DEPARTMENT OF MECH ENGG

CERTIFICATE
























ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


























CANDIDATES DECLARATION

























INDEX
1. ABSTRACT..05
2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION............................06
3. INTRODUCTION OF INDUCTION BRAKING08
4. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY...16
Linear eddy current brake...17
Explanation for use of eddy current brake design.18
Overview of eddy current generation..19
Eddy current generation diagram...21
Determining force produced by eddy currents...22
Component orientation.23
Disc orientation..24

5. EXPERIMENTAL SET UP. 25-31
6. FORCE ANALYSIS...32-37

Structural Analysis......33
Stress due to imbalance34
Stress due to eddy current...35

7. MATERIAL
SELECTION..38-40
8. PRACTICAL
APPLICATION..41-47
9. THEORITICAL
TESTING........48-52
10. OPERATIONAL
APPLICATION..53-55
11. SAFTEY
IMPROVEMENT56
12. COST AND
BENEFITS ...57
13. ADVANTAGES...58
14. CONCLUSION59
15. COST ANALYSIS60
16. RESULT61
17. REFRENCES62



ABSTRACT

An Induction brake, like a conventional friction brake, is responsible
for slowing an object, such as a train or a roller coaster. However,
unlike electro-mechanical brakes, which apply mechanical pressure
on two separate objects, eddy current brakes slow an object by
creating eddy currents through electromagnetic induction which
create resistance, and in turn either heat or electricity.
Induction brakes are similar to electrical motors; non-ferromagnetic
metal discs (rotors) are connected to a rotating coil, and a magnetic
field between the rotor and the coil creates a resistance used to
generate electricity or heat. When electromagnets are used, control of
the braking action is made possible by varying the strength of the
magnetic field. A braking force is possible when electric current is
passed through the electromagnets. The movement of the metal
through the magnetic field of the electromagnets creates eddy currents
in the discs. These eddy currents generate an opposing magnetic field
(Lenz's law), which then resists the rotation of the discs, providing
braking force. The net result is to convert the motion of the rotors into
heat in the rotors.










Project Discription

To demonstrate the production of torque, we've essentially taken the
driveshaft and built a test rig around it. By attaching a conductive
disc to the driveshaft and setting up electromagnets around it, we can
create a braking force (assuming the disc is moving fast) to decelerate
the driveshaft. If we can prove that the required torque is achievable
via eddy-current-braking, then the electro-magnets can be installed.


















WHAT IS BRAKING ?
A brake is a device used for slowing or stopping the motion of a
machine or vehicle, and to keep it from starting to move again. The
kinetic energy lost by the moving part is usually translated to heat by
friction.
Kinetic energy increases with the square of the velocity
(E = m v
2
relationship). This means that if the speed of a vehicle
doubles, it has four times as much energy. The brakes must therefore
dissipate four times as much energy to stop it and consequently the
braking distance is four times as long.
The efficient way to reduce the waste of energy in braking the
conventional ways is to employ electric braking technology.















INTRODUCTION
OF
INDUCTION BRAKING






WHAT IS INDUCTION BRAKING?
Induction brakes are used in electrically driven utilities and machines
in industries and mainly in electric automotives such as electric locos.
This was designed as an alternative to the conventional braking
system of applying friction over the wheels to slow them .Here the
kinetic energy is converted back into electrical form which otherwise
is wasted while braking the system. This is aided by the ability of
certain motors, to run as generators when the torque gets reversed.
The generated energy may be either stored in a battery or sent back to
the grid as in electric locomotives .
















Induction brake

Electromagnetic brakes are similar to electrical motors; non-
ferromagnetic metal discs (rotors) are connected to a rotating coil, and
a magnetic field between the rotor and the coil creates a resistance
used to generate electricity or heat. When electromagnets are used,
control of the braking action is made possible by varying the strength
of the magnetic field. A braking force is possible when electric
current is passed through the electromagnets. The movement of the
metal through the magnetic field of the electromagnets creates eddy
currents in the discs. These eddy currents generate an opposing
magnetic field, which then resists the rotation of the discs, providing
braking force. The net result is to convert the motion of the rotors into
heat in the rotors.
Japanese Shinkansen trains had employed circular eddy current brake
system on trailer cars since 100 Series Shinkansen. However, N700
Series Shinkansen abandoned eddy current brakes in favour
of regenerative brakes since 14 of the 16 cars in the trainset used
electric motors.


