CONJUNCTIONS A conjunction is a part of speech that (1) joins words, phrases, and clauses and (2) indicates a relationship

between the joined elements. There are four kinds of conjunctions. Coordinating Conjunction A coordinating conjunction is a single word that joins words, phrases, and claus es of equal grammatical construction. Examples are knives and spoons (noun & nou n), run or shout (verb & verb), down the stairs and around the house (prepositio nal phrase & prepositional phrase). Coordinating conjunctions also join complete sentences, i.e., independent clauses. These conjunctions also imbue equal gramm atical weight, or rank, to the joined elements. Correlative Conjunction A correlative conjunction is a paired conjunction that, like a coordinating conj unction, joins elements of equal grammatical construction. Correlative conjuncti ons also imbue equal grammatical weight to elements they join. However, they do not join independent clauses; these paired conjunctions only join equal elements within an independent clause, forming compound elements, i.e., subject & subjec t, verb & verb, object & object, etc. Subordinating Conjunction A subordinating conjunction is an adverb that introduces a subordinate adverbial clause and joins the subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence. The idea, or proposition, expressed by the subordinate clause has less grammatical weight (rank or importance) than the idea expressed by the main clause. Subordinating c onjunctions are not true conjunctions; their name, however, derives from their a bility to join clauses. Most subordinators are a single word, but some are compo sed of two or more words, i.e., a phrase. Conjunctive Adverb (Includes transitions & adverbial expletives) A conjunctive adverb is an adverb or adverbial phrase that joins two independent clauses (like a coordinating conjunction) and provides adverbial emphasis. Howe ver, conjunctive adverbs are not considered true conjunctions. Sometimes a conjunctive adverb can function as a connector, or bridge, a word or phrase that helps to link entire sentences or paragraphs. Conjunctive adverbs t hat perform this function are called transitional elements or transitions. Finally, an adverbial word or phrase can function as an expletive, i.e., a funct ion word. (See below.) An expletive is an exclamatory word inserted into a sente nce that adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence. Usage Note A function word, e.g., an article, preposition, or conjunction, is a word that h as little semantic meaning of its own and chiefly indicates a grammatical relati onship. Also called a form word or functor. I. COORDINATING CONJUNCTION (Joins words, phrases, clauses) There are seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so --> F -A-N-B-O-Y-S. A coordinating conjunction joins elements of equal grammatical construction, e.g ., two or more nouns, verbs, phrases, or clauses. Additionally, coordinating con junctions can join two or more independent clauses into a single sentence. When joining independent clauses, a coordinating conjunction also joins the propositi ons, or ideas, expressed in each independent clause. Coordinating conjunctions l end equal weight, or importance, to the grammatical elements and the ideas they join. In the following examples, coordinating conjunctions appear in accentuated text; the joined elements are underlined. Jack and Jill went up the hill. (Coordinating conjunction joins two grammatically equal elements: two nouns, Jac k and Jill. Additionally, the elements joined by the coordinating conjunction ar e equally important to the idea of the sentence, i.e., the nouns Jack and Jill a re equally important to sentence meaning.)

The fur of polar bears is often pure white, but sometimes one will find a bear w ith grey fur. (A coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses. The conjunction gives equal weight to the idea expressed by each clause.) You'll find shampoo products on aisle two or on aisle three. (Coordinating conjunction joins two prepositional phrases, grammatically equal e lements. Also, the coordinating conjunction gives equal weight to both phrases.) The industrialists are monsters, so we believe their doctrine is monstrous. (Two independent clauses are joined.) The parish priest is desperate and anxious, for his congregation is nearly gone. (Two nouns are joined; in addition, two independent clauses are joined by for.) The Irish famine of 1846-50 took a million lives, nor was a single household spa red hardship. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights seeks to protect humankind, yet abuses around the world continue to rage unchecked. Semantic Relationship of Coordinates As we have seen, coordinating conjunctions, or coordinates, all share the same f unction of connecting words, phrases, and clauses with equal emphasis to the joi ned elements. These same coordinates, however, each express a specific semantic relationship between the joined elements. and joins two propositions (ideas)

Ex: In 376 B.C.E., several Greek cities joined in a naval alliance against Spart a; and Athens won back control of the sea.

but

joins two contrastive propositions (ideas)

Ex: The wine is sweet, but the bread is moldy.

or

joins two alternative propositions (ideas)

Ex: Is that a distant oasis, or do my eyes deceive me?

