Editors Note

Papers in This Issue

Anil K. Agrawal
Chief Editor, Professor, Dept. of Civil Enginerring, City College of the City Univ. of New York, T-121 Steinman Hall, Convent Ave. at 140th St., New York, NY 10031. E-mail: jbe.agrawal@gmail.com

DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000356 The March 2012 issue of the Journal features 18 technical papers and two technical notes. The first six papers in this issue address topics related to steel bridges and components, including fatigue of bars and tendons. The paper Fatigue Evaluation of Transverse U-Bar Joint Details for Accelerated Bridge Construction by Zhu et al. investigates continuous transverse U-bar joint details, which can provide negative moment continuity in multispan bridges, in case of precast full-depth deck panels and/or decked bulb-Tees (DBTs) for accelerated bridge construction. Four full-scale specimens connected by the developed U-bar detail together with the selected closure pour (CP) materials, overnight cure, and 7-day cure have been tested. Test results have been evaluated on the basis of tension capacity, cracking, and steel strain. These test results show that the developed transverse U-bar joint detail is a promising connection system. Another paper, Fatigue Evaluation of Longitudinal U-Bar Joint Details for Accelerated Bridge Construction by Zhu et al. investigates continuous longitudinal U-bar joint details for accelerated bridge construction. Four pairs of full-scale slabs, connected by a U-bar detail with one of the selected CP materials, have been tested under static and fatigue loadings. The loading demand necessary in the slab fatigue testing is determined on the basis of three-dimensional (3D) finite-element (FE) parametric studies. Test results have been evaluated on the basis of flexural capacity, curvature behavior, cracking, and steel strain. The fatigue loading has little influence on the U-bar joint behavior. In general, crack widths are small at the service load level; no debonding between the slab and the joint was noticed. The joint moment capacity can be calculated on the basis of the assumption that U-bars were continuous reinforcement through the joint zone, reaching their yield strengths at ultimate. The actual moment capacity depends on the interaction between the CP material and steel, as well as the steel arrangement. Because the CP material is cast in place and has less curing time for the purpose of accelerated construction, it is very important to control its strength variation. These test results show that the U-bar joint detail is a viable connection system for the longitudinal joint. The paper Experimental and Numerical Study of the Fatigue Properties of Corroded Parallel Wire Cables by Hui et al. investigates basic mechanical properties and residual fatigue life of corroded cables from a cable-stayed bridge in China that were in service for 18 years. The wires were randomly selected from the cables near the bottom anchorages and cut into segments as test specimens. The extent of corrosion of the wires was experimentally investigated. The tensile loading test was conducted on the wires to obtain the mechanical properties of the corroded single wires. The fatigue life of the corroded single wires was experimentally studied. Test results showed a dramatic degradation in the fatigue life of single wires. Fatigue tests on two corroded cables were also conducted, and the test results indicated that the fatigue life of the cables also decreased dramatically. Monte Carlo simulation results show that the fatigue life of a cable is controlled by a small fraction