TYPES OF INDUCTION BRAKING:
- Regenerative Braking
- Rheostatic/Dynamic Braking
- Electromagnetic/Eddy current Braking


Regenerative Braking
A regenerative brake is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a
vehicle or object down by converting its kinetic energy into another
form, which can be either used immediately or stored until needed.
This contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the excess
kinetic energy is converted to heat by friction in the brake linings and
therefore wasted.
The most common form of regenerative brake involves using an
electric motor as an electric generator. In electric railways the
generated electricity is fed back into the supply system, whereas in
battery electric and hybrid electric vehicles, the energy is stored in a
battery or bank of capacitors for later use. Energy may also be stored
mechanically via pneumatics, hydraulics or the kinetic energy of a
rotating flywheel


Regenerative brakes are discovered in 1832 .
In the regenerative system, the kinetic energy is converted back
into electrical form which otherwise is wasted while braking the
system. This is done by the ability of certain motors, to run as
generators when the torque gets reversed.
The generated energy may be either stored in a battery or sent
back to the grid as in electric locomotives.
Regenerative brakes take energy normally wasted during braking
and turn it into usable energy.

WORKING OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING
When a vehicle is approaching a stop light, it does not create
friction and useless heat in order to slow down.
Instead it reverses its electric motor turning it into an electric
generator, creating electricity which is fed back into a battery
and stored for further use.
In fact any time a hybrid-electric vehicle slows down
( lifting the accelerator or application of the "brake) causes the
system to use the vehicle's momentum to generate electricity.




DYNAMIC BRAKING
During braking, the motor fields are connected across either the main
traction generator (diesel-electric loco) or the supply (electric
locomotive) and the motor armatures are connected across either the
brake grids or supply line. The rolling locomotive wheels turn the
motor armatures, and if the motor fields are now excited, the motors
will act as generators.
During dynamic braking the traction motors which are now acting as
generators are connected to the braking grids (Large resistors) which
put a large load on the electrical circuit. When a generator circuit is
loaded down with resistance it causes the generators to slow their
rotation. By varying the amount of excitation in the traction motor
fields and the amount of resistance imposed on the circuit by the
resistor grids, the traction motors can be slowed down to a virtual stop
(approximately 3-5 MPH).
The electrical energy produced by the motors is dissipated as heat by
a bank of onboard resistors. Large cooling fans are necessary to
protect the resistors from damage. Modern systems have thermal
monitoring, so if the temperature of the bank becomes excessive, it
will be switched off, and the braking will revert to air only.
Dynamic braking alone is insufficient to stop a locomotive, as its
braking effect rapidly diminishes below about 10 to 12 miles per hour
(16 to 19 km/h). Therefore it is always used in conjunction with the
regular air brake. This combined system is called blended braking.
Li-ion batteries have also been used to store energy for use in
bringing trains to a complete halt.




ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING
An eddy current brake, like a conventional friction brake, is
responsible for slowing an object, such as a train or a roller coaster.
However, unlike electro-mechanical brakes, which apply mechanical
pressure on two separate objects, eddy current brakes slow an object
by creating eddy currents through electromagnetic induction which
create resistance, and in turn either heat or electricity.

WORKING
As the metal disc rotates inside the magnetic field, electric currents,
called eddy currents are induced inside it. Those currents then
generate a magnetic field in opposition to the original field thus
creating a force which acts to decelerate the rotating disc.
Heat is created in the disc as a result of the electrical resistance of
the disc material and the current induced in it; this heat represents
the kinetic energy being dissipated and is analogous to the heat
generated by a conventional friction brake.
The electromagnet allows control of the braking action by varying
the strength of the magnetic field to produce a braking force,
Because the induced current is proportional to the speed of the disc
the braking torque decreases as the disc decelerates resulting in a
smooth stop.
Regenerative braking is not used with brakes of this type since the
induced current is dissipated as heat and is not practical to recover.





Basic Function Of Induction Brake

1. Electromagnets produce magnetic field from supplied current
2. Change of magnetic flux (with time) induces eddy currents in
conductor (disc)
3. Eddy Currents produce another magnetic field opposing first
field
4. Opposing magnetic fields create force that reduces velocity










PROPOSED

METHODOLOGY














Linear Eddy Current Brake

The principle of the linear eddy current brake has been described by
the French physicist Foucault, hence in French the eddy current brake
is called the "frein courants de Foucault".
The linear eddy current brake consists of a magnetic yoke with
electrical coils positioned along the rail, which are being magnetized
alternating as south and north magnetic poles. This magnet does not
touch the rail, as with the magnetic brake, but is held at a constant
small distance from the rail (approximately seven millimeters). It does
not move along the rail, exerting only a vertical pull on the rail.
When the magnet is moved along the rail, it generates a non-
stationary magnetic field in the head of the rail, which then generates
electrical tension (Faraday's induction law), and causes eddy currents.
These disturb the magnetic field in such a way that the magnetic force
is diverted to the opposite of the direction of the movement, thus
creating a horizontal force component, which works against the
movement of the magnet.
The braking energy of the vehicle is converted in eddy current losses
which lead to a warming of the rail. (The regular magnetic brake, in
wide use in railways, exerts its braking force by friction with the rail,
which also creates heat.)
The eddy current brake does not have any mechanical contact with the
rail, and thus no wear, and creates no noise or odor. The eddy current
brake is unusable at low speeds, but can be used at high speeds both
for emergency braking and for regular braking.
The first train in commercial circulation to use such a braking is
the ICE 3.
Modern roller coasters use this type of braking, but utilize permanent
magnets instead of electromagnets, and require no electricity.
However, their braking strength cannot be adjusted as easily as with
an electromagnet.


