRO01] are listed in the following. Problem Accidents caused by young drivers: The rate of 18 to 24 years old in fatal traffic accidents is 22 %. The rate of these persons in population is only 8 %. In comparison with the 25 to 34 years old group is the risk to get killed in fatal traffic accidents tree times higher. In comparison with the 35 to 54 years group is the risk five times higher. This general problem occurs in the area of pedestrian accidents as well. Young drivers have very little driving experience, especially in critical situations. They need more driver-education, for example special accident-prevention-training as offered by the different drivers clubs.

Solution

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection Pedestrians who get out of busses Especially in the vicinity of school buses there should to be a station that is separated from the street, with the possibility to get in and out of the bus without a step.

Problem Solution

Drivers that dont keep 1 m distance from the kerb. Where possible keep 1 m distance between roads and footpaths. Or make a side stripe 1 m away from the kerb like it has to be in Germany (Kammergericht Berlin, AZ 12-U-785/90). Cyclists Cycle paths; Improved technical equipment for cyclists, improved training, especially for children.

Problem Solution

Problem Solution Problem Solution

Stagnation of the sensibility towards pedestrians in road traffic Continual safety instruction. There is a lifetime learning procedure Accidents with Children Better street planning (speed limits, blind corners, safe crossing points, etc.) more regards to the needs of children (refer also chapter 3.7.2).

3.7.2

Safety strategies in urban areas of Europe

In Europe several strategies for increasing safety in urban areas were investigated. One example is the German activity in this area described in [GDV01]. In this study insurance industry, research institutes and the police academy analysed different measures to increase the safety. A special proposal for VRU protection in this reference is the installation of street refuges for pedestrian crossings. Further activities in this area coming from European countries like Austria, Denmark, the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the Netherlands and France are described in the following paragraphs.

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection Installation of an accident scene management in Austria

Approximately a quarter of all accidents occur on places where other accidents had occurred in the time before. So, there are accumulating regions. In Austria the government had decided to collect all the relevant accident data to find out the accumulating regions [ST02]. They had defined a standard procedure to find out and reconstruct these places. To be able to reconstruct the streets on those places with a minimised delay a close co-operation between the official departments was agreed. The urban safety concepts have to be elaborated on the communal level in order to consider the local needs. Under the support of the Austrian Federal Ministry of Traffic an integrated demonstration project at a model community is going to be realised the project should show a potential of possibilities to improve the communal road safety in the future. In Austria a big potential for that seems to be the design of crosstown links because there occur the majority of the traffic problems.

3.7.2.2

Developing of Urban Management and Safety (DUMAS)

The rural safety concepts also include measures for the rearrangement of the design of road space and for traffic calming all over the country. This is the part of the European research project for Developing of Urban Management and Safety (DUMAS) to install the integrated safety management at the cities and the communities. Road and Speed Classification Systems have been developed in Denmark, United Kingdom and the Netherlands as integrated parts of national guidelines for planning and designing of urban roads. A more detailed description can be found in [DUMAS9], [DUMAS12], [DUMAS13]. As an instance of a road and speed classification system, the Danish one is roughly illustrated below. It has two road classes and a number of speed classes. Table 3.7 indicates a few basic and simplified road layout recommendations for each road and speed class.

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Road class

Traffic Road Major roads serving through going traffic and traffic between urban areas.

Local Road Minor road serving only local traffic in e. g. residential areas.

Examples of road characteristic - Motorway, highway. 90-110 km/h - VRU not allowed, - no parking. 60-70 km/h - VRU separated from motor traffic, - VRU crossings only at grade separated or signalised junctions, - parking not allowed on carriageway, - limited access, no speed reducers, - 2-6 lanes, lane width 3,5m - VRU separated from motor traffic, 50 km/h - crossing facilities needed for VRU, - medium access, - no angle or perpendicular parking, - 2-4 lanes, lane width 3.00-3.25m 30-40 km/h - cyclists mixed with motor traffic, - pedestrians separated, - high degree of access, - no angle or perpendicular parking, - 1-2 lanes, lane width 2.75-3.00m 30-40 km/h - Cyclist mixed with motor traffic, - pedestrians separated, - high degree of access, - 1-2 lanes, lane width 2.75-3.00m 10-20 km/h - VRU mixed with motor traffic, - 'shared' areas, - motor traffic must give way, - 1-2 lanes, lane width 2.75m

Speed class

Table 3.7. Simplified example of the Danish road and speed classification system.

3.7.2.3

Efficiency of infrastructural measures for Pedestrian protection in France and the United Kingdom

The French company Orientations and the English research office TMS Consultancy have carried out a study for establish an Efficiency of infrastructural measures for pedestrian protection in France and in United Kingdom in 1998 [ORI98]. This work was organized by ACEA. Orientations and TMS have studied 150 and 196 places,

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respectively, where accidents involving pedestrians had occurred and where steps to improve the road safety for pedestrians had been taken. They have developed criteria relating to the urban environment and the volume of traffic in order to obtain a representative selection of the different kinds of existing situations. Methodology Within the scope of the study the 346 sites (6 area types) were selected where 11 types of infrastructural measures were introduced (see Table 3.8). During the 3 years before and 3 years after the introduction of the measures, the statistics of accidents/ victims/ injuries are collected. The collected data were analysed and checked by statistics from the point of view of reduction of accidents/ victims etc. assigned to the measures. Additionally the calculation of saved social costs (scaled to 1 year) and cost for implementation of the measures was made. The following values were calculated and compared among each other: the reduction of pedestrian victims first year rate of return (FYRR) severity index

Vehicles / Day Pedestrian Presence Measure Traffic management Road markings Street lighting Refuge 30kph zone Horizontal traffic calming Vertical traffic calming Pedestrian crossings Guard rails Packages (horiz./vertical) Traffic signals All Measures

Number of Sites

Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12

< 7000 limited Area Type 1 5 7 1 1 13 8 21 3 2 1 62

< 7000 medium Area Type 2

< 7000 high Area Type 3 6

> 7000 limited Area Type 4 5 6 5 7 13 6 8 4 1 55

> 7000 medium Area Type 5 2 2 12 17 5 20 16 1 15 90

> 7000 high Area Type 6 5

All Areas 21 15 15 20 26 61 45 50 36 17 40 346

7 8 8 12 2 9 46 5 5 1 6 5 28

10 11 14 5 20 65

Table 3.8. Overview of the analysed sites from France and UK allocated to area types and infrastructural measures

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For the analysis of the collected data, the following formulas are implemented: Reduction of victims = victims(after) - victims(before) victims(before)

Severity index =

number of killed & severe injured victims number of accidents

The parameter First Year Rate of Return (FYRR) act as indicator for evaluating of the benefit of the infrastructural measure for the first year after implementation. It is defined to FYRR = saved costs due to the measure costs for implementation of the measure

Example: The FYRR = 150% means the community saves social costs at an amount of 150% of the invested costs for the respective measurement (first year!). For each area type and for each infrastructural measure the reduction of pedestrian victims are calculated (see Table 3.9).

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Vehicles / Day Pedestrian Presence Measure Traffic management Road markings Street lighting Refuge 30kph zone Horizontal traffic calming Vertical traffic calming Pedestrian crossings Guard rails Packages (horiz./vertical) Traffic signals All Measures < 7000 limited Area Type 1 -71% -54% 0% -40% -58% -50% -69% -91% -67% -75% -61% < 7000 medium Area Type 2

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< 7000 high Area Type 3 -38% -44% -32% -17% -70% -100% -24% -44% -52% -20% 0% -39% -52% -40% > 7000 limited Area Type 4 -63% -48% -36% -56% -33% -66% -65% -68% -83% -55% > 7000 medium Area Type 5 -50% -39% -34% -36% -55% -57% -55% -80% -46% -49% > 7000 high Area Type 6 -28%

Drop of Victims

Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12

All Areas -45% -51% -39% -41% -51% -39% -67% -49% -43% -29% -42% -46%

-55% -16% -26% -23% -36% -32%

Table 3.9. Reduction of pedestrian victims of the single area types and due to the single infrastructural measures.

The diagram below show the severity index calculated before and after the implementation of the infrastructural measures for different measures types and for different area types.

Severity Index of Different Types of Measures 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Measure Type 1 Type 2 Type 3 Type 4 Type 5 Type 6 Type 8 Type 9 Type 10 Type 11 Type 12 All

"before"

"after"

Figure 3.56. Severity index of different types of measures.

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Severity Index of Different Area Types


60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Area Type 1 Area Type 2 Area Type 3 Area Type 4 Area Type 5 Area Type 6 All "before" "after"

Figure 3.57. Severity index of different area types.


