Chapter 22 Outline I. Opening Vignette A. The Berlin Wall was breached on November 9, 1989. 1.

built in 1961 to seal off East Berlin from West Berlin 2. became a major symbol of communist tyranny B. Communism had originally been greeted by many as a promise of liberation. 1. communist regimes had transformed their societies 2. provided a major political/ideological threat to the Western world a. the cold war (19461991) b. scramble for influence in the third world between the United States and the USSR c. massive nuclear arms race 3. and then it collapsed II. Global Communism A. Communism had its roots in nineteenth-century socialism, inspired by Karl Marx. 1. most European socialists came to believe that they could achieve their goals through the democratic process 2. those who defined themselves as communists in the twentieth century advocated revolution 3. communism in Marxist theory is the final stage of historical development, with full development of social equality and collective living B. At communisms height in the 1970s, almost one-third of the worlds population was governed by communist regimes. 1. the most important communist societies by far were the USSR and China 2. communism also came to Eastern Europe, North Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Cuba, Afghanistan 3. none of these countries had the industrial capitalism that Marx thought necessary for a socialist revolution 4. communist parties took root in many other areas C. The various expressions of communism shared common ground: 1. a common ideology, based on Marxism a. an international revolutionary movement was more important than national loyalties 2. inspiration of the 1917 Russian Revolution a. USSR provided aid and advice to aspiring revolutionaries elsewhere through Comintern (Communist International) 3. during the cold war, the Warsaw Pact created a military alliance of Eastern European states and the USSR a. Council on Mutual Economic Assistance tied Eastern European economies to the USSRs b. Treaty of Friendship between the USSR and China (1950) 4. but relations between communist countries were also marked by rivalry and hostility, sometimes war III. Comparing Revolutions as a Path to Communism A. Communist revolutions drew on the mystique of the French Revolution. 1. got rid of landed aristocracies and the old ruling classes 2. involved peasant upheavals in the countryside; educated leadership in the cities 3. French, Russian, and Chinese revolutions all looked to a modernizing future, eschewed any nostalgia for the past 4. but there were important differences: a. communist revolutions were made by highly organized parties guided by a Marxist ideology b. the middle classes were among the victims of communist upheavals, whereas middle classes were chief beneficiaries of French Revolution B. Russia: Revolution in a Single Year 1. Russias revolution (1917) was sudden, explosive a. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate the throne in February 1917 b. massive social upheaval 2. deep-seated social revolution soon showed the inadequacy of the Provisional Government a. it would not/could not meet the demands of the revolutionary masses b. refused to withdraw from WWI c. left opening for the rise of more radical groups d. most effective opposition group was the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) 3. Bolsheviks seized power in a coup (October 1917) a. claimed to act on behalf of the soviets b. three-year civil war followed: Bolsheviks vs. a variety of enemies c. by 1921, Bolsheviks (now calling their party communist) had won 4. during the civil war, the Bolsheviks: a. regimented the economy b. suppressed nationalist rebellions

c. committed atrocities (as did their enemies) d. integrated many lower-class men into the Red Army and into local governments e. claimed to defend Russia from imperialists as well as from internal exploiters f. strengthened their tendency toward authoritarianism 5. for 25 years, the new USSR was the only communist country a. expansion into Eastern Europe thanks to Soviet occupation at the end of WWII b. Stalin sought a buffer of friendly governments in Eastern Europe; imposed communism from outside i. there was also domestic support for communism ii. in Yugoslavia, development of a popular communist movement under Josef Broz (Tito) C. China: A Prolonged Revolutionary Struggle 1. communism won in China in 1949, after a long struggle a. the Chinese imperial system had collapsed in 1911 b. the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was not founded until 1921 2. over the next 28 years, the CCP grew immensely and transformed its strategy under Mao Zedong 3. had a formidable enemy in the Guomindang (Nationalist Party), which ruled China after 1928 a. Chiang Kai-shek led the Guomindang b. the Guomindang promoted modern development, at least in cities c. the countryside remained impoverished 4. the