Explanation for use of Eddy Current Brake Design

Taking into consideration recommended use of the Eddy
Current Brake System, we chose the Eddy Current Brake design
because it is most capable with all of achieving all requirements
and working within all constraints defined in this project. The
Eddy Current Brake System (ECBS) will permit a frictionless,
non-contact, reset-able solution to generator disconnect
activation. With choosing the ECBS we may also use some of
the constraints to our advantage as opposed to the constraints
acting as a limiting factor or hindrance. For example, due to the
ECBS not needing any frictional force, we will use the oil mist
environment as a cooling agent to the heat generated by the
Eddy Currents and will not have to worry about the oil causing
slip.

By using a frictionless braking system, such as the ECBS we
reduce the mechanical dependence of this system, however, that
does not lead to neglecting other mechanical properties.
Stresses need to be considered to assure we have selected a
suitable material that will withstand the braking forces when
activated as well as the constant rotation of the disk when not in
use.

The ECBS will work within all given parameters and
limitations. Finding the material properties of the ECBS and
strengths of electromagnets will determine its efficiency. We
will alter properties as needed and present a solution that will
work. The functioning final product will act as a secondary
prototype which may exceed the limitations set by Honeywell
but will function to the needs of Honeywell. In addition to
coming up with a secondary prototype we will optimize our
design to work within all limitations but may not function to the
requirements of Honeywell. This design will work to the best of
its ability but may fall short in accomplishing the final goal of
160 inch-pounds of torque. The final design will ideally
produce the 160 inch-pounds needed and work within all
limitations set by Honeywell. This report will go into detail on
the analysis of an Eddy Current Brake System in latter portions
of this section.

The ECBS setup will contain a total of eight electromagnets
with a strength presented in the Structural Analysis section of
this report, an aluminum conducting disc with properties given
in the Materials Selection portion of this report, and any other
components needed for the test rig assembly. Figure depicts the
setup we will use for our Eddy Current Brake System.


Figure : Eddy Current Brake System

We feel that all of our design concepts will perform its duty and
serving as a reasonable replacement for the current shear neck
design. However, given certain constraints and limitations we
determined that the ECBS is the best option for this particular
application given all of the requirements. In the section entitled
Dismissal of Alternative Solutions we rule out the other
concepts for their respective reasons. We explain why we did
not choose them but also why they would serve as a viable
option for disconnect activation.

Overview of Eddy Current Generation

Eddy Currents are in induced current that exist in a solid. A
changing magnetic flux over an area of the solid will produce an
Eddy Current which will create a magnetic field opposing the
field producing the Eddy Currents. The opposition of this
generated magnetic field is dependant on the changing area. As
the area of flux increases the Eddy Current generation is in a
negative direction. With a decreasing area exposed to the flux
the generated Eddy Currents will act in the opposite, positive

Eddy Current Generation Diagram

The figure shows one plate at two instances in time. The first
instant models the plate just entering the magnetic field directed
into the page. The swirl indicated on the plate illustrates the
direction of the Eddy Current. The Eddy Current in position one
has a negative direction or counter clockwise direction. The
second position shows the Eddy current swirl going in the
positive direction, or clockwise, as the plate has a decreasing
area passing through the flux. Essentially, at the middle of the
field there is no Eddy Current generation and also acts as the
point in which the Eddy Current generation changes direction.
The diagram also shows a force,
b
F , which represents the force
created by the Eddy Currents that are generated. The force
created by the Eddy Currents will always oppose the direction of
motion. The magnetic field generated by the Eddy Currents will
oppose one another in position one of figure, and attract each
other as the area is decreasing, thereby creating a force that
always opposes the direction of the plates motion. The force
produce by the Eddy Current generation is proportional to the
conductivity of the material and the magnitude of the magnetic
field, B.







Determining Force Produced by Eddy Currents

The analysis for determining the amount of force created by
Eddy Currents with a known magnetic field proves extremely
tedious. Writing a computer program to calculate the force
produced by the eddy currents is not within the scope of this
project and would far exceed our timeline. We purchased a
software program called Faraday, which will calculate the force
generated by the induced eddy current. Nearly all other modes
of analysis require the known force created by eddy current
generation. To approximate those forces we wrote a basic
MATLAB program to simulate the eddy current force
generated. The MATLAB program will be discussed in greater
detail in the following sections.

.