so

first idea (the cause) results in second idea (the effect)

Ex: The honeymooners began quarreling, so now they sleep in different rooms.

for

used to mean seeing that, since, or because

Ex: He went to the party alone, for I refused go with him.

nor

used in negative expressions

Ex: He nor I plan to attend any social functions this year.

yet

used to mean though, still, and nevertheless

Ex: The pudding is good, yet it could have been better. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS A correlative conjunction is essentially a coordinate conjunction used in pairs. A correlative conjunction gets its name from the fact that it is a paired conju nction that has a reciprocal or complementary relationship. Correlative conjunct ions always join grammatically equal elements (e.g., noun & noun, adjective & ad jective, phrase & phrase, clause & clause, etc.). They also lend equal weight to the joined elements; which is to say, one joined element is always equal to but never subordinate to the other. It's interesting to note that the second word o f each conjunctive pair is a coordinating conjunction. Note Correlative conjunctions usually precede the joined elements, or conjuncts, imme diately. Correlative conjunctions are essentially paired coordinating conjunctions. The m eaning expressed by a sentence with correlative conjunctions is basically the sa me as a sentence with a coordinating conjunction. The difference is only a matte r of emphasis, where the correlative conjunction reinforces the fact that there are two equal elements or ideas in the sentence. Below are five pairs of correla tive conjunctions commonly used in English. either ..... or neither ..... nor not only ..... but also whether ..... or both ..... and In the following examples, note the placement of correlating conjunctions, which generally appear immediately before the elements they join. Conjunctions appear in accentuated text; joined elements are underlined. Either you or Susan must remain with me. (Correlative conjunction joins the pronoun you and the noun Susan, becoming the compound subject of the sentence.) Either help us in our struggle for galit or step aside and let us pass. (Conjunction joins two independent clauses.) This job requires an ability possessed neither by Jack nor by John. (Conjunction joins two prepositional phrases.) In 1795 B.C.E., Babylon was not only the capital city of ancient Babylonia but a lso the world's first metropolis. (Two noun phrases are joined, forming a compound subject complement.) Whether we meet in the park or at Enid's house is up to you. (Sometimes a correlating conjunction does not immediately precede the joined ele ment.) Both the teacher and the principal were furious. (Conjunction joins two noun phrases, which become the compound subject.) When using paired conjunctions, be sure the joined elements are grammatically eq ual. Poor grammatical constructions result when joining unequal elements. In the examples below, joined elements appear in accentuated text; conjunctions are un derlined. When building Hoover Dam, laborers not only discovered silver but also gold. (Construction is poor because the correlative conjunction does not join grammati cally equal elements. Discovered silver is a verb + object; gold is a noun. The conjunction pairs a phrase with a single noun.) When building Hoover Dam, laborers discovered not only silver but also gold. (The construction is correct because the paired conjunctions join two nouns, gra mmatically equal elements.) Beth became angry both with our singing and our shouting.

(Grammatically unequal elements are joined: A prepositional phrase is joined wit h a gerund phrase.) Beth became angry both with our singing and with our shouting. (Two prepositional phrases, grammatically equal elements, are joined.) Put your earnings either in a bank or in a treasury account. Whether Jim sees a movie or watches a play is unimportant to me. The hounds were neither smart enough to climb the ledge nor small enough to ente r the cave. Common Subordinating Conjunctions (These Adverbs Can Also Function as Conjunctions, Transitions & Expletives) after although as as though if since as if because before provided that

as long as even though rather than

in order that so that than when whereas wherever

though unless until whenever where

whether while Subordinating Conjunction Introduces Subordinate Clause A subordinate, or dependent, adverbial clause functions within a sentence to mod ify the main clause or a part of the main clause, usually the main verb. The ide a, or what is sometimes called the proposition, contained within a subordinate c lause is said to be of lesser rank or importance than the idea expressed in the main clause. Although their name suggests otherwise, subordinating conjunctions are not true conjunctions; but the name derives from their ability to incorporat e into a sentence another idea in addition to the idea expressed by the main cla use. Because many of the words described as subordinating conjunctions can also funct ion as other parts of speech, a word functioning as a subordinate conjunction is identified by function alone. All subordinating conjunctions are adverbs or adv erbial phrases; but not all adverbs or adverbial phrases are subordinating conju nctions. Some adverbs can, for instance, function as conjunctive adverbs or adve rbial expletives . Note in each following example that the main sentence clause appears in unhighli ghted text. This is the main idea, or proposition, expressed in each sentence. S ubordinate clauses appear in accentuated text; the subordinating conjunction is underlined. Can you determine which one of the several concepts (mentioned above ) the subordinate clause introduces into the main sentence clause? Because Norman was constantly late, Mr. Russell cut him from band practice. Take two tablets daily until the doctor tells you to stop. If she's going, I will not go. Although the carpet had been treated, it was stained by the red wine. Sarah cooked our supper while I mowed the lawn. Nebil sings opera as though he were Luciano Parvarotti. SENTENCE STRUCTURE 1. Simple Sentences A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a subject , a verb, and a completed thought. Examples of simple sentences include the following: 1. Joe waited for the train.