CCP was driven from the cities, developed a new strategy a. looked to the peasants for support, not city workers b. only gradually won respect and support of peasants c. given a boost by Japans invasion of China i. destroyed Guomindang control of much of the country ii. meanwhile, the CCP grew enormously iii. CCPs Peoples Liberation Army waged vigorous war against Japanese invaders using guerrilla warfare tactics iv. the CCP instituted reforms in areas it controlled 5. the CCP addressed both foreign imperialism and peasant exploitation a. expressed Chinese nationalism and demand for social change b. gained a reputation for honesty, unlike the Guomindang IV. Building Socialism in Two Countries A. Joseph Stalin built a socialist society in the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s; Mao Zedong did the same in China in the 1950s and 1960s. 1. first step: modernization and industrialization 2. serious attack on class and gender inequalities 3. both created political systems dominated by the Communist Party a. high-ranking party members were expected to exemplify socialism b. all other parties were forbidden c. the state controlled almost the entire economy 4. Chinas conversion to communism was a much easier process than that experienced by the USSR a. the USSR had already paved the way b. Chinese communists won the support of the rural masses c. but China had more economic problems to resolve B. Communist Feminism 1. communist countries pioneered womens liberation a. largely directed by the state b. the USSR almost immediately declared full legal and political equality for women c. divorce, abortion, pregnancy leave, womens work were all enabled or encouraged 2. 1919: USSRs Communist Party set up Zhenotdel (Womens Department) a. pushed a feminist agenda b. male communist officials and ordinary people often opposed it c. Stalin abolished it in 1930 3. communist China also worked for womens equality a. Marriage Law of 1950 ordered free choice in marriage, easier divorce, the end of concubinage and child marriage, and equal property rights for women b. the CCP tried to implement pro-female changes against strong opposition c. women became much more active in the workforce 4. limitations on communist womens liberation a. Stalin declared the womens question solved in 1930 b. no direct attack in either state on male domination within the family c. women retained burden of housework and child care as well as paid employment

d. few women made it into top political leadership C. Socialism in the Countryside 1. in both states, the communists took landed estates and redistributed the land to peasants a. Russia: peasants took and redistributed the land themselves b. China: land reform teams mobilized poor peasants to confront landlords and wealthier peasants i. 1 million2 million landlords were killed in the process 2. second stage of rural reform: effort to end private property in land by collectivizing agriculture a. in China, collectivization was largely peaceful (1950s) b. in the USSR, collectivization was imposed by violence (19281933) i. kulaks (rich peasants) were killed or deported ii. the result was a massive famine (around 5 million died) c. Chinas collectivization went further than the USSRs i. creation of huge peoples communes during the Great Leap Forward (late 1950s) ii. the result was a massive famine (19591962) in which 20 million people or more died D. Communism and Industrial Development 1. both states regarded industrialization as fundamental a. need to end humiliating backwardness and poverty b. desire to create military strength to survive in a hostile world 2. China largely followed the model established by the USSR a. state ownership of property b. centralized planning (five-year plans) c. priority given to heavy industry d. massive mobilization of resources e. intrusive party control of the whole process f. both countries experienced major economic growth i. vast improvement in literacy and education ii. great increase in social mobility iii. rapid urbanization iv. development of a privileged bureaucratic and technological elite 3. the USSR leadership largely accepted the social outcomes of industrialization a. gradual move away from revolutionary values 4. China under Mao Zedong tried to combat the social effects of industrialization a. the Great Leap Forward (19581960) promoted small-scale industrialization in rural areas i. tried to spread technological education widely ii. hoped to bring full communism to the peoples communes without waiting for industrial development iii. result: massive disruptions, accompanied by natural disasters, caused a massive famine b. the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (mid-1960s) i. intended to combat capitalist tendencies ii. effort to bring health care and education to the countryside iii. and to reinvigorate rural industrialization under local control E. The Search