Component Orientation

Electromagnet Orientation

We will use a total of four pairs of electromagnets per
request .We will need to use four pairs or less in order to fall
under the weight limitation of our design. The pairs will be
oriented with the polarities aligning North to South and the
disc spinning between the pairs. We will discuss in more
detail the component design for the Electromagnets. We
will build our own electromagnet coils using materials
defined in this report, later in this section. By building our
own electromagnets we may establish their polarity and
when orienting them in the housing we will alternate the
directions of polarity. Alternating the polarity will produce
a greater force in our final product. In addition to opposite
polarity it may not make a difference where we mount the
electromagnets, so long as they are mounted very close and
perpendicular to the disc and not too close to each other.
We will optimize this property of our design with further
testing and analysis. A study done by Caldwell, N.J and
J.R.M. Taylor of the University of Edinburgh in Scotland on
Oct 10, 2007, shown in Appendix D, proves that a change of
polarity in electromagnets applied to eddy current brakes
will produce a higher force than only one direction of
polarity. We will likely mount the magnets depicted in
figure 1 on page15, however upon testing we may conclude
that having the magnets closer together may create the
maximum torque. Further testing will either prove or
disprove this concept.

Disc Orientation

The disc will have only one orientation. It will mount
perpendicularly to the drive shaft and the electromagnets
while mounted in the middle of the paired coils. One major
concern comes in the form of how we will fasten the disk to
the drive shaft. We will most likely pressure fit a collar
around the drive shaft thereby attaching the disc by way of a
pressure fit collar. If this is not feasible, we will conduct
further review and brainstorming for a new way to fasten the
disc to the drive shaft.














EXPERIMENTAL
SET UP










SET UP

Again, the overall goal is to produce a torque on the drive shaft
(green) that will activate a disconnect system (not shown here). A
torque on the shaft is equivalent to a torque on the conductive disc
since they are directly connected. Weve constructed a test apparatus
(shown below) that consists of the drive-shaft, conductive disc,
electromagnets, and other components necessary for operation and
data collection. The apparatus will be used to show that the braking
torque is achievable with the geometry dictated by Honeywell
Aerospaces specific application.


Vision of Apparatus After Initiation of Assembly





Description of components

1. Battery : 12 V dc

2. DC motor : 300 Rpm

3. Metal Disc : Aluminium 7075

4. Electromagnet
a. Soft Iron Core
b. Copper wire

5. Multimeter

6. Brake Paddle and Accelerater paddle















Electromagnet Design

The electromagnets will be built and assembled by our team.
Building our own electromagnets gives us the ability to generate the
magnetic field needed. We will use standard coated copper wire
coiled around a ferrous metal core. Coating the copper wire will
prevent corrosion and increase the life of the electromagnets and
maintain the efficiency of the overall braking system. The number of
turns of copper around our ferrous material will determine the
strength of the induced magnetic field. Upon further analysis with the
Faraday computer program we will determine how many turns are
needed per coil as well as the amperage needed to provide the needed
magnetic field, which determines the force generated. Building our
own to the needed specifications will also cut down on cost of the
product as well as give Honeywell specifications to build their own,
have outsourced, or purchase.

After researching electromagnet design we determined a
ferrous material, such as 409 stainless steel or iron, ideal for
a metal core for electromagnets. When constructing the
electromagnet components, we will coat the copper wires
and exposed core with a protective epoxy coating as to not
leave the electromagnets exposed to the environment
established earlier in this report. When mounting the
electromagnets we will mount them in pairs. By pairing the
electromagnets and aligning north-south polarity we will
direct and concentrate the magnetic field to ensure a
perpendicular magnetic field with maximum possible
magnitude. The magnetic pairs will produce a similar
magnetic field to the illustration in figure 3.


Figure 3: Magnetic field lines of Coil Pairs
shows that the magnetic field is concentrated and controllable
between the coil pairs. In our design the disc will operate
between the two coils. This phenomenon will produce
maximum magnitude and flux to the disc thereby generating
maximum force.





Conducting Disc Design

The design of the disc is fairly simple. We will use a highly
conductive material that will also keep its shape and
material properties over the lifetime of the generator. If the
disc becomes warped, looses conductivity or fails in some
other manner results in the overall failure of the ECBS.
Assuring the material used to perform adequately is
detrimental to the success of the ECBSs function as an
activation system.

We will machine the disc from a 5.25 square inch aluminum
alloy slab with a thickness of 0.1 inch to fit the design
envelop requirements. The disc will be machined to a radius
of 2.4 inches with an established tolerance of plus or minus
five-hundredths of an inch. Our main focus is the selection
of a suitable material.
.