Vehicles / Day Pedestrian Presence Measure Traffic management Road markings Street lighting Refuge 30kph zone Horizontal traffic calming Vertical traffic calming Pedestrian crossings Guard rails Packages (horiz./vertical) Traffic signals All Measures < 7000 limited Area Type 1 37% 131% 628% 1188% 97% 364% 163% 994% 21% 19% 183% < 7000 medium Area Type 2 < 7000 high Area Type 3 -13% 793% 62% 33% 50% 216% 154% 99% -8% 56% 59% 288% 177% 24% > 7000 limited Area Type 4 -7% 98% 35% 1085% 2% 127% 162% 2035% 420% 220% > 7000 medium Area Type 5 534% 88% 90% 65% 34% 208% 920% 11% 935% 187% > 7000 high Area Type 6 101%

FYRR

Type 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12

All Areas 4% 124% 261% 318% 73% 94% 96% 249% 796% 43% 433% 145%

106% 147% -75% 15% 216% 106%

Table 3.10. Results of the FYRR-calculation of the single area types and of to the single infrastructural measures

Results: The introduction of infrastructural measures results in: Reduction of pedestrian accidents/ victims by 46% (killed: 63%, injured: severe 34%, slightly 34%) Reduction of non pedestrian accidents by 30%

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Reduction of all accidents by 37% Drop of the severity index from 32% to 26% Savings of social costs of 200 Million FYRR of 145% for all measures in all areas FYRR of single areas and measure vary, FYRR is linked to the suitability of the measure to the local characteristics of the site Guard rails, refuges, street lighting and pedestrian crossings seem to be the most profitable measures, FYRR over 250%, varies according to area type Whatever their nature, and whatever the area type, studied infrastructural measures are reducing the number of accidents and the number of victims. The amount of reduction, and in particular the Rate of Return, varies, and seems to be closely linked to the suitability of the measure to the local characteristics of the treated sites, and not only to simple criteria of vehicle and pedestrian traffic volume. Guardrails, refuges, street lighting and pedestrian crossings seem to be the most profitable measures in terms of economic return, with a rate of return over 250% the year following the works, but their efficiency varies according to the area type.

3.7.3

Examples

In this paragraph, some examples are given to understand the problematic of the influence of the infrastructure. The examples are illustrated by a lot of pictures to get an eidetic impression.

3.7.3.1

Tunnel and Subways

In conformity with the German DIN standard 67524 Part 1 and 2 this is one of the examples on how it is possible to make streets safer in simple ways. It could be helpful if different countries shared their experiences to develop international safety standards for tunnels and subways.

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The following diagram (Figure 3.58) shows how light intensity can be gradually reduced at the entrance of a tunnel in order to minimize the feeling of driving into a black hole (www.strassenbeleuchtung.de/technik/tunnel.htm).

A = Approach B = Insight area C = Sight adjustment area D = Inside area E = Exit area Figure 3.58. Siteco lighting engineering.

The following pictures illustrate the problematic of invisible vulnerable road users in tunnel environments. In this example it is shown that VRUs can be overlooked by the driver at the exit of a tunnel. A solution for this problem could be to increase the diameter of the tunnel in section E (exit area).

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VRU

Figure 3.59. Invisibility of VRU at the tunnel exit

VRU not visible

Figure 3.60. Tunnel exit - View from inside the car

In addition to this there are some requirements from the VRU protection point of view for tunnel constructions: If the diameter of the tunnel construction is increased at the entry points then the visibility of VRUs in this area is increased as well.

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Increasing the tunnel diameter or graduation of illumination at the entry points could increase the chance for the eyes to adapt to the changed light intensity.

3.7.3.2

Invisibility of VRU in case of parked cars

Parking areas are also potential locations for dangerous situations. As illustrated in the following pictures the visibility of crossing pedestrians (e. g. children) is dramatically reduced. To avoid these critical situations a simple proposal is to increase the distance between parking area and driving lane (see Figure 3.61 and Figure 3.62).

VRU

Figure 3.61. Cars blocking sight on pedestrian

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VRU nearly not visible

Figure 3.62. View from inside the car

3.7.3.3

Single-side illuminated road

Pedestrians on the unlighted side of the road are difficult to see (refer Figure 3.63). This situation is still worsened by the need of eye adaptation.

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Dark regions Well illuminated region

Figure 3.63. Single-side illuminated road

3.7.3.4

School problematic

As everybody knows, the way to school sometimes is a dangerous way. Especially in front of the school building and if the school is next to a strongly frequented street dangerous situations can occur. The town planning departments have to look for a way to make streets safer.

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Figure 3.64. Children in front of a school building, far-off pedestrian crossing

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4.

Identification of system concepts for VRU protection on vehicles

4.1

Success of pedestrian protection in the EU in recent years

The European Community has had impressive success in achieving the highest pedestrian protection level on the globe. In the years 1980 to 2000, the fatality rate per million inhabitants in Europe decreased by 65 % from 40 to 14 [DEK02]. The target set by the EU Commission in 1999 was to reduce pedestrian fatalities by 30% and severe injuries by 17% by 2010. According to actual traffic data and statistical expectations, this target will be reached without any European directive and test procedure. This trend results from design measures, the influence of active systems on the behaviour of a car during the pre-crash phase and is also due to road safety instruction programs. In absolute numbers, the pedestrian fatalities in 13 EU member states dropped from 14,631 to approximately 6,000. This means a reduction of about 60%. The same reduction can be assumed for the seriously injured pedestrians, based on the German national data. Taking into account this constant decrease of pedestrian casualties over the last 20 years, it can be expected that a further decrease of about 30% of pedestrian fatalities in Europe will occur over the next 10 years. These 30% correspond to the target set by the European Commission and will be reached without any ECE directive or regulation. In the following years the actual provisions on the car and the infrastructural changing, for example traffic calming measures, will affect the future trend in a positive way. The same trend can be expected for the reduction of seriously injured pedestrians. The target set from the EU commission is a value of 17%.

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In chapter 3 many different safety concepts were described in detail from a pure technical point of view. Interesting questions are now: Which of these safety concepts are really useful for the protection of vulnerable road users? Which is the most efficient one for protection of vulnerable road users? To find the answer to these questions an evaluation of all of these actuators would be helpful. Aspects like effectiveness, feasibility and side effects will determine the answer. To perform this evaluation, a matrix is defined where actuators are listed on the horizontal axis and criteria on the vertical axis (see Table 4.1). + indicates positive evaluation level, - indicates negative level and 0 indicates neutral level. In Table 4.1 six criteria are defined for evaluation: Reversible/ Irreversible/ No Deployment: The type of deployment of actuators is very important to distinguish, which kind of actuators can be (realistically) triggered without (or with a very low number of) false alarms. Using todays sensors and fusion techniques no 100% fault safe deployment is possible. Consequently, non-reversible systems cannot be triggered with the required low rate of false alarms. Systems that can be triggered in a reversible way and systems, that dont need a deployment, make sense for VRU protection. Therefore, the SAVE-U system will base on reversible systems only. Passive/ Crash-active/ preventive Methods: These three categories were defined very well in the chapter 3. For the SAVEU project only systems that can be triggered by a sensor fusion processor are considered. So, pure-passive methods are really helpful for VRU protection, but are not part of this project. Protection of VRU or occupants: It is easy to distinguish the protection effect between protection of car occupants or VRU of actuators. For the SAVE-U demonstrators only VRU protecting actuators are of interest.

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Protection potential from accident statistic point of view Accident statistics are helpful to distinguish between actuators, that are helpful or not. For example, it is possible to re-calculate the accidents in the accident data base in case of early (automatic) braking to find out how injuries or fatalities can be reduced or avoided. In other cases, some actuators are helpful in a very small number of accidents only. These calculations can be used for selection the actuator that has a big positive influence in VRU protection. Only the actuators that have a powerful protection effect are of interest for the SAVE-U demonstrator vehicles. Avoidance or reduction of first impact: It is helpful to clarify which kinds of actuators are useful to avoid or to reduce the first impact vehicle versus VRU. Avoidance or reduction of secondary impact (including tertiary impact): Parallel to the primary impact, the secondary and tertiary impact is very important for the VRU to be considered [KOV99]. This criterion is often forgotten in technical papers or discussions. The secondary impact is the collision between VRU and the infrastructure (e. g. road) after the impact between VRU and vehicle. In addition to the secondary impact the so-called third impact is defined. The third impact is the collision between VRU and a second vehicle (occurs after the first and the secondary impact). There are many accidents were the severity of injury of the secondary/ tertiary impact is much higher than the severity of injury of the first impact. Due to basic mechanical equations (like impact law) the secondary/ tertiary impact can be reduced only by reduction of collision speed. This matrix gives the possibility of a very easy evaluation of the actuators by using the indicators. A ranking of actuators is possible by reading of the last row of the matrix, result of the evaluation. The actuators with the highest numbers (braking distance reducing measures, driver warning, and enhancement of drivers view, pedestrian warning and night vision) are the most potential ones. The automatic braking seems to be the most efficient actuator for VRU protection.