for Enemies 1. the USSR and China under Stalin and Mao were rife with paranoia a. fear that important communists were corrupted by bourgeois ideas; became class enemies b. fear of a vast conspiracy by class enemies and foreign imperialists to restore capitalism 2. USSR: the Terror (Great Purges) of the late 1930s a. enveloped millions of Russians, including tens of thousands of prominent communists b. many were sentenced to harsh labor camps (the gulag) c. nearly a million people were executed between 1936 and 1941 3. China: the search for enemies was a more public process a. the Cultural Revolution (19661969) escaped control of communist leadership b. Mao had called for rebellion against the Communist Party itself c. purge of millions of supposed capitalist sympathizers d. Mao had to call in the army to avert civil war 4. both the Terror and the Cultural Revolution discredited socialism and contributed to eventual collapse of communist experiment V. East versus West: A Global Divide and a Cold War A. Military Conflict and the Cold War 1. Europe was the cold wars first arena a. Soviet concern for security and control in Eastern Europe b. American and British desire for open societies linked to the capitalist world economy 2. creation of rival military alliances (NATO and the Warsaw Pact)

a. American sphere of influence (Western Europe) was largely voluntary b. Soviet sphere (Eastern Europe) was imposed c. the Iron Curtain divided the two spheres 3. communism spread into Asia (China, Korea, Vietnam), caused conflict a. North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950 i. bitter war (19501953), with Chinese and American involvement ii. ended in a standoff and a divided Korea b. Vietnam: massive U.S. intervention in the 1960s i. Vietnamese communists successfully united the country by 1975 4. major cold warera conflict in Afghanistan a. a Marxist party took power in 1978 but soon alienated much of the population b. Soviet military intervention (19791989) met with little success c. USSR withdrew in 1989 under international pressure; communist rule of Afghanistan collapsed 5. the battle that never happened: Cuba a. Fidel Castro came to power in 1959 b. nationalization of U.S. assets provoked U.S. hostility c. Castro gradually aligned himself with the USSR d. Cuban missile crisis (October 1962) i. Khrushchev deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba ii. the U.S. government detected the missiles iii. United States nearly invaded Cuba iv. Khrushchev and Kennedy reached a compromise B. Nuclear Standoff and Third World Rivalry 1. the USSR succeeded in creating a nuclear weapon in 1949 2. massive arms race: by 1989, the world had nearly 60,000 nuclear warheads, with complex delivery systems 3. 19491989: fear of massive nuclear destruction and even the possible extinction of humankind 4. both sides knew how serious their destructive power was a. careful avoidance of nuclear provocation, especially after 1962 b. avoidance of any direct military confrontation, since it might turn into a nuclear war 5. both the United States and the USSR courted third world countries a. United States intervened in Iran, the Philippines, Guatemala, El Salvador, Chile, the Congo, and elsewhere because of fear of communist penetration b. the United States often supported corrupt, authoritarian regimes c. many third world countries resisted being used as pawns d. some countries (e.g., India) claimed nonalignment status in the cold war e. some tried to play off the superpowers against each other i. Indonesia received Soviet and Eastern European aid but destroyed the Indonesian Communist Party in 1965 ii. Egypt turned toward the USSR when the United States wouldnt help build the Aswan Dam; turned back toward the United States in 1972 C. The United States: Superpower of the West, 19451975 1. the United States became leader of the West against communism a. led to the creation of an imperial presidency in the United States b. power was given to defense and intelligence agencies, creating a national security state c. fear that democracy was being undermined d. anticommunist witch-hunts (1950s) narrowed the range of political debate e. strengthened the influence of the military-industrial complex 2. U.S. military effort was sustained by a flourishing economy and an increasingly middle-class society a. U.S. industry hadnt been harmed by WWII, unlike every other major industrial society b. Americans were a people of plenty c. growing pace of U.S. investment abroad 3. American popular culture also spread around the world a. jazz, rock-and-roll, and rap found foreign audiences b. by the 1990s, American movies took about 70 percent of the European market c. around 20,000 McDonalds restaurants in 100 countries D. The Communist World, 1950s1970s 1. Nikita Khrushchev took power in the USSR in 1953; in 1956, he denounced Stalin as a criminal 2. the cold war justified a continuing Soviet emphasis on military and defense industries a. continuous government propaganda glorified the Soviet system and vilified America 3. growing conflict among the communist countries a. Yugoslavia rejected Soviet domination b. Soviet invasions of Hungary (19561957) and Czechoslovakia (1968) to crush reform movements