of wires in the cable with the shortest fatigue lives. The fatigue life of a cable at a certain failure probability is dependent on the number of wires in the cable; however, the mean fatigue life of a cable is not affected by the number of wires in the cable. The paper Rapid Assessment of Gusset Plate Safety in Steel Truss Bridges by Berman et al. proposes a triage evaluation procedure to enable rapid, yet conservative, identification of gusset plates that may be yielding under service loads and to eliminate gusset plates with adequate capacity from needing further or more sophisticated analysis. High-resolution finite-element models of gusset-plate connections from Washington State bridges and the connection identified as critical from the I-35 bridge are used to develop the proposed procedure and evaluate the current recommendations. A complex interaction of stresses is generated in gusset plates by connecting members, and this interaction can initiate gusset-plate yielding when the uniaxial stresses on Whitmore sections associated with those connecting members are well below yield. It is demonstrated that the onset of gusset-plate yielding may be conservatively predicted by comparing the uniaxial stresses at Whitmore sections with the yield stress times of 0.58. Additionally, a modification to the simple-column analogy method recommended by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) for calculating the buckling capacity of gusset plates is proposed, and it is shown that gusset-plate yielding occurs before buckling in all cases considered. The triage evaluation procedure is grounded in mechanics and conservative assumptions, enabling more rapid identification of problem gusset plates, and it is also reasonably conservative. The method is then applied to three bridges from which 3 out of 35 gusset plates are identified as requiring additional investigation. The article Effects of Temperature Variations on the In-Plane Stability of Steel Arch Bridges by Cai et al. investigates the inplane stability of shallow parabolic arches subjected to a central concentrated load and temperature variations. The virtual work principle method has been used to establish the nonlinear equilibrium and buckling equations. Analytical solutions for the nonlinear in-plane symmetric snap-through and antisymmetric bifurcation buckling loads have been obtained. Then, the effects of temperature changes on the in-plane stability for arches with supports that stiffen under compression have been studied. The results show that the influence of temperature variations on the critical loads for both buckling modes (symmetric snap-through and antisymmetric bifurcation) is significant. The critical loads for the two buckling modes are more than those only under external loads without thermal loading. Moreover, the critical loads increase with an increase of the thermal loadings. The paper also investigates effects of applying temperature field increase when either the initial stiffness coefficient or the stiffening rate is raised. The paper Vehicle-Induced Vibration of Steel Deck Arch Bridges and Analytical Methodology by Huang investigates the dynamic behavior of steel deck arch bridges with side-by-side multiple-vehicle loadings moving over a rough deck by treating both the vehicle and the bridge as 3D models. Most of the important factors that affect the dynamic response of bridges are considered in this study. Effects of the deck, column, and arch boundary conditions are studied. The analytical impact factors of deck, column, and arch rib are compared with those determined on the basis

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of the current AASHTO specifications. The results are useful for both bridge engineers and researchers in this field. The next three papers are related to dynamic loads on bridges. In Dynamic Analysis of Multihazard-Resistant Bridge Piers Having Concrete-Filled Steel Tube under Blast Loading, the authors, Fujikura and Bruneau, analytically investigate the blast response and behavior of multihazard, resistant bridge piers having circular-shaped concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) columns. Two different analysis methods, namely, a single-degree-of freedom (SDOF) dynamic analysis and a fiber-based dynamic analysis, have been used for this purpose and calibrated with the maximum residual deformations obtained from 1=4-scale blast tests of CFST columns. It has been noted that the structural response of SDOF dynamic analyses is sensitive to assumptions made in the load-mass factors needed to model structural components as an equivalent SDOF system. Fiber-based dynamic analyses showed that highfrequency modes of vibration have some influence on the structural response when subjected to blast loading. This study shows that different values of the shape factors (which reduce blast pressures when applied to a circular columns) must be used with different analytical methods, along with assumptions and conditions behind these different analytical methods. In the paper Performance of Highway Bridge Girder Anchorages under Simulated Hurricane Wave Induced Loads, Lehrman et al. examine the structural performance of three commonly used connection details for AASHTO Type III prestressed concrete girders: headed-studs, through-bolts, and clip-bolts. Full-scale specimens were fabricated and tested under static and dynamic cyclic load histories by using expected maximum loads from previously conducted hydraulic tests of a scale model of a highway bridge spanning a coastal embayment. The load effects considered included (1) vertical uplift force, (2) lateral force, (3) combined lateral and vertical forces, and (4) dynamically applied wave-force time histories. Connection performance was evaluated by comparing initial concrete cracking, strand slip, and ultimate capacity. The experimental results showed that the insert clip-bolt connections had the lowest capacity and produced significant ancillary damage to the surrounding concrete, whereas the headed-stud connections exhibited the highest load capacity and negligible ancillary concrete damage. None of the anchorages considered would be capable of resisting newly specified vertical wave forces for large hurricane wave heights when significant air is entrapped, such as those observed in Hurricane Katrina. In the article Assessment of Modal Pushover-Based Scaling Procedure for Nonlinear Response History Analysis of Ordinary Standard Bridges, authors Kalkan and Kwong investigate a modal-pushover-based scaling (MPS) procedure developed recently to determine scale factors for a small number of records such that the scaled records provide accurate and efficient estimates of true median structural responses. The accuracy and efficiency of the MPS procedure are evaluated by applying it to four types of existing ordinary standard bridges typical of reinforced-concrete bridge construction in California. These bridges are the single-bent overpass, multispan bridge, curved bridge, and skew bridge. As compared with benchmark analyses of unscaled records using a larger catalog of ground motions, it is demonstrated that the MPS procedure provided an accurate estimate of the engineering demand parameters (EDPs) accompanied by significantly reduced record-to-record variability of the EDPs. Thus, it is a useful tool for scaling ground motions as input to nonlinear response history analysis of ordinary standard bridges. The next eight papers pertain to different aspects of bridge decks. The paper Analysis and Design of Straight and Skewed Slab Bridges by Thoret et al. presents the results of an investigation aimed at determining bending moments and shear forces