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Reversible/ Rev. Irreversible/ No + Deploymen t Passive/ Prev. Crashactive/ Preventive Method Protection VRU of VRU or + Occupants Protection ++ potential from accident statistics point of view Avoidance/ ++ reduction of first impact Avoidance/ ++ reduction of secondary impact

Rev. + Prev.

Irrev. -

Rev. Crashactive

Irrev. -

Irrev. -

No +

Rev. +

Rev. +
active

No +

Pass. Prev. Crash- Pass.

VRU + +

VRU + +

VRU + +

VRU + +

Occ. 0

VRU + +

+ +

+ 0

+ +

+ +

0 0

+ +

Total:

8+

5+

2+ *)

5+

5+

5+

Table 4.1. Overview about protection systems and their protection potential. Legend: +: positive evaluation level, 0: neutral evaluation level, : negative evaluation level. *) valid for reversible variant only.

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The SAVE-U project is sensor-oriented, not actuator-oriented. Consequently, the actuators that will be integrated into the two demonstrator vehicles will be from the domain of preventive systems. In the demonstrators, no actuators will be integrated, that are not deployable, because the sensor platform makes sense for deployable actuators only. In addition to this the general direction of this project will be to focus only on reversible systems. Concluding, the SAVE-U demonstrators will have reversible preventive systems on board. In Workpackage WP 10 Building of prototypes and fitting on cars a selection and a detailed description of SAVE-U protection systems will be given. The results will be summarised in the Deliverable D 22. At the moment, it seems that automatic deceleration, driver warning and pedestrian warning are potential candidates for SAVE-U demonstrators. To introduce Deliverable D 22 in Workpackage WP 10 a brief discussion about these potential actuators will follows below.

4.3

Deceleration

From an accident research point of view the braking is the most efficient protection system for vulnerable road users (see also chapter 3.6.1.3). The reason for this is, that severe of injuries is related to collision speed square (vCollision2) in the relevant interval between 30 km/h and 50 km/h SAVE-U focus on. The following two figures illustrate the effect of deceleration on the collision speed and the collision speed square during the contact versus braking time. In both figures four selected situations are depicted for easy comparison: Initial speeds of 50 km/h and 40 km/h and deceleration of -1 m/s2 and -2 m/s2. In the first diagram (Figure 4.1), it is highlighted that in case of initial speed of 50 km/h, deceleration of -2 m/s2 and braking duration of 1 s the speed reduction is in the order of 14%. In the same situation, but assuming initial speed of 40 km/h, the speed reduction is increased up to 18%, approximately.

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Speed reduction by deceleration of 1 m/s , 2 m/s


60

Reduction
50

14 % 18%

40

Reduction
30

20

10

v_0=50 kmh, v_0=40 kmh, v_0=50 kmh, v_0=40 kmh,

a=-1m/s^2 a=-1m/s^2 a=-2m/s^2 a=-2m/s^2

0 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4

time [sec]

Figure 4.1. Collision speed versus braking duration. Initial speed 50 km/h (blue lines), 40 km/h (green lines). Deceleration a = -1 m/s2 and a = -2 m/s2, respectively.

The reduction of collision speed square is much more important than the speed reduction under the same conditions, due to the quadratic relation. This is shown in Figure 4.2. For example, it is highlighted, that in case of initial speed of 50 km/h, deceleration of -2 m/s2 and braking duration of 1 s the collision speed square of the contact is reduced of 27%, approximately. In the same situation, but assuming initial speed of 40 km/h, the reduction of collision speed square is increased up to 33%.

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250

Reduction of Collision speed square by deceleration of 1 m/s2, 2 m/s2


Reduction

200

27 %

150

100

Reduction

50

v_0=50 kmh, a=-1m/s^2 v_0=40 kmh, a=-1m/s^2 v_0=50 kmh, a=-2m/s^2 v_0=40 kmh, a=-2m/s^2

33 %

0 0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4

time [sec]

Figure 4.2. Reduction of collision speed square vCollision2 during the contact versus braking duration. Initial speed 50 km/h (blue lines), 40 km/h (green lines). Deceleration a = -1 m/s2 and a = -2 m/s2 respectively.

Decrease of the collision speed square vCollision2 is directly related to the reduction of severity of injuries (see Figure 4.3). Especially in the region of 30 km/h up to 50 km/h, where the gradient of the curve has its maximum, the cumulative frequency of MAIS 2+ casualties is nearly linear proportional to the collision speed. This interval was indicated in Deliverable D 1 as an operation area with a high potential, where it is expected to get the maximum of reduction in severity of injuries.

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Car-to-pedestrian accidents

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

collision speed [km/h]

Figure 4.3. Cumulative frequency of MAIS2+ casualties versus collision speed.

The objective of the SAVE-U demonstrators will be to brake with brake pressures in the comfort braking area instead of emergency braking. This corresponds to decelerations of -1 m/s2 up to -4 m/s2. The SAVE-U braking system will not be able to brake with 1 g (1 g = -9,81 m/s2 = acceleration of the gravity), which is a common value in emergency braking systems. The braking concept on the SAVE-U demonstrators bases on reversible actuator methods. This includes that rare false alarms (e. g. false automatic braking), will not effect/ endanger third parties in the traffic (e. g. following vehicles). The advantage of using braking as an actuator system is twofold. First, the impact of the primary impact (so-called collision) will be reduced dramatically, as it was illustrated in the figures above. In addition to this, the second advantage is, that braking is the only protection method which reduces also the impact of the secondary impact (collision VRU versus street) and third impact (collision VRU versus second vehicle). A big advantage of comfort braking is that it is a reversible method, of course, and the deployment can include different brake pressures to find the optimal braking

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course with respect to measurement accuracies of the trajectory, and other technical parameters.

4.4

Driver Warning Strategies

A basic principle in the community of driver assistant system engineers is: It is much more effective for both pedestrian and host vehicle to avoid a crash, than to reduce the accident severity of a crash. Following this rule, in many critical road situations the possibility of the collision can be minimised if the car driver is warned early enough. Then the driver is asked to react directly: The eyes will be directed to the front immediately. Collision has a good chance to be avoided with manoeuvre-driving. The warning can base on three methods: acoustical, optical and haptical. The todays view is that the DaimlerChrysler demonstrator will have acoustical and optical warnings on board. For the Volkswagen demonstrator haptical warning is a potential candidate, which can be integrated, because the wake-up effect is very important and helpful. For example, haptical warnings can be provided from two sources to the driver: Vibrating steering wheel. Hard braking jerk.

4.5

Pedestrian Warning Approaches

It makes sense to warn the pedestrian in a dangerous traffic situation as well as the driver. The reason for this is the same reason as mentioned in the section 3.6.7 entitled driver warning above. But the selection is much more difficult to decide, which warning method is really possible. From a technical point of view using signal-horn or headlamp flashing can be helpful in some cases to avoid a crash or to reduce the severity of a crash. But

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this is only the view from one perspective. Another perspective is the current situation of regulations. For example in Germany it is not allowed to automatically use headlamp flashing or signal-horn for pedestrian warning. Following these boundaries, pedestrian warning can be investigated in this project only on proving grounds, not in real traffic situations.

4.6

Impact on sensor specifications and system specifications

In this section general remarks on sensor specifications and system specifications for VRU protection on vehicles will be given. Examples of specification parameters are: measurement resolutions of positions and dynamics measurement accuracies of positions and dynamics measurement rate (update rate) camera resolutions area of coverage overlapping areas of different sensors detection probabilities probability of false positives classification capabilities multi-target situation capability and further parameters 4.6.1 Sensor system specification versus application

In the following Table 4.2 some hints of specifications are summarised. It is very difficult to fill out this table with the correct/ the exact values, because the parameters depends directly on the concrete realisation of protection systems and the man-machine-interaction. Therefore, values in this table have to be understood as examples or typical values coming from experiences in this domain.

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Maximum range Minimum range Detection probability Probability of false alarms Classification probability False alarms in Classification Measurement Rate (Update Rate) (legend: 4.6.2

40 m 0m

40 m 5m

20 m 0m 0%

20 m 0m

20 m 0m 0%

20 m 0m 0%

40 m 5m

0%

0%

0%

20 Hz 20 Hz 20 Hz 20 Hz 20 Hz 20 Hz 20 Hz 100 Hz 100 Hz 100 Hz 100 Hz 100 Hz 100 Hz 100 Hz = as low as possible (<<0,1 %)).