FORCE ANALYSIS


STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Stress Analysis for Final Design

Stress Due to the Rotating Disc


The high rotation rate of the disc will cause enormous
stresses within the disc. The rotation is by far the source
contributing the largest amount of stress in the disc.
According to Shigleys Mechanical Engineering Design
Eighth Edition by Richard G. Bundynas and J. Keith Nisbett
the equations that quantify these stresses act in both the
tangential and radial directions where tangential is defined as
the direction tangent to the outer edge of the circle created by
the silhouette of the disc, and radial is defined as the direction
starting at the axis of rotation of the disc and moving outward
through the plane of the disc. Both the tangential and radial
stresses are functions of the interesting radius, r. The
equations, listed on page 110 of the text book, are shown
below.


o
t
= e
2
3+v
8
|
\

|
.
| r
i
2
+ r
o
2
+
r
i
2
r
o
2
r
2

1+ 3v
3+v
r
2
|
\


|
.
|
|




o
r
= e
2
3+v
8
|
\

|
.
| r
i
2
+ r
o
2

r
i
2
r
o
2
r
2

1+ 3v
3+v
r
2
|
\


|
.
|
|

o
t
= tangential stress
o
r
= radial stress
r
i
= inner radius
r
o
= outer radius
v = Poissons ratio
= material density
= angular velocity [rad/s]

Stress Due to Imbalance

The customer provided a constraint for the imbalance of the
disc. The disc should not exceed 0.005 oz*in. To complete a
stress analysis on the disc due to this imbalance a definition
for the term imbalance was decided. An imbalance of 0.005
oz*in would analytically equivalent to additional mass of disc
material in the amount of 0.005 oz (requiring no additional
volume), located in the disc a distance of 1 inch from the axis
of rotation and symmetric across the thickness of the disc. A
more generic definition with an imbalance of MR is depicted
below.


Figure 4: Modeling of Imbalance Analysis

The magnitude of the stress caused by the imbalance was
found to be very small and insignificant compared to the
stress caused by the angular velocity of the disc.













Stress Due to Eddy Currents

The Forces that the eddy currents cause on the disc oppose
the direction of motion the disc. In the image below the red
arrows indicate the direction of rotation of the disc and the E
vectors represent the corresponding eddy-current-forces on
the differential ring element of the disc.

Figure :Differential Piece of Disc for Force Analysis



Heat Transfer


The eddy currents are, as their name indicates, electrical
currents within the disc. The disc material acts as an
electrical resistor. As current passes through an electrical
resistance, electrical energy is converted to thermal energy.
The eddy currents will cause the disc to heat up. Since it
takes less than a second for the disconnect to activate, the
current will only be flowing through the disc material for a
very short time. The assumption was made that the heating
due to the eddy currents in this short amount of time would
be negligible.

To verify the validity of this assumption, a heat transfer
analysis was conducted on the disc. For heat transfer
purposes the assumption was made that the rotating disc
could be approximated as a static flat plate made of 6061
aluminum with a length of L = 2t[(r
o
+ r
i
)/2] and with an oil
mist fluid passing by it at a velocity of v = e
min
r
avg
where
e
min
is the minimum angular velocity of the disc (minimum is
worst case scenario because less heat can be removed by
convection for smaller fluid velocities) and r
avg
is the average
between the inner and outer radii of the disc.

Using the appropriate equations and the thermophysical
properties of engine oil (to approximate oil mist environment)
the Reynolds number and Nusselt number were calculated so
that an average convection coefficient could be calculated.
The heat rate transferred from the disc was then calculated.
Subtracting this value from the heat rate transferred into the
disc (electrical power) provides the net heat transferred into
the disc. The final disc temperature can then be calculated
based on a guess for the initial disc temperature. Several
different initial temperatures were guessed and all verified
our assumption that the increase in disc temperature due to
the eddy currents would be very small and negligible.


Material Selection







Disc Material

The Disc will be machined from a 7075 Aluminum plate.
Due to the disc spinning at very high angular velocities we
will need to utilize a very strong material while maintaining
its structural integrity. If in further analysis of the ECBS we
determine another material better suited we will conduct
analysis and make a decision accordingly.
Table 3: Disc Material Properties
Material Ult.
Tensile
strengt
h
Yield
Strengt
h
Poisson
s Ratio
Shear
Strengt
h
Shear
Modul
us
Electrical
Resistivit
y
7075-
T651
Aluminu
m
83.0
kpsi
73.0
kpsi
0.330 48.0
kpsi
3.9 kpsi 0.000002
03 ohm-
inch
6061- T6
Aluminu
m
45.0
kpsi
40.0
kpsi
0.330 30.0
kpsi
3.77
kpsi
0.000001
57 ohm-
inch
Berylliu
m
Copper
C17200-
TH04
190
kpsi
165
kpsi
0.300 N/A 7.25
kpsi
0.000002
72 ohm-
inch




Electromagnet Core Material

We will make the Electromagnet cores out of a soft stainless
steel, cut and machined by our team members, unless
outsourcing is required. Soft stainless steel materials are
generally low carbon high chromium and Molybdenum
percentage steel with controlled additions of Silicon and
Sulfur. The low carbon content of soft stainless steel allows
for a high magnetic permeability which will allow the
greatest magnetic effect by the electrical current, generated
in the coils for maximum magnetic field strength. We are
currently taking into consideration Kinetics MIM 2.5% SiFe
Soft Magnetic Steel. This steel has high magnetic
permeability and designed primarily for solenoid
applications. Thorough research leads our team to believe
this may be the best materials for cores but have not been
provided with the material properties due to its dependence
on geometry. Our team will conduct further investigation
into selecting a suitable material for a solenoid core.