required to design skewed concrete-slab bridges by using the equivalent-beam method. Straight- and skewed-slab bridges have been modeled by using grillage- and finite-element models to characterize their behavior under uniform and moving loads with the objective of determining the most appropriate modeling approach for design. A parametric study has been carried out on 390 simply supported slabs with geometries covering 1- to 4-lane bridges of 3- to 20-m spans with skew angles ranging from 0 to 60. The analyses showed that nonorthogonal grillages satisfactorily predict the amplitude and the transverse distribution of longitudinal bending moments and shear forces and can be used for the analysis of skewed-slab bridges. Results of the parametric study indicated that shear forces and secondary bending moments increase with an increase in the skew angle, whereas longitudinal bending moments decrease. Equations are proposed to include (as part of the equivalent beam method for skew angles up to 60) the increase of shear forces and the reduction of longitudinal bending moments. Equations are also given for computing secondary bending moments. A simplified approach aimed at determining the corner forces for straight and skewed bridges is proposed as an alternative to more refined analysis. The analyses indicate the presence of high vertical shear stresses in the vicinity of free edges, justifying the suggestion to provide shear reinforcement along the slab-free edges. The article Residual Prestress Forces and Shear Capacity of Salvaged Prestressed Concrete Bridge Girders by Osborn et al. investigates the effective prestress, force, and ultimate shear capacity of seven prestressed concrete bridge girders that had been in service for 42 years and represented two span lengths and reinforcement designs. A cracking moment test was used to determine the effective prestress force in the girders. The measured effective prestress force was compared with calculated values according to the AASHTO load and resistance factor design (LRFD) prestress loss equations to investigate their adequacy. The AASHTO refined method was shown to provide the most accurate results within 10% of measured values. An ultimate shear test was also performed on two of the girders. An external load was applied near the support and increased until the girder failed in shear. The various procedures in the AASHTO LRFD specifications were compared with the measured results. The AASHTO simplified procedure predicted only 51 and 39% of the average measured shear capacity for the short and longer span girders, respectively. The strut-and-tie models were found to estimate the shear capacity more accurately. The AASHTO Refined Method was shown to provide the most accurate results. The paper Parametric Studies and Preliminary Design Recommendations on the Use of Postinstalled Shear Connectors for Strengthening Noncomposite Steel Bridges by Kwon et al. presents a continuation of research on strengthening the loadcarrying capacity of existing noncomposite bridge girders by postinstalling shear connectors. In this study, finite-element models were developed to evaluate the behavior of composite beams retrofitted with postinstalled shear connectors over a wide range of variables, with an objective of providing preliminary design recommendations. Variables considered in the parametric studies included beam depth, span length, and shear connection ratio. The parametric studies showed that current simplified design approaches commonly used for partially composite beams in buildings provide good predictions of the strength and stiffness of partially composite bridge girders strengthened by using postinstalled shear connectors. Use of a shear connection ratio lower than 30% is not recommended to avoid nonductile behavior of the strengthened girder. Dynamic Analysis of the Bentley Creek Bridge with FRP Deck by Hag-Elsafi et al. investigates vibration characteristics