Table 4.2. Hints of system specifications for different VRU protection actuators = as high as possible (>>99,9 %);

Measurement accuracies Maximum range

A very important requirement regarding sensor system performance is the accuracy of positions and velocities. The following calculations and graphs will provide an impression of what kind of accuracy is necessary to achieve the required accuracy of the trajectory for deployment. In section 3.4 some equations and calculations regarding coverage area of sensors field of view (maximum range) are given. It is obvious that a maximum range of 30 m
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up to 40 m is necessary to collect all data early enough before the crash occurs. It is also obvious that a large coverage angle is required. In addition to this mathematics, the descriptions in this section will focus mainly on measurement accuracies. Typically, most of the sensors (e. g. radars or cameras) provide information about the scene in a polar coordinate system ( R and parameters). Consequently, the measurement accuracies of a single sensor measurement are given in a polar 2 coordinate system (e. g. standard deviations R and or variances R and 2 ). A normal statistical description includes also the cross-correlation between range and angle measurement. All these data are summarised in the so-called covariance matrix as follows: C
2 R 2 R 2 R 2

The values in this matrix are given by the sensor system. If there is no mathematical calculation available for this values, values can be derived from experimental tests (practical method). It is clear that the risk assessment (deployment calculation) is based on Cartesian coordinate system. The covariance matrix can be transformed in this domain by using the following rule: C
cartesian 2 x 2 xy 2 xy 2 y

2 R 2 R

2 R 2

T ,

where T stands for the transformation matrix, which is the Jacobean matrix containing the partial derivations. T indicates the transposed of matrix T . T can be calculated by x R y R x y
T

cos( ) sin( )

R sin( ) R cos( )

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Using this statistical approach a graph of measurement accuracies (= standard deviations R and ) at each Cartesian position ( x, y ) can be calculated, if the polar standard deviations are given. Example: Assuming the polar standard deviations of (variances of
2 R

0,5m and

5,2 10 2 rad

0,25m 2 and

(3 ) 2

2,7 10 3 rad 2 ) the following position errors

can be estimated in the x - y -plane. Normally it depends on the measurement principle and the concrete realisation of the detection algorithms of a sensor, if the covariance values are zero or not. In this simplified example the covariance values 2 will be neglected, R 0m 0m rad . Therefore, the result is much easier to understand than assuming the full covariance matrix, which will be necessary for exact calculations. Figure 4.4 provides a 3D-graph regarding the measurement accuracies in each position in the x-y-plane.

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Figure 4.4. Measurement accuracy of a single measurement in the x-y-plane.

It can be seen that the accuracy of a single measurement depends mainly on the position of the object. Near objects can be measured in this example with an accuracy of approximately 30 cm. Objects, that are located at 40 m (maximum range of coverage area in this example) can be measured with 2 m accuracy, approximately. Figure 4.5 shows the accuracy of a single measurement on the x-axis only. The picture will be used in the following for comparisons.

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Figure 4.5. Measurement accuracy of a single measurement in x-direction (y = 0 m).

These two previous graphs give a feeling of what level of performance a single (isolated) measurement can provide in the x-y-plane with the assumptions described above. In Figure 4.5 it was assumed, that each measurement provides one result. Normally this is not that case, due to physical characteristics (e. g. wave propagation and multi-path propagation aspects) and characteristics of detection algorithms. A typical mean value for the detection probability is about 70 %. Of course, objects, which are far, have a lower detection probability. Objects, which are close to the sensor, have a higher detection probability. Figure 4.6 illustrates a typical measurement result. In this example, it was assumed that there is an incoming object positioned on the x-axis (starting at 40 m distance, approaching up to 0 m distance). The black dots represent the real positions; the blue dots represent the measured positions. Further assumptions are: measurement time = 50 ms, range accuracy = 0,3 m, angle accuracy = 3 , vehicle speed = 50 km/h.

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Figure 4.6. Measured position assuming detection probability of 70 %.

But, the result of the tracked position over time is much more interesting. It is well known, that tracking will enhance the accuracy of a single measurement. Some examples are shown below to give an impression of what kind of improvements tracking algorithms will provide. The basic approach of tracking is to calculate a state estimation for each measurement cycle ~ (t ) which is based on two input vectors, first the measured x vector x(t ) and second the prediction of the measurement before x(t ) . A commonly used tracking filter in this domain is the Kalman filter. It is a so-called optimum filter, which minimises the estimation errors. But, to demonstrate to behaviour of a tracking algorithms a 1st order recursive filter (so-called filter) will be used in this illustration. The estimation is ~ (t ) x ~ (t ) x ~ (t ) y (1 ) x(t ) x (t ) ,

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where

stands for an adjustable parameter. The prediction can be calculated by

using a dynamic model (e. g. a model of constant velocity): x (t ) x(t ) y (t ) ~ (t T ) v (t T ) T . ~ x

After these basic formulas for the state vector, the focus will base on the measurement accuracies. The question is, what is accuracy of the tracked trajectory? The accuracies will follow the equation: ~ C (t ) inv inv (1 ) 2 C (t ) inv
2

C (t ) .

This formula is not very demonstrative. So, using examples will help to understand the results. The following Figure 4.7 provides some example trajectories, the exact ones and the measured/ tracked ones. In this graph typical values for detection probability of p = 70% and filter parameter 0,5 are used.

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Figure 4.7. Measured position (blue) and tracked position (red) assuming detection probability of 70 %.

It is obvious that the measurement accuracy will be enhanced by tracking. The enhancement of tracking is quantified in Figure 4.8. This figure shows the accuracy of a single measurement (blue line, refer Figure 4.5) compared with a tracked trajectory (red line) if a detection probability of 100 % is assumed. Real detection probabilities are lower; consequently the enhancement of a real sensor system will be located in between the blue and the red line.

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Figure 4.8. Accuracy of a single measurement (blue) and theoretical track accuracy (red) assuming detection probability of 100 %.

Summary: High measurement accuracy is very important to be able to trigger the deployment signal for actuators. The example given in section 3.4 shows that an automatic braking system has to be activated at approximately 20 m distance to the object if a vehicle speed of 50 km/h is assumed. To avoid unnecessary warnings to the driver, a high probability for a collision is necessary for deployment. Consequently, high trajectory accuracy has to be achieved at 20 m. The trajectory accuracy must be lower (that means: better) than the vehicles width. Maximum range versus braking acceleration: The maximum range depends on different parameters. Of course, one parameter is the quality of the trajectory as discussed above. In addition to this, the trigger time before contact is a second important value.

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The objective of this section is to illustrate the relation between braking acceleration and maximum range. This will be shown in the following Figure 4.9 by continuing the example introduced above.

Maximum range versus initial speed


35

30

25

maximum range (a=-1m/s^2) maximum range (a=-2m/s^2) maximum range (a=-3m/s^2) maximum range (a=-4m/s^2) maximum range (a=-5m/s^2) maximum range (a=-6m/s^2) maximum range (a=-7m/s^2) maximum range (a=-8m/s^2) maximum range (a=-9,81m/s^2)

20

15

10

0 Initial speed [km/h]

Figure 4.9. Maximum range versus braking acceleration (a = -1 m/s2 -9,81 m/s2).

The result of these basic calculations is, that a maximum range of 35 m seems to be necessary. In real operating systems a safety margin could be necessary. The maximum range of 35 m - 40 m seems to be a good choice. The same value is also mentioned in [MEN02]. 4.6.3 Time scheme for deployment of warning signals or automatic deceleration actuators

First information regarding the time scheme for deployment of warning signals or automatic deceleration actuators were already provided in section 3.4. In this section

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much more detailed calculations will be given. The same nomenclature will be used as in section 3.4. The trigger for the deployment will be generated if the time-to-collision (TTC) is equal (or lower) than the required deployment time of the actuator: TTC t Deployment, Actuator Trigger for Deployment of Actuator

In addition to this requirement above, it could be helpful, if further criteria have to be fulfilled to start the trigger signal. This depends on the specific characteristic of the actuator under consideration. For example, for the deployment of driver warning systems (e. g. acoustical warning) the parameter t Deployment , Actuator is not so easy to determine, because this value will be influenced by additional requirements from driver acceptance. It is not planned to use a non-reversible protection method in the SAVE-U project. But also in this cases the deployment criteria should be modified, for example like the following equation determines (TTC t Deployment , Actuator ) (Crash is unavoidable) Trigger for Deployment of Actuator .

The distance between the observed dangerous object and the host vehicle R Deployment at the moment of deployment the actuator is given by the equation R Deployment v t Deployment , Actuator ,

where v stands for a constant collision speed. Example: The SAVE-U demonstrator vehicles will have an electronic controlled brake booster on board. From an accident research point of view a good protection potential for vulnerable road users (VRU) is possible if the brake trigger will be provided 1 s before the contact. Assume that the deceleration is in the order of 1 m/s2 and the initial speed is 50 km/h (= 13,9 m/s) the deployment range is RDeployment v t Deployment , Actuator 1 2 a t Deployment , Actuator 2 13,9 m 1s s 1 m ( 1 2 ) (1s ) 2 2 s 13,4m .