"Joe" = subject, "waited" = verb 2. The train was late.

"The train" = subject, "was" = verb 3. Mary and Samantha took the bus.

"Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "took" = verb 4. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.

"I" = subject, "looked" = verb 5. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon and left on the bus before I arrived. "Mary and Samantha" = compound subject, "arrived" and "left" = compound verb Tip: If you use many simple sentences in an essay, you should consider revising some of the sentences into compound or complex sentences (explained below). The use of compound subjects, compound verbs, prepositional phrases (such as "at the bus station"), and other elements help lengthen simple sentences, but simpl e sentences often are short. The use of too many simple sentences can make writi ng "choppy" and can prevent the writing from flowing smoothly. A simple sentence can also be referred to as an independent clause. It is referr ed to as "independent" because, while it might be part of a compound or complex sentence, it can also stand by itself as a complete sentence. 2. Compound Sentences A compound sentence refers to a sentence made up of two independent clauses (or complete sentences) connected to one another with a coordinating conjunction. Co ordinating conjunctions are easy to remember if you think of the words "FAN BOYS ": For And Nor But Or Yet So Examples of compound sentences include the following: 1. Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.

2. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station, but they arrived at t he station before noon and left on the bus before I arrived. 3. Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, and they left

on the bus before I arrived. 4. Mary and Samantha left on the bus before I arrived, so I did not see the m at the bus station. Tip: If you rely heavily on compound sentences in an essay, you should consider revising some of them into complex sentences (explained below). Coordinating conjunctions are useful for connecting sentences, but compound sent ences often are overused. While coordinating conjunctions can indicate some type of relationship between the two independent clauses in the sentence, they somet imes do not indicate much of a relationship. The word "and," for example, only a dds one independent clause to another, without indicating how the two parts of a sentence are logically related. Too many compound sentences that use "and" can weaken writing. Clearer and more specific relationships can be established through the use of co mplex sentences. 3. Complex Sentences A complex sentence is made up of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses connected to it. A dependent clause is similar to an independent clause , or complete sentence, but it lacks one of the elements that would make it a co mplete sentence. Examples of dependent clauses include the following: because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon while he waited at the train station after they left on the bus Dependent clauses such as those above cannot stand alone as a sentence, but they can be added to an independent clause to form a complex sentence. Dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Below are some of the m ost common subordinating conjunctions: after although as because before even though if since though unless

until when whenever whereas wherever while A complex sentence joins an independent clause with one or more dependent clause s. The dependent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by the independent clause, as in the following: Tip: When the dependent clause comes first, a comma should be used to separate t he two clauses. 1. Because Mary and Samantha arrived at the bus station before noon, I did not see them at the station. 2. te. While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was la

3. After they left on the bus, Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was wait ing at the train station. Conversely, the independent clauses can go first in the sentence, followed by th e dependent clause, as in the following: Tip: When the independent clause comes first, a comma should not be used to sepa rate the two clauses. 1. I did not see them at the station because Mary and Samantha arrived at t he bus station before noon. 2. n. Joe realized that the train was late while he waited at the train statio

3. Mary and Samantha realized that Joe was waiting at the train station aft er they left on the bus. Complex sentences are often more effective than compound sentences because a com plex sentence indicates clearer and more specific relationships between the main parts of the sentence. The word "before," for instance, tells readers that one thing occurs before another. A word such as "although" conveys a more complex re lationship than a word such as "and" conveys. The term periodic sentence is used to refer to a complex sentence beginning with a dependent clause and ending with an independent clause, as in "While he waite d at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late." Periodic sentences can be especially effective because the completed thought occ urs at the end of it, so the first part of the sentence can build up to the mean ing that comes at the end.