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of a truss bridge retrofitted with a fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) deck. The bridge is a 42.6-m (140-ft) long truss structure, originally built with a noncomposite concrete deck. The concrete deck was replaced with a much lighter FRP deck to improve the bridge loadcapacity ratings. The paper investigates the vibration characteristics of the bridge as a result of the deck replacement and the effect of these changes on the structural behavior. The results indicate that the fundamental frequency for the current structure with the FRP deck is about 45% more than that for the original structure with a concrete deck. The computed bridge fundamental frequency correlated well with field data. When compared to the concrete-deck bridge, the FRP-deck bridge resulted in lower dead-load forces, higher live-load forces, lower total forces, and higher live-load stress ranges used in fatigue life estimates. Dynamic allowance was also determined for each of the selected members for both concrete and FRP decks. For the concrete-deck bridge, the calculated dynamic allowance is more than those used in bridge design specifications. Lower dynamic allowances were obtained for the FRP-deck bridge. The paper entitled Parametric Study and Design Recommendations for In-Span Hinges in Reinforced Concrete Box-Girder Bridges by Hube and Mosalam presents an investigation of the influence of reinforcement and geometrical detailing on the behavior and strength of in-span hinges (ISHs) by using a computational approach. ISHs are located at the bridge deck of reinforced concrete (RC) box-girder bridges and are used to transmit vertical loads between two adjacent parts of the deck. ISHs are disturbed regions because of a complex 3D stress state caused by concentrated bearing loads and utility openings. The common modeling practice for ISHs is simplified two-dimensional (2D) idealization as short cantilevers following standard procedures, e.g., ACI318. Such simplified analytical and design procedures lead to inefficient detailing because they do not take into account the realistic failure modes of ISHs, in which punching shear is one of these critical modes. The computational model in this study is calibrated on the basis of previous experimental results and adopts nonlinear 3D finiteelement analysis (FEA), accounting for cracking of concrete and the elastoplastic behavior of reinforcement. The concrete material is modeled by using the total-strain rotating-crack method, and the effect of compression softening is incorporated in the constitutive model. The reinforcing steel is modeled by using embedded reinforcement formulation, assuming that a perfect bond exists between the concrete and the reinforcement. From the computational study, design guidelines are presented for better constructability of these disturbed regions. Findings from this study reveal that the strength of ISHs is mostly improved by increasing the amount of diagonal reinforcement in the seat and by increasing the bearing plate size. Graphical Assessment for Span Ranges of PSC Girder Bridges by Jeon et al. presents a systematic procedure for the selection of span length of prestressed concrete (PSC) girder bridges. The proposed scheme adopts a graphical approach that represents a relationship between the number of prestressing tendons and the span, and it is derived on the basis of stress assessment equations of the girder at each stage of fabrication and in service. A quantitative evaluation for the extension of the span is performed by adopting a sample bridge. A number of advantages of the proposed scheme are apparently shown for determining why and how each strategy contributes to the span extension and for suggesting further improvement for a longer span. The results show that strategies such as increasing the strength of the girder, making the girders continuous, multistage prestressing, and the decked PSC girder are very effective.

