Human geographers ask Where things are from? and Why are they found there?

Human geography: the study of where and why human activities are located where they are Map: two-dimensional or flat-scale model of Earths surface, or a portion of it Geographers use two concepts to explain why everywhere is unique: o Place: A specific point on Earth distinguished by a particular character o Region: An area of Earth distinguished by a distinctive combination of cultural and physical features Three concepts explain why these similarities do not result from coincidence: o Scale: The relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole o Space: refers to the physical gap or interval between two objects o Connections: relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space

MAPS
Two purposes: 1. Tool for storing reference material 2. Tool for communicating geographic information

Early Mapmaking Earliest surviving maps were drawn by Babylonians on clay tablets in 2300 B.C. For more info see pages 7-9

Map Scale Represented in three ways fraction, ration, or written statement (1 inch equals 1 mile)

Projection Projection: The scientific method of transferring locations on Earths surface to a flat map Distortion is a problem: o Shape can be distorted o Distance between two points can be increased or decreased o Relative size of different areas may be altered, so one may look larger than it really is o Direction from one place to another can be altered

U.S. Land Ordinance of 1785 Divided much of the country into a system of townships and ranges to facilitate the sale of land to settlers in the West o Initial surveying by Thomas Hutchins appointed US geographer in 1781 Township: A square 6 miles on each side Principal meridians: North-south lines separating townships Base lines: East-west lines separating townships A township is divided into 36 sections (1 mile by 1 mile), each section into 4 quarter sections Still important today

CONTEMPORARY TOOLS
GIS Geographic information system: a computer system that can capture, store, query, analyze, and display geographic data o Key is geocoding: the position of any object on Earth can be measured and recorded with mathematical precision, then stored in a computer Used to produce maps that are more accurate and attractive than drawn by hand Information is stored in layers o You can turn on and off layers o Layers can be boundaries, bodies of water, roads, and names of places o Layers can be compared to show relationships among different kinds of info Enables geographers to calculate whether relationships between objects on a map are significant or merely coincidental

Remote Sensing Remote sensing: The acquisition of data about Earths surface from a satellite orbiting Earth or from other long-distance methods Satellites can scan Earths surface, transmit images in a digital form to receiving stations on Earth o Records image of a tiny area called a pixel Mainly environmental, mapping vegetation and other surface cover, gathering data for large unpopulated areas such as the extent of winter ice on oceans Helps map the distribution of urban sprawl and agricultural practices

GPS

Global positioning system: determines accurately the precise position of something on Earth Includes two dozen satellites Commonly used in navigation Useful in coding the precise location of objects and entering o This info can be used later in creating a layer in GIS

PLACE: A UNIQUE LOCATION OF A FEATURE

Location: The position that something occupies on Earths surface o Four ways to identify: place name, site, situation, and mathematical location

Place Name Most straight-forward name (Cincinnati, Czechoslovakia) Toponym: name given to a place on Earth

Site Site: The physical character of a place o Important characteristics are climate, water sources, topography, soil, vegetation, latitude, and elevation

Situation Situation: Location of a place relative to other places o Valuable way to indicate location, for two reasons finding an unfamiliar place and understanding its importance

Mathematical Location Meridian: An arc between the North and South poles o The location of each meridian is identified on Earths surface according to longitude o Prime meridian: Meridian that passes through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England is 0 degrees longitude Latitude: The numbering system that indicates he location of a parallel o Equator is 0 degrees latitude, North pole 90 north latitude, South pole 90 south latitude Latitudes are scientifically derived from the Earths shape and its rotation around the Sun Longitudes are a human creation, any meridian could have been selected o 0 runs through Greenwich because England was the worlds most powerful country when it was first accurately measured and the international agreement was made Earth is divided into 360 degrees of longitude, (0-180 west, 0-180 east) Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) or Universal Time (UT): International agreement designated the time at the prime meridian o Master reference time for all points on Earth International Date Line: follows 180 longitude

REGIONS: AREAS OF UNIQUE CHARACTERISTICS

Cultural landscape: a combination of cultural features such as language, religion, economic features such as agriculture and industry, and physical features such as climate and vegetation

Cultural Landscape Regional studies: contemporary cultural landscape approach; initiated in France by Paul Vidal de la Blanche and Jean Brunhes o Each region has its own distinctive landscape that results from a unique combination of social relationships and physical processes People are the most important agents of change of Earths surface

Types of Regions Three types of regions formal, functional and vernacular Formal: (uniform region or homogeneous) an area within which everyone shares in common one or more distinctive characteristics o Can be a cultural value (language), economic activity, or environmental property Functional: (nodal) an area organized around a node or focal point o Characteristics chosen to define a functional region dominates at a central focus or node and diminishes in importance outward Vernacular: (perceptual) a place that people believe exists as part of their cultural identity o Mental map: an internal representation of a portion of Earths surface Depicts what an individual knows about a place, containing personal impressions of what is in a place and where places are located

Spatial Association Regional Integration of Culture Culture: the body of customary beliefs, material traits, and social forms that together constitute the distinct tradition of a group of people o Also refers to small living organisms

Cultural Ecology: Integrating Culture and Environment Cultural ecology: geographic study of human-environmental relationships Environmental determinism: Humboldt and Ritter concentrated on how the physical environmental caused social development To be continued on page 26