c. early 1980s: Poland was also threatened with invasion d. brutal suppression of reform tarnished the image of Soviet communism, gave credence to Western views of the cold war as a struggle between tyranny and freedom e. sharp opposition between the USSR and China i. territorial disputes ii. ideological differences iii. rivalry for communist leadership iv. 1960: the USSR withdrew Soviet advisers and technicians from China v. China developed its own nuclear weapons vi. USSR and China were close to war by the late 1960s f. China went to war against a communist Vietnam in 1979 4. world communism reached its greatest extent in the 1970s VI. Comparing Paths to the End of Communism A. The communist era ended rapidly and peacefully between the late 1970s and 1991. 1. China: Mao Zedong died in 1976 a. the CCP gradually abandoned Maoist socialism 2. Europe: popular movements overthrew communist governments in 1989 a. USSR suffered political disintegration on Christmas Day, 1991 3. both cases show the economic failure of communism a. communist states couldnt catch up economically b. the Soviet economy was stagnant c. failures were known around the world d. economic failure limited military capacity 4. both cases show the moral failure of communism a. Stalins Terror and the gulag b. Maos Cultural Revolution c. near-genocide in Cambodia d. all happened in a global climate that embraced democracy and human rights B. China: Abandoning Communism and Maintaining the Party 1. Deng Xiaoping came to power in 1976 a. relaxed censorship b. released some 100,000 political prisoners c. dismantled collectivized farming system 2. China opened itself to the world economy a. result: stunning economic growth and new prosperity b. also generated massive corruption among officials, urban inequality, pollution, and inequality between coast and interior 3. the Chinese Communist Party has kept its political monopoly a. brutal crushing of democracy movement in late 1980s b. Tiananmen Square massacre 4. China is now a strange and troubled hybrid that combines nationalism, consumerism, and new respect for ancient traditions C. The Soviet Union: The Collapse of Communism and Country 1. Mikhail Gorbachev became general secretary in mid-1980s a. launched economic reform program (perestroika, or restructuring) in 1987 b. was met with heavy resistance c. Gorbachev responded with glasnost (openness) to greater cultural and intellectual freedoms i. effort to end the deep distrust between society and state 2. glasnost revealed what a mess the USSR was (crime, prostitution, suicide, corruption, etc.) a. the extent of Stalins atrocities was uncovered b. new openness to religious expression c. ending of government censorship of culture 3. democratizationfree elections in 1989 4. move to end the cold war by making unilateral military cuts, negotiating arms control with United States 5. but Gorbachevs reforms led to collapse of the USSR a. the planned economy was dismantled before a market-based system could develop b. new freedoms led to more strident demands c. subordinate states demanded greater autonomy or independence d. Gorbachev refused to use force to crush the protesters 6. Eastern European states broke free from USSR-sponsored communism 7. conservatives attempted a coup (August 1991)

a. coup collapsed within three days, due to popular resistance 8. fifteen new and independent states emerged from the breakup of the USSR D. By 2000, the communist world had shrunk considerably. 1. communism had lost its dominance completely in the USSR and Eastern Europe 2. China had mostly abandoned communist economic policies 3. Vietnam and Laos remained officially communist but pursued Chinese-style reforms 4. Cuba: economic crisis in the 1990s, began to allow small businesses and private food markets 5. North Korea is the most unreformed and Stalinist communist state left 6. international tensions remain only in East Asia and the Caribbean VII. Reflections: To Judge or Not to Judge: The Ambiguous Legacy of Communism A. Many think that scholars shouldnt make moral judgments. 1. but we cant help being affected by our own time and culture 2. its more valuable to acknowledge the limits of cultural conditioning than to pretend to a dream of objectivity 3. judgments are a way of connecting with the past B. Many continue to debate whether the Russian and Chinese revolutions were beneficial and whether the late twentiethcentury reforms were good or bad. 1. communism brought hope to millions 2. communism killed and imprisoned millions C. Is it possible to acknowledge such ambiguity?