Wire/loop Material

We will use standard coated or tinned 20 gauge copper wire
for the electromagnet coils. The number of coils along with
the current will determine the force generated by the
induced magnetic field. It is important for the conducting
wire to contain a very small amount of resistance. The
copper wire will give a sufficiently small amount of
resistance.














PRACTICAL APPLICTION

Electric railway vehicle operation
During braking, the traction motor connections are altered to turn
them into electrical generators. The motor fields are connected across
the main traction generator (MG) and the motor armatures are
connected across the load. The MG now excites the motor fields. The
rolling locomotive or multiple unit wheels turn the motor armatures,
and the motors act as generators, either sending the generated current
through onboard resistors (dynamic braking) or back into the supply
(regenerative braking).
For a given direction of travel, current flow through the motor
armatures during braking will be opposite to that during motoring.
Therefore, the motor exerts torque in a direction that is opposite from
the rolling direction.
Braking effort is proportional to the product of the magnetic strength
of the field windings, times that of the armature windings.
Savings of 17% are claimed for Virgin Trains Pendolinos. There is
also less wear on friction braking components. The Delhi Metro saved
around 90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO
2
) from being released into
the atmosphere by regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of electricity
through the use of regenerative braking systems between 2004 and
2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro will save over 100,000 tons
ofCO
2
from being emitted per year once its phase II is complete
through the use of regenerative braking.
Another form of simple, yet effective regenerative braking is used on
the London Underground which is achieved by having small slopes
leading up and down from stations. The train is slowed by the climb,
and then leaves down a slope, so kinetic energy is converted to
"stored" potential energy in the station.
Electricity generated by regenerative braking may be fed back into the
traction power supply; either offset against other electrical demand on
the network at that instant, or stored in lineside storage systems for
later use.

Dynamic brake
Dynamic brakes ("rheostatic brakes" in the UK), unlike regenerative
brakes, dissipate the electric energy as heat by passing the current
through large banks of variable resistors. Vehicles that use dynamic
brakes include forklifts, Diesel-electric locomotives, and streetcars.
This heat can be used to warm the vehicle interior, or dissipated
externally by large radiator-like cowls to house the resistor banks.
The main disadvantage of regenerative brakes when compared with
dynamic brakes is the need to closely match the generated current
with the supply characteristics and increased maintenance cost of the
lines. With DC supplies, this requires that the voltage be closely
controlled. Only with the development of power electronics has this
been possible with AC supplies, where the supply frequency must
also be matched (this mainly applies to locomotives where an AC
supply is rectified for DC motors).
A small number of mountain railways have used 3-phase power
supplies and 3-phase induction motors. This results in a near constant
speed for all trains as the motors rotate with the supply frequency
both when motoring and braking.
Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS) were used for the motor
sport Formula One's 2009 season, and under development for road
vehicles. However, KERS was abandoned for the 2010 Formula One
season. The Formula One Teams that used Kinetic Energy Recovery
Systems in the 2009 season are Ferrari, Renault, BMW, and McLaren.
One of the main reasons that not all cars use KERS is because it adds
an extra 25 kilograms of weight, while not adding to the total car
weight, it does incur a penalty particularly seen in the qualifying
rounds, as it raises the car's center of gravity, and reduces the amount
of ballast that is available to balance the car so that it is more
predictable when turning. FIA rules also limit the exploitation of the
system. Eventually, during the season, Renault and BMW stopped
using the system. Williams is developing a flywheel-KERS system.
The concept of transferring the vehicles kinetic energy
using Flywheel energy storage was postulated by physicist Richard
Feynman in the 1950s is exemplified in complex high end systems
such as the Zytek, Flybrid, Torotrak and Xtrac used in F1 and simple,
easily manufactured and integrated differential based systems such as
the Cambridge Passenger/Commercial Vehicle Kinetic Energy
Recovery System (CPC-KERS)
Xtrac and Flybrid are both licensees of Torotrak's technologies, which
employ a small and sophisticated ancillary gearbox incorporating
acontinuously variable transmission (CVT). The CPC-KERS is
similar as it also forms part of the driveline assembly. However, the
whole mechanism including the flywheel sits entirely in the vehicles
hub (looking like a drum brake). In the CPC-KERS, a differential
replaces the CVT and transfers torque between the flywheel, drive
wheel and road wheel.


the importance of a good braking system. The demands of the road
and the weight of cargo can make it difficult and costly to keep
service brakes in good working order. Truckers using a FRENELSA
Electromagnetic Brake Retarder easily discover how it saves money
by increasing the lifespan of service brakes while increasing the
safety of the truck on road.