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The object range at the moment the tracking starts is much more farther away. It can be calculated by RTracking v (t Tracking t Deployment , Actuator ) .

If we assume that the tracking needs N = 10 successful measurements for a stable trajectory (typical value for radar systems), the detection probability is p = 0,7 and the measurement rate is f = 20 Hz the value for RTracking is given by: RTracking v t Tracking RTracking R Deployment , Actuator 13,9 v N p f R Deployment , Actuator 23,3m .

m 10 13,4m s 0,7 20 1 s

Following the description above the required detection range R Acquisition of a sensor/ sensor system can be fixed using the equation: RAcquisition v (t Acquisition tTracking t Deployment , Actuator ) .

The minimum detection range R Acquisition (coverage range) is the example above is specified by: R Acquisition v t Acquisition 13,9 RTracking v N p f RTracking 31,2m

R Acquisition

m 8 s 0,7 20 1 s

23,3m

if the same detection probability of p = 0,7 is valid for this far area. This was an example for vehicle speed of 50 km/h. Of course, it is possible to calculate the equivalent values for other vehicle speeds. This is done in the interval between 25 km/h and 50 km/h. The results are summarized in Figure 4.10.

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Figure 4.10. Time Scheme for deployment of warning signals or automatic deceleration actuators.

It is visible that the maximum range is directly related to the vehicle speed. In the SAVE-U project it was decided to have an upper boundary at 40 km/h. At this speed and with the described conditions the maximum range will be in the order of 25 m. 4.6.4 Sensor specification

An efficient VRU protection system requires several elements from the sensors point of view. Firstly, sensors must cover the field of view which is relevant to deal with a majority of situations. Secondly, they have to provide sufficient information to permit reliable VRU detection and differentiate them from other objects such as a tree, vehicle or roadside furniture. Thirdly, the VRU relative distance and velocity from the vehicle is compulsory to activate the protection systems correctly. The sensor performance will determine whether object detection and recognition at a given distance from the moving vehicle is feasible. However, the detection of human targets by sensors is possible and has been demonstrated over the years in applications ranging from surveillance radars to supermarket door openers and

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vehicle or building security detectors. In such applications a false detection does not represent a major concern. A missed detection by a door opener is not life threatening. In a pedestrian protection system, it may lead to act in a way that could at least annoy the driver or in worst cases endanger life.

4.6.4.1

Radar sensors

Active sensors, such as the radar system used in SAVE-U, possess the following specific characteristics: Radar systems can detect objects and measure range and dynamics in a direct way Require less computing powers as they acquire a considerably lower amount of data, More robust to bad weather conditions, not influenced by illumination condition Can work in harsh environment and then match automotive specifications Very easy to integrate on a car (invisible behind a bumper) But the SAVE-U radar sensors also have some drawbacks: A low angular resolution, Wide variation in reflection caused by obstacles shape or material, Object classification difficult, Geometrical fading effects between sensor and target in a real measurement environment (e. g. real road conditions). The short range radar sensors used in this project will operate according to the frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) principle. The basic idea behind FMCW is to transmit a RF signal showing linearly increasing instantaneous frequency over time T. This frequency ramp is called slope, the resulting RF signal is called chirp. The signal propagates to the object, where it will be reflected according the object RCS. The received RF signal is detected and down converted using the instantaneous transmit frequency. By doing so, the signal time of flight (delay tL) of a radar echo results in a constant frequency shift fb (beat frequency) of the received signal (called IF signal). The frequency shift is additively influenced by the Doppler frequency shift fd generated by the radial relative target velocity. The after all frequency shift is df=fd - fL for an up going frequency ramp (up slope). After

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A/D-conversion of the IF signal, a spectral analysis (for example a FFT) is applied to the samples of the received signal within the interval T. The detected peaks in each spectrum represent the frequencies of the IF signals caused by the different targets. Therefore radar sensors are able to measure range and velocity in a direct way. The radars used in this project measure runtime, power and Doppler frequency shift of electromagnetic waves, emitting from the sensor and reflected back from objects in the field of view. Runtime is a measure for the distance and Doppler frequency shift for the velocity. These SAVE-U sensors cannot provide a direct angle measurement. Radar measures only point targets (reflection centres) even on extended object. Vehicles, trees, traffic furnitures, bicycles and human beings are detected. Street and pavement are not seen, because of the low angle of incidence to the road and therefore the lack of significant reflections. If we consider the radar equation: Preceive Pemit G1 ( ) G2 ( ) (4 ) 3 R 4 2 ,

where R is the measured range and G1, G2 the antenna gains depending on the target angle (antenna diagram).

With the receive power and the formula above, an estimation of the Radar Cross Section (RCS) for each detected object could be calculated. RCS is used to classify between objects, pedestrians have a typical RCS between 0.01 m2 and 1 m2 for 24 GHz radars while cars have values between 0.1 m2 and 1000 m2. The general physical effect of a signal being erased by the radar wave (fading) causes in a fluctuation in the signal amplitude. The fading effect is geometrical, i. e. it depends on the sensor and target height. The signal amplitude depends on the reflectivity of the road as well. According the fluctuation of the signal amplitude the classification of objects is not possible in the worst case.

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Another criterion is the velocity. Pedestrians have a typical velocity of 2 m/s up to 5 m/s, while bicycles can easily reach 10 m/s. One natural way for radar detection and rough classification is to combine the RCS and velocity criteria.

4.6.4.2

Video sensors

Vision-based sensors are defined as passive sensors and have some real qualities for VRU detection: High spatial resolution at reasonable cost Visual information can be retrieved (such as lane markings localization, traffic signs recognition, obstacle identification) Unfortunately, vision sensors present also some disadvantages, which are: For high resolution sensors, a very heavy computing power is required Not well adapted to work in bad weather conditions Not adapted to work at night except for IR sensors Single camera set-up is the basic optical arrangement (but stereo vision is possible as well, refer section 1.3.2.2 in the annex). Some parameters of camera must be considered carefully: spatial resolution, view angle and dynamic range. Spatial resolution The spatial resolution is concerned with the object detection. Spatial resolution is decided by the resolution of camera. Higher resolution camera can produce finer and more precise image thus improves the obstacle perceptibility. It is especially important for a detection of small obstacles in large distance. On the other hand, higher resolution image increases the computation time and cost which are both critical factor in the field of automotive implementation. One has to make a trade-off between the low and high camera resolutions. Choosing a camera resolution means to answer to what is the minimum size of an object to be detected and what is the minimum pixel number needed for a reliable detection and classification.

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Given the physical size of obstacle at distances of 25 m and 35 m, the number of image pixels of the obstacle can be calculated with camera parameters. For calculation purpose we consider only pedestrian detection and classification without taking into account lighting or weather conditions. In terms of resolution, the most critical axis is the horizontal one due to the small width of a pedestrian. This one is then considered to evaluate camera specifications and we state to detect 40 cm (vertically) on the horizontal axis and 120 cm (horizontally) on the vertical axis. For automotive application, video sensors present a maximum resolution of 640 x 480 pixels. The sensor size is fixed to a format 6.4 mm x 4.8 mm. The height h and width w of the object projection on the sensor plane can be calculated: h v h H hp 640 f 6.4 D and then object size in pixels are given by W v f vp 480 D 4. 8

(see results in the Table 5.3)

Focal length (mm) D = 25 m D = 35 m hp vp hp vp Horizontal angle of view Vertical angle of view

25 40 120 29 86 14.6 11.0

20 32 96 23 69

15 24 72 17 51

10 16 48 11 34

18.2 24.1 35.5 13.7 18.2 27.0

Table 4.3. Camera parameters.

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View angle The minimum size of a patch of pixels which enables a good detection is very difficult to determine. It depends of lightings conditions, pedestrian clothing and also of algorithms used for detection and classification. But this size is a key factor to specify a video sensor. One has to be sure that this size does not implicate a too small angle of view. The value of the angle of view must insure the detection in advance of potential dangerous situations for VRU. For that goal, VRU have to enter the field of view at a time which permits an early detection.

dv dc

Figure 4.11. Configuration camera field of view.

If we consider the collision point (in red), the VRU and the vehicle reach this point after T second express by dv/vv = dc/vc. The minimum angle of view is then given by 2 arctan( dv ) dc 2 arctan( vv ) vc

which express that the angle is directly linked to the relative speed between VRU and vehicle.

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Vv (vehicle velocity) m/s 16.7 (60 km/h) 13.9 (50 km/h) 11.1 (40 km/h)

Vvru (VRU velocity) m/s 6.9 (25 km/h) 1.0 (3.6 km/h) 6.9 (25 km/h) 1.0 (3.6 km/h) 6.9 (25 km/h) 1.0 (3.6 km/h) velocities.