Chapter 23 Outline I. Opening Vignette A. Nelson Mandela of South Africa spent 27 years in prison for treason, sabotage, and conspiracy. 1. in 1994, he became South Africas first black president B. Decolonization was vastly important in the second half of the twentieth century. 1. the newly independent states experimented politically, economically, and culturally 2. these states were labeled as the third world during the cold war a. now are often called developing countries or the Global South b. they include a large majority of the worlds population c. suffer from enormous challenges II. Toward Freedom: Struggles for Independence A. The End of Empire in World History 1. India, Pakistan, Burma, Indonesia, Iraq, Jordan, and Israel won independence in the late 1940s 2. African independence came between mid-1950s and mid-1970s a. more than 50 colonies won freedom 3. imperial breakup wasnt new; the novelty was mobilization of the masses around a nationalist ideology and creation of a large number of new nation-states a. some comparison to the first decolonization of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries b. but in the Americas, most colonized people were of European origin, holding a common culture with their colonial rulers 4. fall of many empires in the twentieth century a. Austrian and Ottoman empires collapsed in the wake of World War I b. Russian Empire collapsed but was soon recreated as the USSR c. German and Japanese empires ended with World War II d. African and Asian independence movements shared with other end of empire stories the ideal of national self-determination e. nonterritorial empires (e.g., where United States wielded powerful influence) came under attack i. U.S. intrusion helped stimulate the Mexican Revolution(1910) ii. as in Mexico, Cuban revolution (19591960) included nationalization of assets dominated by foreign investors f. disintegration of the USSR (1991) was propelled by national self-determination (creation of 15 new states) B. Explaining African and Asian Independence 1. few people would have predicted imperial collapse in 1900 2. several explanations for decolonization have emerged: a. emphasis on the fundamental contradictions in the colonial enterprise i. rhetoric of Christianity and material progress didnt fit the reality of racism, exploitation, and poverty ii. Europeans increasingly democratic values were in conflict with colonial dictatorship iii. ideal of national self-determination was at odds with repression of the same in colonies b. historians use the idea of conjuncture to explain timing of decolonization i. the world wars had weakened Europe and undermined a sense of European superiority ii. the United States and USSR opposed older European colonial empires iii. the UN provided a platform for anticolonial moves iv. these factors helped create a moral climate in which imperialism was viewed as wrong v. by the early to mid-twentieth century, the colonies had multiple generations of Westerneducated elites c. some scholars emphasize the role of specific groups and individualsthe issue of agency i. in many areas, colonial powers themselves planned for independence of colonies ii. pressure of nationalist movements iii. the leaders of some nationalist movements became the fathers of new states: Gandhi and Nehru (India), Sukarno (Indonesia), Ho Chi Minh (Vietnam), Nkrumah (Ghana), Mandela (South Africa) iv. millions of ordinary people joined in 3. independence was contested everywhere a. independence efforts usually were not cohesive movements of uniformly oppressed people b. fragile coalitions of conflicting groups and parties III. Comparing Freedom Struggles A. The Case of India: Ending British Rule 1. before 1900, few people of the Indian subcontinent thought of themselves as Indians a. cultural identity was primarily local

b. diversity was enormous 2. British rule promoted a growing sense of Indian identity a. unlike earlier foreign rulers, the British didnt assimilate; Indians shared more similarities to each other than to the rulers b. British communications and administrative networks, schools, and use of English bound India together 3. 1885: establishment of the Indian National Congress (INC) a. almost exclusively an association of English-educated, high-caste Hindus b. made moderate demands; at first asked for a greater role in the life of British India c. British mocked them and rejected their claim to speak for all Indians d. the INC only began to gain a wide following after World War I i. in 1917, Britain promised future development of self-government ii. British attacks on the Ottoman Empire antagonized Muslim Indians iii. repressive actions by the British caused outrage 4. the role of Mohandas Gandhi (18691948) a. had studied law in England but wasnt a very successful lawyer b. in 1893, took a job in South Africa i. joined a movement to fight racial segregation