The article Life-Cycle Cost Assessment of Maintenance Strategies for RC Structures in Chloride Environments by Mullard and Stewart investigates the effect of maintenance and repair strategies on the timing, extent, and cost of remediation actions over the service life of a RC structure in a chloride environment. The paper presents a probabilistic reliability analysis that is used to predict the likelihood and extent of corrosion-induced cracking to RC structures. A spatial time-dependent reliability model has been developed in which concrete properties, concrete cover, and the surface chloride concentrations are treated as random fields. This allows for the calculation of the probability that a given extent of damage will occur for any time period. Maintenance strategies and repair efficiencies are incorporated in a Monte Carlo eventbased simulation analysis, allowing a comparison of cost and number of repairs over the service life of a RC structure. Thus, the expected timing and extent of repairs can be predicted for various design parameters, inspection intervals, repair thresholds, maintenance strategies, and efficiency of repairs. Results are presented for a RC bridge deck subjected to a marine environment. The life-cycle cost analysis considers repair and user delay costs. User delay costs can be up to 10 times more than the cost of repair itself. The statistical variability of predicted life-cycle costs can be large, with coefficients of variation exceeding 1. The last paper on bridge decks, entitled Wood-Based, Prefabricated, Composite Acting Bridge Deck by Adam and Milner describes the testing and FEA of an experimental half-scale (approximately) all-timber, prefabricated, composite-acting bridge deck that utilizes composite action between the decking and stringers. The full-size deck on which current developments are based has a 12-m span (model 6-m span) that uses three round log stringers of diameter greater than 500 mm per 3.2-m-span design lane and plywood decking that can be up to 170-mm thick. The composite action enables the decks to meet strength requirements for the heaviest highway loads (M1600), but the model requires modification to meet the stringent deflection criteria associated with bridges. The deck modules are prefabricated full-span length and can be as wide as can be transported within legal limits without special escort vehicles. The modules are joined on-site on a bevelled edge using grouted-rod-type technology. Other details included are aspects of the method of fabrication, the shear connectors employed, employing Strand7 FE software, the linear and nonlinear FEAs used to investigate the deck performance, and the results of tests on a mixed-scale model used to validate the finite-element analysis. The last technical paper in this issue is Predicting the Earth Pressure on Integral Bridge Abutments by Bloodworth et al. The paper describes a method of calculating the effects of thermal cycling by using the results of laboratory cyclic stress-path testing within a numerical model. Samples of stiff clay and sand were tested in the triaxial apparatus under stress paths typical for behind an integral abutment. A distinct behavior was observed for the two soils, with stiff clay showing relatively little buildup of lateral stress with cycles, whereas for sand stresses, buildup continued to increase, exceeding at-rest and approaching full, passive pressures. To explore the implications of these findings on the soil-abutment interaction and to estimate the lateral stresses acting on the abutment as a whole, a numerical (finite-difference) model was developed with a soil model reproducing the sand behavior at the element level. The numerical model showed good agreement with published centrifuge and field data, and it indicated that the stress profile specified in some current standards is conservative. The influence of abutment stiffness and wall friction is also quantified. This issue of the Journal features two technical notes. The technical note entitled Dynamic Effect of a Moving Truck on a

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Culvert by Chen and Harik investigates dynamic interaction between a moving truck and a long-span reinforced-concrete culvert for different truck velocities. A numerical simulation method is presented on the basis of discretizing the culvert, surrounding soil, and roadway by using a plane-strain finite-element model (FEM) along with a seven-degree-of-freedom FEM mass-spring-damper model for the truck. The time variable coupled dynamic system is solved in a step-by-step manner using Newmarks integration scheme. Results are presented for different parameters, such as truck velocity, truck-culvert frequency ratio, damping ratio, road surface roughness, and roadway material. For the culvert under consideration, the results indicate that the road surface roughness has a significant influence on the dynamic impact factor relative to the displacement at the crown of the culvert. This influence is further

magnified depending on truck frequency, culvert damping coefficient, and truck velocity. The technical note Evaluation of a Permit Vehicle Model Using Weigh-in-Motion Truck Records by Zhao and Tabatabai investigate standard-permit vehicles in Wisconsin by using 6 million WIM truck records collected in 2007. The evaluation is based on statistical analyses of the maximum moments and shear in simply supported two-span and three-span continuous girders by the heaviest 5% of trucks in each vehicle class/group. The comparisons show that five-axle short single-unit trucks may cause larger moment/shear in bridge girders than the standard-permit vehicle; hence, a five-axle truck model is proposed to supplement the standard-permit vehicle for possible use in bridge design and rating in Wisconsin.

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