(minimum angle of view) Degree 44.9 6.8 52.8 8.2 63.7 10.3

Table 4.4. Minimum camera coverage angle versus different vehicle and VRU

The Table 5.4 gives an idea for the values of the angle of view. However, the choice of the angle is always a trade-off between the minimum patch of pixels, the camera resolution, the computing power available and the scenario requirements. Video sensor intensity dynamic In an automotive application, the sensor is really pushed to the limit. The variation of illumination is huge: on sunny day very bright light could saturate the sensor, while at night, images are taken only with the headlight illumination. The average illumination is varying but also inside a single image very high variation of lights may occur due to backlighting effects for example. The maximal intensity variation of an image, which is acceptable, is given by the dynamic range of the sensor. For classic CCD sensors, the ratio between the lowest and the highest variation is limited up to 60dB, which is too low for automotive application. CMOS sensors with logarithmic response prevent saturation of the image and permits contrast of more than 120 dB. However, CMOS sensors show a lack in sensitivity, which make them blind in poor level of light. This is the reason why in the SAVE-U project, an infra-red camera will be used especially at night. Recently the emergence of a new generation of infrared sensors the micro bolometer technology based on an infrared thermal detection mechanism which is particularly suited to operate at ambient temperature has opened the opportunity for achieving low cost infrared imaging systems for both military and commercial applications. In fact, Infrared detection offers large advantages in comparison to sensors working in visible spectrum. Obviously Infrared
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detection is not affected by poor conditions of light or bad weather conditions. The SAVE-U project relies on a high performance amorphous silicon micro bolometer 14 bit sensor which has been developed at CEA/LETI, particularly relevant to automotive applications. In the footsteps of MEMS devices, micro bolometer sensors have taken benefits from the latest silicon technology advances. Unique surface micromachining technique has been developed in order to release above a full custom CMOS readout circuit, very thin membranes made from amorphous silicon that are very sensitive to infrared incoming radiations heating. One of the key point of LETI micro bolometer technology has been to elect amorphous silicon material which is strictly compatible with standard silicon processing. In fact, this basic option leads to high yield monolithic arrangement fully compatible with commercially available CMOS silicon wafers. This feature guaranties low cost attainment particularly suited for large market diffusion.

4.7

Sum up according to analyzed actuators and sensors

The above chapters 3 and 4 presented possible implementation of actuators and sensors as a SAVE-U system included modern, best in each class systems available on a market or in development. Their efficient function in defined situations depends on many factors. In the concept of the project a common work of all components with utilization of information delivered by platform sensors are foreseen. The function of each component of the system can not be treated as isolated. Each component should be optimally integrated in such a way, that its best performance is used and the actuators and sensors are acting in a mutual co-operation. The accuracy of delivered data by each sensor is additionally very important by consideration of particular traffic situation. The sensor physical properties determine accuracy of the delivered data and changes in time and space. It would be of great advantage to obtain how the accuracy of the measured data and the interpretation of each parameter have influences on the efficiency of the whole system as a complex system consisting of driver, vehicle, pedestrian and environment.

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It is well-known, that these interactions however easily to suppose qualitatively are very difficult to obtain quantitatively. The practical evaluation of the system performance seems to be the more reasonable way. They are a lot of parameters and factors, which however important for effective operation of the system, are not possible to measure and therefore can not wholly be taken into account for the elaboration of algorithms. Such factors are: complexity of scenario (visibility, lighting), state of road surface, personal condition of the drivers (tired, healthy, old, young, gender etc.) and state of the vehicle. These factors are not stable and can change also in a very short time. The estimation of possible influence these factors have on the quality of function of the system can be made approximately and subjectively only. In the two tables below an estimation attempt for possible interactions and their importance for the drivers and the protection potential for pedestrian was made. It summarizes the considerations above: in the first one (Table 4.5) the possible impact for the proper function of each actuator, in the second one (Table 4.6) the impact of measurement accuracy of parameters for different kinds of sensors.

Actuator

Traffic User Vehicle Driver Pedestrian/ VRU

+ +

+ *) 0

0 +

0 +

0 +

0 +

+ 0

0 +

+ 0

+ 0

Table 4.5. Evaluation of influence of actuator on driver and pedestrian, respectively. Legend: + = helpful; 0 = not directly helpful; *) = if a warning can be applied early enough to the driver.

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Sensor Technology Radar Video - mono - stereo Laser x ++ + ++ ++

Trajectory Measurement Y Vx + ++ + ++ ++ 0 0 0

Vy 0 0 0 0

Object classification capability + ++ ++ 0

Object geometry measurement + ++ ++ ++

Table 4.6. Evaluation of the sensor measurement capabilities (without tracking). In this place it is necessary to explain the difference of terms like measurement and estimation for the reader. The meaning of measurement in the Table 4.6 is that these parameters can be observed directly by recognising of physical effects (like time-offlight or Doppler frequency) by the sensor. In contrast to measurement the parameter estimation can provide additional values for not measured parameters. But it is well known from the information theory by Shannon that the estimation can not increase the information value (entropy) of the measurement. Estimation can only help to find an approximation for not measured values by using a model. Usually this is the task for tracking algorithms. The Table 4.6 shows that the radar is good at position and dynamic measurement, video is good at position measurement and classification. Consequently, the combination (fusion) of both seems to be a very suitable solution for the VRU detection problem and for enhancing VRUs safety.

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Conclusion

This document is the Deliverable D 6 entitled Strategies in Terms of Pedestrian Protection of the EC-funded project SAVE-U. It contains the outcome of workpackage WP3. The description starts with a survey on published information about the state of the art of protection systems for vulnerable road users (see D6 Annex). The survey is based on published conference papers, patents and presentations from the internet. This bibliography provides an overview of the wide range of these kinds of actuator systems (like active hoods, active bumpers, night vision systems, driver warning, pedestrian warning, automatic braking, etc.). The state of the art bibliography is followed by a detailed technical description of the full spectrum of actuators currently under investigation. This is an introduction to understand the technology and the consequences for deployment. In addition to this on-board-systems hints to possibilities in terms of road constructing to avoid accidents will be presented. The technical description is the base for a serious evaluation of actuator methods for VRU protection. There were several criteria developed for evaluating, namely: Reversible/ Irreversible/ No Deployment Passive/ Crash-active/ preventive Methods Protection of VRU or occupants Protection potential from accident statistic point of view Avoidance or reduction of primary impact Avoidance or reduction of secondary/ tertiary impact Actuators which can be triggered in a reversible way seem to be the only realistic way to enhance VRUs safety using current sensors. Irreversible actuators need 100% fault safe sensors (with performance like current crash-sensors for airbag deployment). If they need a pre-trigger, than none of todays sensors will be able to control these actuators adequately. All measures which need no deployment are pure-passive methods. Of course, they are useful, but not investigated in the SAVE-U project.

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The discrimination between passive, crash-active and preventive actuators describes the deployment time before collision: Pure-passive methods dont require deployment; crash-active methods can provide protection potential just as the crash occurs (contact moment). But the preventive deployable actuators can be triggered some milliseconds or seconds before the contact occurs. So, they have more time to mitigate the collision severity and therefore they were selected for the SAVE-U project. The criteria of VRU or occupant protection indicate in a very clear manner, which collision partner can be protected by this actuator. The fourth criterion deals with an accident statistic consideration. If the accident statistics shows that this actuator can protect VRUs than this is marked in this criterion. The reduction of primary and secondary/ tertiary impact is an additional item. Most of the actuators discussed in the scientific world reduce the primary impact (say: Collision VRU versus vehicle) only. The secondary and tertiary impact (say: VRU versus road surface, VRU versus second vehicle, respectively) shows also very high injury levels in the accidents. Therefore the goal must be to reduce both, primary and secondary/ tertiary impacts for most effective VRU protection approach. Based on these conclusions it was decided in the current project stage to use preventive system actuators for SAVE-U, namely automatic soft braking and driver warning concepts. The number of false alarms must be very low. This can be guaranteed by deploying the signal only in the case that an unavoidable collision is predicted. More technical details regarding sensor performance and system performance will be summarized in Deliverable D7 outcome of work package WP 4.

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6.