there ii. developed a notion of India that included both Hindus and Muslims c. developed the political philosophy of satyagraha (truth force) i. active but nonviolent confrontation d. back in India, Gandhi became a leader of the INC i. 1920s and 1930s: periodic mass campaigns that won massive public support ii. British responded with repression and concessions iii. Gandhi transformed the INC into a mass organization iv. won the name Mahatma (Great Soul) e. attacked not just colonial rule but also mistreatment of Indias untouchables and the evils of modernization 5. not everyone agreed with Gandhi a. especially important was a growing Muslim/Hindu divide b. 1906: creation of an All-India Muslim League c. some Hindu politicians defined the nationalist struggle in religious terms d. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, head of the Muslim League, argued that regions of India with a Muslim majority should be a separate state (Pakistan, the land of the pure) 6. independence in 1947 created two countries a. Pakistan (Muslim, divided into two wings 1,000 miles apart) b. India (secular but mostly Hindu) c. process was accompanied by massive violence; some 1 million died, 12 million refugees relocated 7. 1948: a Hindu extremist assassinated Gandhi B. The Case of South Africa: Ending Apartheid 1. South Africa won freedom from Great Britain in 1910 2. but its government was controlled by a white settler minority a. so the black South African freedom struggle was against an internal opponent 3. white population was split between British descendants (had economic superiority) and Afrikaners (Boers) of Dutch descent (had political dominance) a. Afrikaners had failed to win independence from the British in the Boer War (18991902) b. both white groups felt threatened by any move toward black majority rule 4. by the early 1900s, South Africa had a mature industrial economy a. by the 1960s, had major foreign investments and loans b. black South Africans were extremely dependent on the white-controlled economy c. the issue of race was overwhelmingly prominent i. policy of apartheid tried to keep blacks and white completely separate, while retaining black labor power ii. enormous repressive powers enforced social segregation 5. African National Congress (ANC) founded in 1912 a. like Indias INC, it consisted of elite Africans who wanted a voice in society b. for 40 years, the ANC was peaceful and moderate c. 1950s: moved to nonviolent civil disobedience d. the governments response was overwhelming repression i. 69 unarmed demonstrators were shot at Sharpville in 1960 ii. ANC was banned and its leadership imprisoned 6. underground nationalist leaders turned to sabotage and assassination

a. opposition came to focus on student groups b. Soweto uprising (1976) was the start of spreading violence c. organization of strikes 7. growing international pressure a. exclusion from international sporting events b. economic boycotts c. withdrawal of private investment funds 8. negotiations began in the late 1980s a. key apartheid policies were abandoned b. Mandela was freed and the ANC legalized 9. 1994: national elections brought the ANC to power a. apartheid was ended without major bloodshed b. most important threat was a number of separatist and Africans only groups IV. Experiments with Freedom A. New nations emerging from colonial rule confronted the problem of how to parlay independence into economic development and industrial growth,unification, and political participation. 1. already independent but nonindustrialized countries faced the same quest for a better life 2. all together = the third world (developing countries, the Global South) 3. 19502000: developing nations contained 75 percent of world population a. accounted for almost all of the quadrupling of world population in the twentieth century 4. independence created euphoria, but optimism soon faded in light of difficulties B. Experiments in Political Order: Comparing African Nations and India 1. common conditions confronted all efforts to establish political order: a. explosive population growth b. overly high expectations for independence c. cultural diversity, with little loyalty to a central state 2. in the 1950s, British, French, and Belgians set up democratic institutions in their African colonies a. few still survived by the early 1970s b. many were swept away by military coups c. some evolved into one-party systems 3. in India, Western-style democracy succeeded a. the independence movement was more extended, and power was handed over gradually b. many more Indians than Africans had administrative and technical skills at the time of independence c. the Indian Congress Party embodied the whole nationalist movement, without too much internal discord 4. various arguments as to why Africans initially rejected democracy a. some argue that the Africans were not ready for