People who have seen the Electromagnetic Brake are impressed with
the added safety it can provide to commercial and private vehicles.
A FRENELSA Electromagnetic retarder used properly can provide up
to 85% of your braking needs which reduces the use of your service
braking system and the environmental impact due to brake dust. This
decreased use of service brakes increases their lifespan while
improving safety on the road and cost savings.


















OVERVIEW

Conventional Brake For Vehicle

- Regular wear and tear of brake pads.
- High force and noise at high speed.
- Need regular maintenance and changing of brake pads required.
- Low efficiency

Eddy Current Brake For Vehicle
- Low force and no noise.
- No wear and tear.
- Smooth application.















THEORETICAL

TESTING








Testing And Inspection

The testing and inspection procedure are laid down in such a way that
equipment manufactured by a passes though all the simulation test,
which may out instrument be subjected to in actual use. After a
careful study we have laid down the final tests.



1) VISUAL INSPECTION TEST

This test in a primary test to see the any physical damage.

1.1) PCL inspection
1.2) Mechanical strength
1.3) Input/ output connection scheme.

2) ASSEMBLY TEST

This test will cover all the functional test.

2.1) Components test
2.2) Circuit operation test using the test point signal.



3) FINAL TEST

This test will be carried out with the actual operation and
conditions.

4) MECHANICAL VIBRATION TEST

This test will be done on the batch samples only.


















Testing

Testing play a most important role in the manufacturing of any
product, which defects the invisible defects and confirms the desired
technical features of product.

During testing product is subject to various type of testing.




A) VISUAL CHECK

In this it is seen that all components of proper values are
mounted to their respective polarities.

B) CRCUIT TESTING

In this circuit is given to the required supply and various
parameters i.e. voltage current etc. are recorded and then is kept on
for cycle operation that is for 24 hrs. and parameters are recorded
after a certain intervals.


Types Of Test

Generally this test is conducted on one prototype job which
covers following stages :-

DAMP TESTING

`In this testing job is subjected to a wet atmosphere for one
cycle at a designed temperature and afterwards immediately normal
testing is conducted and observed that reading are in line with desired
readings.

On completing the testing the various stages readings are
completed with designed parameters for necessary approval














OPERATIONAL
APPLICATION











The equipment has been in use for emergency braking since 2000, but
only on authorised routes where the signalling and train control
systems permit it. Service braking began on the Kln - Frankfurt
Neubaustrecke in the summer of 2002, and since 2006, the brakes
have also been used for service applications on the Nrnberg -
Ingolstadt line. Both routes have LZB cab-signalling and are laid with
ballastless slab track, which gives a stronger infrastructure to resist
the heat in the rails generated by the braking forces.
When the trains are not operating on an approved section of line, the
eddy-current brake must be deactivated by the driver. Extension of
service braking to other routes is being considered, but this will
require a detailed assessment of the infrastructure and other
compatibility issues. The first commercial application outside
Germany is on LGV Est, where the ICE3s are now certified to use
their eddy-current brakes for service braking on the whole of the new
line between Baudrecourt and Vaires. This is subject to a braking
force limit of 105 kN, due to a perceived risk of interference with the
TVM 430 train control system.









How is Safety Improved?

By providing up to 85% of a vehicles stopping needs, an
Electromagnetic Brake keeps service brakes at cooler temperatures by
reducing their use. Since Service brakes are more effective at cooler
temperatures, a vehicles safety is improved when the service brakes
are most needed - thus reducing the possibility of rear end collisions
and other accidents due to brake failures.

This decreased use of service brakes can increase their lifespan up to
7 times while improving safety on the road which results in huge cost
savings.

Heavy Duty Electric Brake Systems, Inc. is a recognized distributor
of the secondary braking system FRENELSA Electromagnetic
Braking system in the automotive and trucking industry throughout
the world.

Heavy Duty Electric Brake Systems works independently with each
client to meet their needs and provide them with outstanding customer
service.