References

[1]

US 4 518 183: extendable safety impact bags for vehicles date of patent: May 21, 1985 DE 24 38 828 C2: Stofnger fr schwere Fahrzeuge (bumper for heavy vehicles) date of patent: May 07, 1987

[2]

[3]

DE 44 29 755 A1: Ausfahrbare Stostange fr Kraftfahrzeuge zur Minderung und Vermeidung von Auffahrunfllen (extendable bumper for motor vehicles for decrease and avoidance of bumper-to-bumper collisions) date of disclosure: Feb. 29, 1996

[4]

DE 195 14 191 C2: Sicherheitssystem fr Fahrzeuge (security system for vehicles) date of patent: July 09, 1998

[5]

DE 197 50 299 A1: Fahrzeug (vehicle) date of disclosure: may 20, 1999

[6]

DE 198 18 586 C1: Schutzvorrichtung fr ein Kraftfahrzeug (protection device for motor vehicles) date of patent: September 30, 1999 DE 198 06 039 A1: Erweiterung der Knautschzone bei PKW bzw. KFZ (extension of deformation zone at motor vehicles) date of disclosure: August 19, 1999

[7]

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection DE 199 05 784 A1: Kraftfahrzeug mit einer Aufprallschutzvorrichtung (vehicle with crash protection device) date of disclosure: September 9, 1999

[9]

EP 0 894 677 A1: Agencement dune poutre de pare-chocs dans un vhicule automobile (hydraulic bumper bar for motor vehicles) date of disclosure: February 3, 1999

[ABOWD]

ABOWD Peter Visteon Head-Up Display Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift (ATZ) 9/2001, page 780ff.

[ATZ01]

[BEE02]

Benno Beesten, Stefan Hagen, Matthias Rabe: Out-of-position simulation possibilities and conventional methods Symposium Airbag 2002, Karlsruhe, 02.-04.12.2002.

limitations

with

[BIN]

Bin Ran, Henry X. Liu: A Framework for the Development of a Proactive Exterior Airbag System

[BOS02]

Robert Bosch GmbH Kraftfahrtechnisches Taschenbuch Edition 24, ISBN3-528-13876-9, 2002.

[BT02]

Bttner, C.: Sichtverbesserung bei Fahrzeuganwendung Raytheon GmbH, 2002 Nachtfahrten, Infrarottechnologie fr die

[CERTIN]

CERTIN Laurent / Florence NATHAN - PSA Peugeot Citron Night Vision Human / System Interface

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection F. A. Berg; M. Egelhaaf; J. Bakker, H. Brkle, R. Herrmann, J. Scheerer: Pedestrian Protection In Europe - The Potential of Car Design and Impact Testing DEKRA Automobil GmbH, Unfallforschung, Stuttgart; DaimlerChrysler AG, Unfallforschung, Sindelfingen, 2002.

[DUMAS9]

Transport In The Urban Environment. The Institution of Highways and Transportation June 1997.

[DUMAS10] DUMAS - Hastighedsplan for Gladsaxe kommune. Cowi, 1996. [DUMAS11] Kenneth Kjemtrup and Lene Herrstedt : "Speed Management and Traffic Calming in Urban Areas in Europe: A Historical View". The Danish Road Directorate, 1992. [DUMAS12] Byernes Trafikarealer Volume 0-10 (Danish Road Standards for geometric design of urban areas Recommended guidelines.) The Danish Road Directorate, 1991. Volume 0, 4, 7 and 10 in English. [DUMAS13] Towards safer roads. Publication from the Transport Research Centre (AVV) of the Ministry of Transport and Public Works, Rotterdam, the Netherlands. [EDW94] Edworthy, J; Meredith, C.S.: Cognitive psychology and the design of alarm sounds. Medical Engineering and Physics, Band 16 (1994), Heft 6, 445-449. [FRA] U. Franke, D. Gavrila, S. Gorzig, F. Paetzold, C. Wohler: Autonomous Driving approaches Downtown Daimler-Benz Research.

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection F.I.R.S.T. Fully Integrated Road Safety Technology BMW AG Presse- und ffentlichkeitsarbeit, 1999. Gavrila, Dariu M.: Sensor-based pedestrian protection IEEE Intelligent Systems, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 77-81, 2001. Getty, Fl. J., Swets, J. A., Pickett, R. M. and Gonthier, D.: System operator response to warnings of danger: a laboratory investigation of the effects of the predictive value of a warning on human response time Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 1995, 1(1).

[GAV01]

[GET95]

[GDV01]

Sicherung des Verkehrs auf Straen SVS- - Auswertung von Straenunfllen Teil 2 Manahmen gegen Unfallhufungen Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungswirtschaft (GDV), Institut fr Straenverkehr Kln (ISK), Forschungsgesellschaft fr Straen- und Verkehrswesen Kln, Polizei-Fhrungsakademie Mnster, Februar 2001.

[HAL01]

Rikard Fredriksson Yngve Hland: EVALUATION OF A NEW PEDESTRIAN HEAD INJURY PROTECTION SYSTEM WITH A SENSOR IN THE BUMPER AND LIFTING OF THE BONNETS REAR PART Autoliv Research, Sweden Jikuang Yang Chalmers University of Technology, Sweden Paper number: 131, 2001. www.autoliv.com, 11/2002

[KOP98]

Kopf, M.: Warnungen und ihre Auswirkungen auf den Fahrer. BMW AG, EW-11, Mnchen, 1998.

[KOV99]

Kovanda, Jan; Riva, Riccardo: Vehicle-Human Interaction Edizioni Spiegel, Milano, Italy, ISBN 88-7660-104-X, 1999.

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection Liu, X., Oh, J., and Recker, W.: Adaptive Signal Control with On-line Performance Measure Transportation Research Board 81th Annual Meeting, Washington DC, January 2002.

[MAZ99]

Mazda Develops Advanced Safety Vehicle Mazda ASV-2 Mazda, October 7,1999

[MEN02]

Mende, Ralph; Rohling, Hermann: New Automotive Applications for Smart Radar Systems German Radar Symposium, Bonn/ Germany, September 3-5, 2002.

[MIT00]

MMC announces Mitsubishi ASV-2 Mitsubishi, June 19, 2000.

[NIL02]

Takehiko Suzuki, NILIM: TEST OF LASER-TYPE PEDESTRIAN DETECTORS IN SNOWY AND COLD AREAS (Presented by Mr. Norio Kamagami, Ishikawajima Harima Heavy Industries, Japan) ITS World Congress, Chicago, 2002.

[NIS03]

Nissan Offers Pre-crash Seatbelt Technology http://www.nissan-global.com/EN/STORY/0,1299,SI9-CH179-LO3TI740-CI571-IFY-MC109,00.html

[ORI98]

Study of the efficiency of infrastructural measures for pedestrian protection final report global study of France and U.K. sites Orientations, Lingeniere des deplacements, Jan 1998. sterreichisches Verkehrssicherheitsprogramm 2002-2010 Strategien fr mehr Sicherheit auf der Strae Bundesministerium fr Verkehr Innovationen und Technologie, Wien Austria, 2002.

[ST02]

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D6: Strategies in Terms of VRU Protection Pilot non-conformance to alerting system commands 1997 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Cybernetics. Computational Cybernetics and Simulation,

Man,

and

12-15 Oct. 1997, Orlando, FL, USA, Band 3 (1997), 2125-2130. [PRO01] Programm fr mehr Sicherheit im Straenverkehr Bundesministerium fr Verkehr-, Bau- und Wohnungswesen, 2001. [SAV03] Dr. Dariu Gavrila, Philippe Marchal, Dr. Marc-Michael Meinecke: SAVE-U - Deliverable D1A: Vulnerable Road User Scenario Analysis. EU-Project SAVE-U, 21.02.2003. [STE2001] Stevens, A.: Information form response relevant to warnings. TRL Limited, Crowthorne, Berkshire, GB, 2001. [USH94] Usher, D.M. The alarm matrix. In N. Stanton (Ed.), Human Factors in Alarm Design Taylor & Francis, London, 1994, 139-146. [VIENOT] Franoise VIENOT Photobiliology laboratory of Museum National dHistoire Naturelle Mesopic Vision [WEB00] Pia Weber, Christian Strube: Fugngerschutz, Lsungsanstze fr fugngerschutzoptimierte Fahrzeuge Volkswagen AG, 2000 [WHI01] White Paper European transport policy for 2010: time to decide Office of the official publications of the European communities, Luxembourg, ISBN 92-894-0341-1, 2001.