democracy or lacked some necessary element b. some argue that African traditional culture (communal,based on consensus) was not compatible with party politics c. some argue that Western-style democracy was inadequate to the task of development 5. widespread economic disappointment discredited early African democracies a. African economic performance since independence has been poor b. widespread economic hardship c. modern governments staked their popularity on economic success 6. the well-educated elite benefited most, obtaining high-paying bureaucratic jobs that caused resentment 7. economic resentment found expression in ethnic conflict 8. repeatedly, the military took power in a crisis 9. starting in the 1980s, Western-style democracy has resurfaced a. series of grassroots movements arose after authoritarian governments failed to improve economic situation C. Experiments in Economic Development: Changing Priorities, Varying Outcomes 1. the belief that poverty isnt inevitable won out a. however, in many states, colonial rule had not provided much infrastructure for modern development b. most developing countries didnt have leverage in negotiation with wealthy nations and corporations c. African leaders got contradictory advice on how to develop successfully 2. general expectation in the developing world that the state would spur economic development a. most private economies were weakly developed b. Chinese and Soviet industrialization provided models c. but for several decades, there has been growing dependence on market forces for economic development i. many states privatized state-run industries ii. influenced by collapse of the USSRs state-dominated economy

iii. Western pressures pushed developing countries toward capitalism 3. urban vs. rural development has been an important issue a. in some areas, the urban bias has been partly corrected b. womens access to employment, education, and birth control provided incentives to limit family size 4. debate over whether foreign aid, investment, and trade are good or bad 5. the degree of economic development has varied widely by region a. East Asia has been the most successful b. 1990s: India opened itself more fully to the world market c. several Latin American states developed industrially d. most of Africa, much of the Arab world, and parts of Asia didnt catch up, and standards of living often declined e. there is no general agreement about why such great variations developed D. Experiments with Culture: The Role of Islam in Turkey and Iran 1. the relationship between Western-style modernity and tradition has been an issue across the developing world 2. the case of Islam: Turkey and Iran approached the issue of how Islam and modernity should relate to each other very differently 3. Turkey: emerged in the wake of World War I, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatrk (18811938) a. major cultural revolution in the 1920s and 1930s b. effort to create a thoroughly modern, Western society c. much of the Islamic underpinning of society was abolished or put under firm government control i. effort to keep Islam personal, rather than an official part of public life d. men were ordered not to wear the fez; many elite women gave up the veil e. women gained legal rights, polygamy was abolished, and women got the vote (1930s) f. state-organized enterprises were set up g. government remained authoritarian, although a parliamentary system emerged after 1938 4. Iran: became the center of Islamic revival (1970s) a. growing opposition to Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavis modernizing, secularizing, U.S.-supported government b. many of the shahs reforms offended traditional Islamic practices c. the mosque became the main center of opposition to the government i. the Shia ulama had stayed independent from the state ii. Shia leaders became the voice of opposition, especially the Ayatollah Khomeini d. the shah was forced to abdicate in 1979, and Khomeini assumed control of the state i. established the sharia as the law of the land ii. secular officials were purged iii. rejection of many Western practices as anti-Islamic e. the Islamic revolution in Iran wasnt revolutionary in social terms i. Iran also continued to work on economic modernity V. Reflections: History in the Middle of the Stream A. It is difficult for historians to discuss more recent events and themes like those described in this chapter, because that history is still in the making. 1. detachment is difficult 2. we dont know what the final outcomes will be B. Historians know how unexpected and surprising historical processes can be. 1. but still, history is our only guide to the possible shape of the future 2. the history of modern events provides a useful reminder that people in earlier times didnt know the way things would turn out either

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