Cost And Benefits
After the eddy-current brake had been put into regular commercial
operation on the Koln - Frankfurt line, Deutsche Bahn (German
National railway Company) began to look at the costs and benefits. A
detailed three-month investigation in 2002 established that the use of
the eddy-current brake for service applications resulted in a
substantial reduction in the wear of the trains' conventional brake
disks. At present DB spends around 2 million a year replacing worn
brake linings on the ICE3 fleet alone, so there are obviously
significant potential savings if the use of eddy-current brakes can be
extended.
According to DB, the cost of the eddy-current brake can be recouped
over seven years, thanks to the savings in operating and maintenance
costs. Life-cycle costs over a nominal 25 years are expected to be
little more than half of those for conventional disc brakes.
It seems fairly clear that the use of eddy-current brakes will be
expanded in Germany over the coming years. DB has already decided
that its next concrete project will be to modify the Stuttgart -
Mannheim line to permit its use in regular service.
Clearance to use the technology elsewhere in Europe is less certain, as
the same interference and compatibility issues also arise. A detailed
examination of each route would be needed, and in some cases
infrastructure components may have to be changed. It is perhaps
instructive to note that apart from LGV Est, there has been no attempt
yet to introduce eddy-current braking on any other routes in Europe's
expanding high speed network. Nevertheless, regulatory provision has
been made for this in the infrastructure, rolling stock and operation
sections of the High Speed TSI.


ADVANTAGES
Reduction of overall wastage of energy.
Increase in the mileage of the vehicle.
Less mechanical wear and tear.
The small amount of energy lost with this mechanism can be
diverted to useful one.
Regenerative braking even supplies back the energy it
consumes back to the system for future use.
In city driving, about 30 percent of a typical car's engine
output is lost due to braking. This can be reduced by using
electric breaking.
Predictable and Scalable Torque

Operates at any angular velocity








Conclusion
Thus, we have concluded that with the use of electric braking,
we would be able to conserve energy as well as maintain the
longevity of machine and vehicle parts.The reliability and
accuracy of an equipment is inversely proportional to the
number of components being used. The less number of the
components more reliability and accuracy can be achieved
almost of the electronic components are temperature and voltage
variation dependent. So more number of component more the
problem, you have also it increase the maintenance cost.

Our equipment has been designed using the most modern LSI
chips available in the market which can take the voltage fluctuation of
greater degree.










Cost Analysis
Valeo Telma electrical system is a corporation of france design and
manufacture eddy current brake for heavy vehicles eg. Buses, trucks
and containers etc.

The average cost of ECBS manufactured by Valeo Telma is 2400US
$. i.e. 115,000 Rs.
These 115,000 Rs. is an additional cost in the cost of trucks and
buses.But after addition of ECBS, The Brake servicing cost reduces 3
times, that means ,A truck with conventional brake needs servicing of
brake shoes after every 4 months and each servicing take approx
Rs.10000 to Rs.12000. i.e. Rs. 36,000 per year in Brake maintainence.
After adding ECBS in the same vehicle , this braking maintainence
cost reduce to Rs. 12000 in a year. i.e. Saving of Rs. 24000 per year.
In 4.8. years , our cost of ECBS is balanced.
And Safety is also improved by adding ECBS to the vehicle.

According to Zehengzhon Zhize corp. Ltd. Corporation of China, if
ECBS is added in Cars then it will add an extra amount of 2300US $
in the cost of car. i.e. Rs. 11040 Rs. 12000.
Braking maintainence of car consume approx. Rs. 4000 in a year, and
brake shoes must be replaced after every 5000 km or 2 years.
If we consider same condition same condition for car also, that means
our braking cost reduce to Rs. 1000 to Rs. 1500 per year after adding
ECBS in car, and life of brake shoes is also increased from 2 years to
6 -7 years.
We can save Rs. 3500 per year in case of car, there for cost of ECBS
is balanced in 3.1 years.

Result
After adding ECBS in Heavy vehicles we can save Rs. 24000 per
year, and if we consider life of truck is 20 years, then we can save
Rs. 3,65,000 in braking maintainence.
If ECBS is added in cars also then Rs. 3500 braking maintainence
cost can be save per year, We can save Rs. 70,000 braking maintaince
cost in the whole life of car.
ECBS is a good accessory for vehicle due to some more following
reasons:
1. Non-mechanical (no moving parts, no friction)
2. Fully resettable, no parts need be replaced
3. Can be activated at will via electrical signal
4. Very Low maintenance
5. Operates at any rotational speed











Reference

- Sears, Francis Weston; Zemansky, Mark W. (1955).
University Physics (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesley.
- Siskind, Charles S. (1963). Electrical Control Systems in
Industry. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.. ISBN 0-07-
057746-3.
- Wirbelstrombremse im ICE 3 als Betriebsbremssystem
hoher Leistung" ("Eddy-current brake in the ICE 3 as
high-efficiency service brake system", by Jrgen Prem,
Stefan Haas, Klaus Heckmann, in "electrische bahnen"
Vol 102 (2004), No. 7, pages 283ff

- www.ansoft.com/firstpass/pdf/analysis_of_eddy_current_b
rakes

- http://zzzhize.en.alibaba.com/productshowimg/543564889-
213135109/Eddy_Current_Retarder_for_auto_parts.html