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List of Figures

Figure 3.1. Example of collision pedestrian versus vehicle. ..................................... 11 Figure 3.2. Overview about passive and active methods for protection of unprotected road users. ........................................................................................................ 14 Figure 3.3. Deployment of actuators: Phase 0 (VRU invisible)................................. 18 Figure 3.4. Deployment of actuators: Phase 1 (acquisition phase) .......................... 18 Figure 3.5. Deployment of actuators: Phase 2 (tracking phase)............................... 19 Figure 3.6. Deployment of actuators: Phase 3 (deployment phase)......................... 20 Figure 3.7. Deployment of actuators: Phase 4 (contact)........................................... 20 Figure 3.8. Example of a conventional braking system. ........................................... 23 Figure 3.9. Example of a brake booster.................................................................... 24 Figure 3.10. Components of a brake system............................................................ 25 Figure 3.11. Electro-hydraulically Brake (EHB). ....................................................... 27 Figure 3.12. Block diagram of an electro-hydraulic braking system [BOS02]. .......... 28 Figure 3.13. Comparison between a conventional brake system and an electrohydraulic brake system (EHB). .......................................................................... 29 Figure 3.14. Electro-mechanical brake (EMB).......................................................... 32 Figure 3.15. Comparison between conventional brake system and electromechanical brake system (EMB)....................................................................... 33 Figure 3.16. Simulated effects of different kind of braking........................................ 35 Figure 3.17. Airbag deployment. .............................................................................. 37 Figure 3.18. Passenger airbag with hybrid inflator (http://www.autoliv.com/appl_alv/Autoliv.nsf/pages/library_illustrations) ........... 38 Figure 3.19. Airbag inflation device with solid propellant (http://www.howstuffworks.com/airbag1.htm) .................................................... 38 Figure 3.20. Airbag Vents......................................................................................... 39 Figure 3.21. Piloted vents (Delphi) ........................................................................... 40 Figure 3.22. Configuration of discriminating and saving sensors (adapted from Struble).............................................................................................................. 41 Figure 3.23. Crash sensor (http://www.lemurzone.com/airbag/crash.htm) ............... 41 Figure 3.25. Configuration of proactive exterior airbag systems............................... 42 Figure 3.26. Closed end exhausted airbag system................................................... 43 Figure 3.27. Windshield airbag ................................................................................. 44

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Figure 3.28. Intrusion measurement on an adult dummy head. ............................... 46 Figure 3.29. Bonnet head form tests performed at BASt in Germany, 40 km/h impact speed (Zellmer and Glaser, 1994)..................................................................... 48 Figure 3.30. Bonnet with protection system in activated (lifted) position. ................. 49 Figure 3.31. Example of a pneumatic muscle........................................................... 51 Figure 3.32. Contraction of a pneumatic muscle for hood lifting............................... 51 Figure 3.33. Position of sensors in bumper (1: contact sensor, 2: accelerometers). 53 Figure 3.34. Sensor tests at 25 km/h........................................................................ 54 Figure 3.35. Head-impact results at 40 km/h (25 mph) using the proposed European test limit with a standard hood and with an active hood from Autoliv................. 55 Figure 3.36. Crash test in 40 km/h with a pedestrian dummy and an active bonnet. 57 Figure 3.37. Example of an active bumper system [6].............................................. 58 Figure 3.38. Impact of a 3-year old child (P3) and 50%-male dummy (HII) on a hood [WEB00] ............................................................................................................ 59 Figure 3.39. Cross section of inflatable bumper [6]. Legend: 1: vehicles contour, 2: support, 3: guiding, 4: airbag, 5: gas generator, 6: pressure measuring instrument. ........................................................................................................ 62 Figure 3.40. Inflatable units at front and rear end [6]. Legend: 2: bumpers, 4: airbags. .......................................................................................................................... 63 Figure 3.41. Scheme of scanning and deployed active bumper system [7]. Legend: 1: radar receiver, 2: wire, 3: radar transmitter, 4: computer, 5: speed sensor, 6: obstacle,7: frame, 9: pyrotechnical mechanism, 10: deformation mechanism. .......................................................................................................................... 63 Figure 3.42. Reaction propulsion drive for active bumpers [4]. Legend: 7: support , 9: cartridge, 11: charge, 13: rod, 15: support, 17: nozzle, 19: stroke. ............... 64 Figure 3.43. Hydraulic active bumper [9] .................................................................. 65 Figure 3.44. Electrical release unit of a hydraulic rod [9]. Legend: 16: housing, 20: jack, 22: body, 24: stem, 30: package, 56: blocking, 57: broach, 58: block, 60: flange, 62: guiding, 63: annular reinforcement, 66: wheel, 68: rod, 70: rod, 74: positioning stop, 76: complementary stop. .................................................. 66 Figure 3.45. Rain sensor: Localisation of transmitter LED and receiver diode. ........ 69 Figure 3.46. Principle of rain detection by reflection measurement techniques on the windshield.......................................................................................................... 70 Figure 3.47. Detailed structure of a rain sensor........................................................ 71 Figure 3.48. Even water-based adhesive drips off the lotus leave (photo: Prof. Barthlott, University of Bonn)............................................................................. 72 Figure 3.49. Active night vision with IR-headlamps (photo: HELLA)......................... 73
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Figure 3.50. Comparison of direct and IR vision (Valeo) .......................................... 75 Figure 3.51. Infrared camera (Raytheon) ................................................................. 76 Figure 3.52. Two examples of head-up displays. Left: IR camera image projected, Right: Navigation data, speed information and object information projected..... 76 Figure 3.53. IR filter in headlamp (Valeo) ................................................................. 77 Figure 3.54. Example for driver warning system. ..................................................... 78 Figure 3.55. Reversible seat-belt pre-tensioner........................................................ 86 Figure 3.56. Reversible seat-belt retractor and its force diagram. ............................ 87 Figure 3.57. Severity index of different types of measures....................................... 94 Figure 3.58. Severity index of different area types. .................................................. 95 Figure 3.59. Siteco lighting engineering. .................................................................. 97 Figure 3.60. Invisibility of VRU at the tunnel exit ...................................................... 98 Figure 3.61. Tunnel exit - View from inside the car................................................... 98 Figure 3.62. Cars blocking sight on pedestrian ........................................................ 99 Figure 3.63. View from inside the car ..................................................................... 100 Figure 3.64. Single-side illuminated road ............................................................... 101 Figure 3.65. Children in front of a school building, far-off pedestrian crossing ....... 102 Figure 4.1. Collision speed versus braking duration. Initial speed 50 km/h (blue lines), 40 km/h (green lines). Deceleration a = -1 m/s2 and a = -2 m/s2, respectively.108 Figure 4.2. Reduction of collision speed square vCollision2 during the contact versus braking duration. Initial speed 50 km/h (blue lines), 40 km/h (green lines). Deceleration a = -1 m/s2 and a = -2 m/s2 respectively..................................... 109 Figure 4.3. Cumulative frequency of MAIS2+ casualties versus collision speed. ... 110 Figure 4.4. Measurement accuracy of a single measurement in the x-y-plane....... 116 Figure 4.5. Measurement accuracy of a single measurement in x-direction (y = 0 m). ........................................................................................................................ 117 Figure 4.6. Measured position assuming detection probability of 70 %. ................. 118 Figure 4.7. Measured position (blue) and tracked position (red) assuming detection probability of 70 %........................................................................................... 120 Figure 4.8. Accuracy of a single measurement (blue) and theoretical track accuracy (red) assuming detection probability of 100 %. ............................................... 121 Figure 4.9. Maximum range versus braking acceleration (a = -1 m/s2 -9,81 m/s2). ........................................................................................................................ 122 Figure 4.10. Time Scheme for deployment of warning signals or automatic deceleration actuators. .................................................................................... 125 Figure 4.11. Configuration camera field of view. .................................................... 130

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List of Tables

Table 3.1. Examples of reversible and non-reversible protection systems. .............. 16 Table 3.2. Consequences of reversible and non-reversible methods. ...................... 17 Table 3.3. Reaction time (measurement results)...................................................... 52 Table 3.4. Results from head form tests at 50 km/h, comparing the active bonnet with the standard bonnet. ......................................................................................... 55 Table 3.5. Possible acoustic reactions to alert and dangerous situations................. 84 Table 3.6: Possible visual reactions to alert and dangerous situations..................... 85 Table 3.7. Simplified example of the Danish road and speed classification system. 91 Table 3.8. Overview of the analysed sites from France and UK allocated to area types and infrastructural measures ................................................................... 92 Table 3.9. Reduction of pedestrian victims of the single area types and due to the single infrastructural measures.......................................................................... 94 Table 3.10. Results of the FYRR-calculation of the single area types and of to the single infrastructural measures.......................................................................... 95 Table 4.1. Overview about protection systems and their protection potential. Legend: +: positive evaluation level, 0: neutral evaluation level, -: negative evaluation level. *) valid for reversible variant only. .......................................................... 106 Table 4.2. Hints of system specifications for different VRU protection actuators (legend: = as high as possible (>>99,9 %); = as low as possible (<<0,1 %)). ........................................................................................................................ 113 Table 4.3. Camera parameters............................................................................... 129 Table 4.4. Minimum camera coverage angle versus different vehicle and VRU velocities. ........................................................................................................ 131 Table 4.5. Evaluation of influence of actuator on driver and pedestrian, respectively. Legend: + = helpful; 0 = not directly helpful; *) = if a warning can be applied early enough to the driver................................................................................ 133 Table 4.6. Evaluation of the sensor measurement capabilities (without tracking). . 134

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